Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Version 0
EPT 07-T-02
Table of Contents
1. 2. Scope........................................................................................................................................... 6 References ................................................................................................................................. 6 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 3. MEPSMobil Engineering Practices ............................................................................ 6 Mobil Tutorials .................................................................................................................. 6 APIAmerican Petroleum Institute ................................................................................. 6 GPSAGas Processors Suppliers Association.......................................................... 7
Engine Selection and Horsepower Ratings ......................................................................7 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. ........................................................................................................................................... 7 Project Definition and Economics ................................................................................. 8 Selection of Operating Speed......................................................................................10 Load Determination.......................................................................................................12 .........................................................................................................................................13 Engine Ratings...............................................................................................................14 Engine Selection............................................................................................................17
4.
Torsional Analysis..................................................................................................................18 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. .........................................................................................................................................18 .........................................................................................................................................19 .........................................................................................................................................19 .........................................................................................................................................19 .........................................................................................................................................20 .........................................................................................................................................20 .........................................................................................................................................20
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4.8. 4.9. 5.
.........................................................................................................................................21 .........................................................................................................................................21
Engine Systems ......................................................................................................................21 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. 5.9. Air Intake.........................................................................................................................21 Exhaust System .............................................................................................................22 Starting Systems............................................................................................................22 Cooling Water Systems ................................................................................................23 Jacket Water Systems (Cooling of the Engine Proper) ............................................24 Lubrication Systems ......................................................................................................26 Heat Recovery Systems................................................................................................26 Ignition Systems.............................................................................................................27 Fuel System....................................................................................................................28
5.10. Speed Governor ............................................................................................................30 5.11. Instrumentation and Safety Shutdowns ........................................................................31 5.12. Miscellaneous Requirements .......................................................................................32 Appendix ANomenclature..........................................................................................................33 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Power (Horsepower)..............................................................................................................33 BHP .........................................................................................................................................33 British Thermal Unit (Btu).....................................................................................................34 Torque (T).................................................................................................................................34 Bore and Stroke ......................................................................................................................34 Engine Displacement.............................................................................................................34 Compression Ratio ................................................................................................................35 Octane Number .......................................................................................................................36
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9.
10. Thermal Efficiency..................................................................................................................36 11. Piston Speed............................................................................................................................37 12. BMEP ............................................................................................................................................. 37 13. NA .........................................................................................................................................38
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Table of Figures
Figure 1: Typical Engine Duty Cycles .....................................................................................10 Figure 2: Section of a crankshaft with an exaggerated twist. This illustrates torsional vibration, which is a repeated twisting of a rotating shaft about its axis of rotation.......................................................................................................................... 19 Figure 3: Single-loop cooling water system. B. Two-loop cooling water system......25 Figure 4: Altronic III CPU System Overview ...........................................................................28 Figure 5: Engine Fuel System....................................................................................................30 Figure 6: Engine Cylinder Terminology.................................................................................. 35
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1.
Scope
This tutorial is intended to review the basic design requirements and considerations associated with the selection of high speed (600 to 1800 rpm) spark ignited internal combustion engines in the 110 to 1860 kW (150 to 2500 hp) range. The discussion and considerations are limited to natural gas fueled four cycle naturally aspirated and turbocharged engines as manufactured by Caterpillar, Superior, or Waukesha. These manufacturers have been identified as providing a known and proven product. Consideration of other engine manufacturers shall be given only after consultation with MEPTEC's Field Processing/Feasibility Studies Department. Although this tutorial does make some recommendations as to engine options, it is essential that the Project Engineer consult with the end users before selecting a particular engine or available options. The Maintenance and Operations personnel can provide valuable input based on existing equipment, past experience, maintenance philosophy, parts and service availability, and operating preference for a particular area. These are all very important factors in selecting an engine.
2.
References
The following Mobil guides and industry publications shall be considered a part of this EPT. Refer to the latest editions unless otherwise specified herein.
2.1.
MP 15-P-18 MP 15-P-27
2.2.
EPT 01-T-03
Mobil Tutorials
Air Emission Control
2.3.
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Specification for Packaged Reciprocating Compressors for Oil and Gas Production Services Second Edition
2.4.
EDB-I
3.
3.1.1.
The selection process is a relatively complex procedure whose importance shall not be underestimated. If too small an engine is selected, the engine will be overloaded and repeated mechanical failures will occur. These failures will cause high maintenance and repair costs in addition to the cost of lost production. If too large an engine is selected, the capital cost will be greater than necessary, the engine operation may be erratic because of insufficient load, and on some engines (such as turbocharged clean-burn type engines) the emissions may be excessive because of the light load conditions. As a general statement, engines operate best at or near their design rating.
3.1.2.
For a high speed, spark ignited engine of this type, one of the most common applications is driving a horizontally opposed, reciprocating gas compressor. For example, a Waukesha engine may be used to drive a reciprocating Mobil Oil,1998 7 of 39
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compressor manufactured by Dresser-Rand. This type of unit is called a "separable" unit because the engine is separate from the compressor, as opposed to the "integral" type of unit with power cylinders and compressor cylinders connected to the same crankcase. Integral units are outside the scope of this tutorial.
3.2.
3.2.2.
When selecting an engine for any of the above conditions, it is important to consider the required speed, range, and associated horsepower requirements.
3.2.3.
The magnitude and duration of overload peak periods when peak production is required shall be determined. What are the consequences of not meeting these peak demands? Is there a production or contract penalty involved, or is the penalty only the loss of a small increment of production? To
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accommodate a small peak in production, it may be necessary to select the next larger size engine, which may not be economically justified.
3.2.4.
The duty ratings of engines can be further defined as follows. 1. Continuous Heavy Duty An example is a field gas lift compressor. This type of unit operates near full load conditions 24 hours a day. 2. Continuous Intermittent Heavy Duty An example would be an offshore generator system with intermittent "high" horsepower pumping loads. As a result of crude pumping conditions, this type of unit may operate on a high horsepower load for several hours and a relatively light load for a short period of time. 3. Variable Load Heavy Duty An example of this type of load would be a field booster gas compressor where the pipeline conditions vary throughout the day. 4. Variable Load Light Duty An example of this type of duty cycle would be an engine driven crude oil pump pumping against a widely varying pipeline pressure and then entering an idle mode upon crude tank pump-down.
3.2.5.
For a graphical depiction of typical duty cycles as described above, refer to Figure 1. What are the life and economics of the project? Generally, heavy duty, slow speed equipment is very expensive in comparison to high speed engines, but will operate 30 or 40 years. However, the project under consideration may have marginal economics and a projected life of only 5 to 10 years. In this case, the high speed, less expensive equipment would be the appropriate choice.
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3.2.7.
Summary
It is important for the project engineer to define all of the above factors carefully before proceeding with the engine selection process. This is especially true if the load factors fall at the break-point of selecting the next larger size engine, which may be considerably more expensive.
3.3.
EPT 07-T-02
Worthington CUB compressor. In this case, the operating speed shall be limited to 1000 rpm, which significantly reduces the power capability of the engine.
3.3.2.
A combination that is becoming more popular are units with operating speeds of 1400 to 1800 rpm, such as a Caterpillar engine driving an Ariel compressor. These high speed units are attractive because the installed cost is generally considerably less. However, the maintenance costs can be higher and the life shorter on these high speed units.
3.3.3.
Therefore, before actually selecting an engine size, it is necessary to determine the design speed for the compressor, pump or generator package. The operating speed has a direct effect on the power rating of the engine. Also, determine any speed "turndown" requirements. Note that the more modern, turbocharged engines generally have higher emissions if the speed is decreased below approximately 75 percent. See the tutorial EPT 01-T-03 on Air Emission Control.
3.3.4.
Of course, it is possible to have a high speed engine driving a low speed pump or compressor if a V-belt drive or gear box are employed. However, it is recommended that V-belt drives for engines be limited to approximately 110 kW (150 bhp). For higher horsepower applications, gear units are also discouraged because of possible gear failures due to torsional vibrations, backlash, etc., caused by misfiring of the engine or rough combustion.
3.3.5.
The project engineer shall consult with the operating and maintenanc e personnel who will be responsible for the engine. Ask for their opinions regarding the various types and brands of engines, the quality of parts and service support, etc. Where is the nearest service location, and do they stock a sufficient inventory of spare parts so that the field operations can operate with minimal inventory? Also determine if there are similar engines in the same operating area which could have an impact on the spare parts costs for the new engine.
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3.4.
Load Determination
3.4.1.
The total load to be carried by the engine shall be calculated. The total load is the sum of the following factors: Total Load = Driven Load x Application Factor + Mechanical Transmission Load + Auxiliary Loads (For an example of load determination, a gas compressor application will be used, but the general calculation procedure can also be used for generators and pumps.)
3.4.2.
Compressor Load
The driven compressor load equals the sum of the theoretical gas load plus the mechanical losses in the compressor frame, generally considered to be 5 percent. In calculating the theoretical gas loading, be certain that pressure losses in the piping, bottles, and valves are included. The pressure losses are especially important for low suction pressure applications.
3.4.3.
Application Factor
The calculated load shall be multiplied by an appropriate factor to compensate for possible variations and uncertainties in defining actual field loads. This factor varies because there is more uncertainty in some types of packages. The following application factors are recommended: 1. Generators: F = 1.00 2. Pumps: F = 1.05 3. Compressors: F = 1.15
3.4.4.
3.4.5.
Auxiliary Loads
Includes loads such as fin fan, hydraulic pumps, etc. For example, the load for a large fan on an aerial type gas and water cooler can be as high as 5 percent of the total load.
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3.4.6.
3.4.7.
3.4.8.
With the above determined economic conditions, speed, and load, it shall be possible to tentatively select several different engines that may be suitable for the particular application.
3.5.
Any discussion of high speed engines shall include turbochargers. Turbocharger and engine development has resulted in very reliable engines with more horsepower per cubic inch displacement at less cost per horsepower than naturally aspirated engines. Today's modern engines have been designed to withstand the higher peak pressures and increased
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thermal loading associated with turbocharging the combustion air. As a result, the modern turbocharged engine is very reliable with maintenance and operating costs comparable to naturally aspirated engines of similar horsepower ratings. Some federal and state clean air regulations cannot be met without utilizing turbochargers.
3.6.
Engine Ratings
3.6.1.
The subject of engine ratings is discussed in two sections. The first section defines the engine ratings per a uniform set of conditions so that all engine manufacturers are compared on an equal basis. The second section describes the method for rating the engines under actual site conditions.
3.6.2.
Some readers may fail to see the necessity for the first of the above two steps, since the engine does not operate under standard conditions and will only operate at site conditions. The two step approach is recommended because the problem of rating engines is a difficult and complicated matter in which some vendors may fail to include all the factors. The two step method allows a more reliable comparison of the engine alternatives.
3.6.3.
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International Standards Organization Procedure No. ISO-3046/1, International Combustion Engine Performance. 3. Continuous Rating is the power that an engine can deliver at a specified speed for continuous duty (24 hours per day, 7 days per week). This includes an overload capability of 10 percent of the continuous rating for a period of up to 2 hours per 24 hour period, except for shutdowns to perform scheduled maintenance.
3.6.4.
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3.6.5.
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For a normal oilfield application with no assigned mechanics, and/or remote locations, an additional 5 percent deration factor shall be applied. 2. Example: Site Deration Factors
Altitude (1525 m - 915 m = 610 m x 2 percent/305 m ) or Altitude (5000 ft - 3000 ft = 2000 ft x 2 percent/1000 ft) Temperature (36 C - 25 C = 11 C x 1 percent/5 .5 C ) or Temperature (97 F - 77 F = 20 F x 1 percent/10 F) Fuel Deration per Manufacturer Detonation Controls, Installed Maintenance Factor, Unattended Operation Total Deration
= = = = = = = =
4 4 2 2 3 0 5 14
3.7.
Engine Selection
3.7.1.
The next step is to make a tentative selection of several engines that have power ratings greater than the calculated load. In making this selection, take into consideration the recent performance of each type and brand of engine, the amount and quality of parts and service support, etc. Also consider the history of the particular engine model being contemplated. How long has this model been on the market and how many have been manufactured in the past two years? If the engine is a relatively new model, request a list of engines in similar service and the names of individuals who can be contacted as reference. For new models the factory test shall be witnessed, extensive testing shall be required, and special parts, service, and warranty coverage be negotiated.
3.7.2.
Request that the engine manufacturers rate the tentatively selected engines to the Mobil-ISO standard conditions and the site conditions. Select an engine with an at-site rating equal to or greater than the load calculated by the "Load Determination" as defined above.
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Catalog Rating at 950 RPM Mobil-ISO Rating at 950 RPM Site Deration Factor (14 percent) Site Continuous Rating at 950 RPM
3.7.3.
Therefore, the Model 9390GL is the correct choice for this example.
4.
Torsional Analysis
4.1.
All equipment with rotating components has inherent torsional vibrations (refer to Figure 2) that occur at various speeds. Manufacturers design their equipment so these inherent vibrations are below set limits and/or well outside the equipment's operating speed range. However, the engine/load combination will have its own torsional characteristics where the torsional vibrations may exceed the limits in the equipment's operating range. This is why it is important to perform a torsional analysis on every new combination of engine and load. The manufacturers have copies of torsional analyses that have been performed on popular combinations, such as a Waukesha driving a four-throw Worthington compressor.
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Figure 2: Section of a crankshaft with an exaggerated twist. This illustrates torsional vibration, which is a repeated twisting of a rotating shaft about its axis of rotation.
4.2.
This tutorial briefly describes what is entailed in performing a torsional analysis, torsional vibration limits, and possible proble ms resulting from operating above these limits.
4.3.
A torsional analysis is a mathematical study of a unit's mass elastic system (moving components). This is not an actual test but an analytical analysis using a model of the unit's individual components. This analysis is performed to determine if the inherent torsional vibrations of the unit result in vibrations that exceed designated limits.
4.4.
This is an analysis of the inherent vibrations only and assumes there are no vibrations caused by external factors (i.e., misalignment, electrical imbalance, shock loads, etc.). An Mobil Oil,1998 19 of 39
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instrumented torsional vibration check is also available as an option from most engine manufacturers and packagers.
4.5.
A torsional analysis performed using a mathematical model versus an instrumented test has a distinct advantage. The mathematical analysis is performed after the components have been engineered but before they are purchased and assembled. Thus, if the torsional vibrations are determined to exceed the calculated limits, compone nts such as couplings can be changed before being purchased. Changing components results in new torsional characteristics for the combined equipment, and components can be modified until the torsional vibrations are below acceptable levels. Each unit's vibration will be affected differently by changing its individual components. Thus, to improve the unit's torsional vibration, it may be necessary to change only a minor part such as a coupling, or as extensive a change as changing the driven unit (i.e., generator, pump, etc.) may be necessary.
4.6.
The items required to perform a torsional analysis are as follows: 1. Engine Model Number of cylinders, inline or vee cylinder configurations broken down to the following major moving component assemblies affecting torsional vibration: piston, connecting rod, flywheel, pulley(s), crankshaft, and vibration damper. 2. Driven Equipment Same type of information as required for the engine; e.g., for a generator, single or two bearing, induction or synchronous, mass of the rotating components, etc. 3. Coupling Air flex, steel flex, or flex disc plates. The coupling required is determined mostly by the type of driven equipment. 4. Job Specifics, such as speed, kW or hp rating.
4.7.
Torsional vibration stress limits have been set by various manufacturers of driver and driven equipment along with classification societies and inspection agencies.
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4.8.
Operating a unit above the manufacturer's recommended limits may cause severe damage such as fracturing shafts and couplings, rapid wearing of gears, etc. Visual observation of an operating unit is not an accepted method of determining if a unit is torsionally safe. A unit may appear to be operating very smoothly with little visible sign of torsional vibration and still have shaft stresses that exceed the limits. The Torsional Analysis is a very important part of assuring the proper design and packaging of any engine driven equipment.
4.9.
It is the packager's responsibility to ensure the assembled components are torsionally compatible and that the unit will operate within the specified torsional limits.
5.
Engine Systems
5.1. Air Intake
Although MP 15-P-27, Natural Gas Engines, specifies a dry-type air filter, the type and size shall be specified and supplied by the engine manufacturer. Dry filters have replaceable filter elements, made of special fire resistant water repellant pleated paper. They have an air cleaning efficiency in excess of 99.75 percent down to 15 m (microns) particle size. Table 1 shows the cleaning effectiveness of commonly used filters. The initial cost of the dry type is much lower than other types, they are much easier to service, they work equally well offshore, and they operate virtually frost-free in cold northern climates. Filters usually come equipped with a differential pressure indicator which serves as a monitor and indicator for servicing. If the engine location is subject to excessive dust, fog, drizzle, and rain, a two stage air cleaner is recommended. This type forces the air and dirt through an inertial separation by imparting a centrifugal motion to the air. It effectively filters out 70 to 90 percent of the large dirt particles, thereby reducing the dust load passed on to the dry element or second stage of the filter. Air ducting pipes shall run directly from the engine air intake to a location away from dirt, soot, warm air or exhaust gasses. The air inlet pipe shall be at least one pipe size larger than the air inlet connection on the engine. All pipe bends shall be long-radius elbows. The number of bends shal l be kept to a minimum. The maximum pressure drop shall not exceed the engine manufacturer's recommendation. A flexible joint or connection shall be provided to eliminate stress on the turbocharger inlet. The filter shall be mounted high enough to avoid blowing surface dirt, while remaining easily accessible for servicing and maintenance. Backfire relief valves on the air inlet system of four cycle engines are ineffective and unnecessary, and are not an option offered by the engine manufacturers.
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Table 1
Filter Type Contaminants Dust Soot Fog, Drizzle, Rain Oil Bath Dry Type Two Stage Ice, Snow Lint, Chaff
Effectiveness Rating
5.2.
Exhaust System
The exhaust system shall be designed to achieve the required degree of silencing dictated by local regulations and OSHA requirements, while not exceeding the system back pressure specified by the engine manufacturers. Increased sound attenuation generally results in a corresponding increase in engine back pressure. Limitations on back pressure will determine the actual exhaust pipe sizes and configuration and influence the silencer selection. To avoid imposing any strain on the engine exhaust manifolds, it is important to provide independent support for the exhaust piping. This is especially important on turbocharged units, to avoid distorting the turbocharger housing and leading to early failure. A flexible stainless metal bellows type connector with internal sleeve shall be installed between the engine manifold and the exhaust system to absorb vibration shock and expansion forces. The system shall be supported so that thermal growth is away from the engine. This is especially critical for more remotely mounted silencers as tremendous deflection due to thermal expansion of piping can occur in improperly designed systems. The outlet end of the exhaust shall be designed to keep out rain and snow. Exhaust piping shall be insulated where necessary to protect for flammable material and to provide personal protection.
5.3.
Starting Systems
Air or gas expansion starters are required on all engines. Preference shall be given to the turbine-type pneumatic starter over the traditional vane -type expansion models. These turbine-type starters are designed for low pressure starting utilizing either compressed air or sour/sweet natural gas. No lubrication in the drive air/gas supply is required, thereby eliminating failure due to loss of lubrication. Oily film residue at the exhaust outlet is also eliminated. Since the turbine motor does not have any rubbing parts, it is much more tolerant of dirty gas or air supply and is especially effective in low ambient temperature
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installations, because there are no rubbing internal parts coated with oil to freeze up. The rate of air or gas consumption by turbine starters is only one half to two thirds of that of vane-type starters. The starter shall be supplied with the necessary block valve, pilot operated valve, and exhaust pipe to carry the air/gas to a safe atmosphere.
5.4.
5.4.2.
The coolant shall flow through the engine at all times, and the coolant flow shall never be throttled to raise the outlet temperature. Some factors that shall be considered when designing a cooling system and selecting its equipment are as follows: 1. Water Supply a) Quality of available water. b) Supply ample or limited. c) Type of supply water for shell and tube cooler systems. 2. Atmospheric Conditions for fin-fan or radiator type coolers. a) Maximum and minimum wet and dry bulb temperatures. b) Average wind velocities and directions. c) Locality specifics (dust storms, sea salt, etc.). 3. Space Available a) Indoors or outdoors installation. b) Available space for cooling equipment. 4. Heat Recovery a) Desirability to recover heat from the jacket water or engine exhaust system.
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5.4.3.
The engineer shall always obtain the amount of heat to be removed from the engine jackets, lubricating oil, and turbocharger aftercooler from the manufacturer. The limiting water temperatures (minimum/maximum) for the particular engine shall also be obtained. It is the packager's responsibility to supply adequate heat exchange equipment to dissipate the specified amount of heat for actual service conditions during the life of the equipment.
5.4.4.
Soft water or water treated with additives is used only to circulate through the engine. The coolant characteristics shall be such that it does not leave any deposits, is free of corrosive properties, and has a pH value between 8.25 and 9.75 in the cooling cycle.
5.5.
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Figure 3: Single-loop cooling water system. B. Two-loop cooling water system. 5.5.2.
All water systems shall be supplied with a stand pipe or elevated expansion tank. These provide adequate suction head for the pump, and allow any air or gas in the water to escape.
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5.6.
Lubrication Systems
5.6.1.
The primary functions of the lubricating oil are to prevent contact between moving engine parts and remove heat . The lubricating oil is drawn from a sump by a pump which forces the oil through a cooler-filter system and to the engine system at a controlled pressure. The lube oil is sent through drilled passages or tubing into the crankshaft in order to lubricate the main and connecting rod bearings. On some large units the connecting rods contain an axial passage which conducts oil to the piston pin and the underside of the piston crown to remove combustion heat of the piston. Lubrication of cylinder liners and piston rings is normally accomplished by splash lubrication. Auxiliary tubing is used to distribute lube oil from the main inlet header to the camshaft bearings, cams, tappets, rocker arms, gears, and other accessory drives.
5.6.2.
The oil returns to the engine sump/tank by gravity flow. Lube oil pumps may be engine driven or electric motor driven. Where required by design or specification, a pre/post lube oil pump is utilized. The pre/post lube pump is normally driven by an independent power source; either air/gas motor or electric motor.
5.6.3.
Lubricating oil filters shall be full flow and may be simplex or duplex types. If lube oil sump/tank electric heaters are used, the use of the pre/post pump to circulate oil when the heater is energized is recomme nded to prevent oil coking and oil deterioration.
5.7.
5.7.2.
Where fuel gas costs are high, the exhaust heat recovery system becomes the most attractive means of increasing the overall system efficiency. Such
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systems that utilize the engine jacket water and exhaust systems are called Total Energy Systems, known to achieve overall thermal efficiencies of 67 percent or higher.
5.8.
Ignition Systems
5.8.1.
The recommended choice for Caterpillar, Superior, and Waukesha engines is the Altronic III - CPU ignition system.
5.8.2.
The Altronic III CPU is a microcircuit based, self power, capacitor discharge ignition system for medium to high speed engines. The system features crankshaft triggered timing accuracy and the capability to vary timing by several means as outlined below. 1. Total electronic control is implemented by an external 4 to 20 mA control signal. The control signal is usually supplied by an efficiency control computer which processes inputs such as engine rpm, fuel manifold pressure, air manifold temperature, and detonation sensors, etc. 2. A dual timing setting actuated by a set of external switch contacts. This is a user selected timing step-change which can be used to adjust timing for temperature or fuel variations. 3. A conventional manual setting which can be used to operate the engine in the event of a CPU system component failure.
5.8.3.
The system consists of the Altronic III unit with electronic timing option, a CPU control unit, two magnet pickups, wiring harness, and an ignition coil for each spark plug. The two pickups input a count from the engine ring gear and a reset pulse once per engine revolution. These inputs taken from the engine crankshaft provide for the basic accuracy of ignition timing, since the normal magneto drive train mechanical variations are eliminated. A schematic of the Altronic III system is presented by Figure 4.
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5.9.
Fuel System
5.9.1.
The fuel gas shall meet composition criteria set by the engine manufacturers. The gas cannot contain any hydrocarbon condensate, solids, or excessive hydrogen sulfide (H2S). If the (H2S) content exceeds engine manufacturers' limits, (usually less than 0.15 mole percent) sulphur compounds will dissolve in the lube oil, causing the oil to break down. The result will be excessive wear and corrosion of internal parts, especially copper and copper bearing alloys. Heavier components in the fuel gas (C4+) contribute to violent detonation, resulting in high peak firing pressures, loss of power and damage to engine parts. It is important to provide the engine vendor with an accurate fuel analysis so that he can determine if additional filtering, separation, or sweetening is required in order to meet the engine fuel specifications. The
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vendor may rerate the continuous horsepower rating to accommodate the available fuel.
5.9.2.
The fuel system shall consist of the necessary pressure regulator and a three way, pneumatically actuated block and vent valve to facilitate quick engine shutdowns and to vent surplus gas. A proven quality two stage fuel filter/separator shall be used on all fuels except commercial quality natural gas. Manufacturers of such devices include Peco, Pall, Peerless, and King Tool. A typical schematic of an engine fuel system is presented in Figure 5.
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5.10.2.
If the engine application requires computer interface for remote or totally automated installations, the CSA approved Woodward model 700 accepts 4 to 20 mA control signal. The model 700 can be tied directly into a PLC or a SCADA system to operate and monitor the engine control function and provide precision speed control.
5.11.2. Instrumentation
1. Digital tachometer (range 0 to 10 percent above trip speed) 2. Exhaust thermocouples for each cylinder and pre and post turbocharger, wired to common readout. 3. Engine hour meter 4. Panel mounted gauges a) Coolant outlet temperature b) Lube oil pressure c) Fuel pressure, before and after throttle. d) Intake manifold pressure/vacuum 5. Additional gauges a) Engine jacket water temperature (in/out) b) Engine oil temperature (in/out)
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Natural Gas Engines c) Oil filter differential pressure d) Air filter differential indicator e) Oil cooler temperature (in/out)
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Appendix ANomenclature
1.
Power (Horsepower)
Power is the work done in a given time or the rate of doing work. In the English, or customary system of measurement it is expressed in Horsepower (hp), and in the metric system it is expressed in Watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
1 hp =
2.
BHP
BHP is the abbreviation for Brake Horsepower. It is the useful power in kW or hp delivered by the engine at the crankshaft coupling. The published engine rating by the manufacturers are bhp ratings. Most published engine ratings exclude the cooler fan drive power and are based on one of the recognized engine test standards that outline the specific test parameters and conditions. BHP can be calculated by the following formulas:
T ( N - m ) RPM 9545
Rev 3/30/98
EPT 07-T-02
3.
4.
Torque (T)
Torque is the turning effort due to a force applied at a distance from a center point. The standard unit of measurement for torque utilized in engine calculations is the "ft-lb."
5.
6.
Engine Displacement
Engine displacement is the volume expressed in cubic centimeters or cubic inches displaced by all the pistons during one upward stroke of each piston.
Displaceme nt =
( Bore )2
4
Displacement is a measure of the "size" of an engine. it refers to the physical dimensions which are not subje ct to the many varied horsepower interpretations and speed considerations. For a graphical representation of Displacement, refer to Figure 6.
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7.
Compression Ratio
Compression Ratio (Rc) is the ratio of the piston displacement plus clearance volume divided by clearance volume.
Rc =
The actual compression ratio is considerably less because of late intake valve or port closing. For the engines under consideration there are two compression ratios available; a low compression ratio (on the order of 8 to 1) and a high compression ratio (on the order of 10 to 1). The low compression ratio is generally used with fuel gas with heavy hydrocarbon components and turbocharged engines while the high compression ratio is used for "pipeline quality" gas. The latter fuel is primarily methane (CH 4) which has a lower tendency to detonate (knock).
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8.
Octane Number
Octane Number refers to ability of a fuel to resist detonation (knocking). A high octane number indicates a fuel with a high resistance to knock so that a higher compression ratio (more efficient) engine can be utilized.
9.
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NB =
Work Output = 1 HP = 2545 Btu / hr Energy Input for 1 HP = 7500 Btu / HP hr 1 HP = 2545 Btu / hr NB = 2545 = 33.9 7500
For the engines under consideration, the brake thermal efficiency is on the order of 34 percent. Heat recovery systems can be designed to recover heat from the engine exhaust and the jacket water system, which can increase the overall thermal efficiency to approximately 67 percent.
Piston Speed =
Stroke(in ) RPM 6
Piston speed is sometimes useful in comparing the relative wearing vibration tendencies of unlike engines. As an example, an engine with a long stroke and operating at 900 rpm has a higher piston speed than an engine with a short stroke operating at 1200 rpm and presumably might experience higher piston and cylinder liner wear. An accepted range of piston speeds for modern engines is approximately 1200 to 1800 ft per minute.
12. BMEP
Brake Mean Effective Pressure is defined as that constant pressure, which if acted on the engine piston for one stroke, would do the same as is done by the varying pressure in the cylinder for one cycle. The units for BMEP are given in psig. The BMEP is a useful quantity for comparing the performance of two engines, because it is proportional to the work done per cycle per unit of cylinder
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size. For the engines considered in this tutorial, the BMEP ranges from approximately 110 psig for naturally aspirated engines to approximately 190 psig for turbocharged engines. In short, BMEP is the mean average cylinder pressure to give a measured, resultant torque at the fly wheel, and as such, is a purely artificial value. It has meaning only when comparing similar engines, and then shall be tempered with engine design and other parameters. BMEP for any four cycle engine can be calculated by:
2 RPM BHP = [BMEP ( psig )][Stroke( ft )] Bore( ft ) ( No. of Cyl.) 2
BMEP =
( )
13. NA
Naturally Aspirated four cycle engines are those that receive their combustion air directly as a result of atmospheric pressure.
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2. Aftercoolers using a high cooling water temperature (approximately 54C, or 130F) from a closed circuit system with aerial (radiator) cooling. In production operations, the latter type of TA engines is almost always used.
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