ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI-600025

MADHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

KUNDRATHUR, CHENNAI-600069.

Department of Aeronautical Engineering Aircraft design project 1 Long range business jet aircraft

Submitted by
KANMANI RAJA T SARAVANA KUMAR N SYEDHALEEM M 41108101018 41108101042 41108101052

Guided by, Mr. R K MUTHURAMAN B.E. (MBA)

Lecturer, Department of aeronautical engineering, Madha engineering college, Chennai-69.

ANNA UNIVERSITY::CHENNAI 600025 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project DESIGN OF LONG RANGE BUSINESS JET AIRCRAFT is the bonafide work of

KANMANI RAJA T SARAVANA KUMAR N SYEDHALEEM M

41108101018 41108101042 41108101052

SIGNATURE OF GUIDE,

SIGNATURE OF HOD,

MR. R. K. MUTHURAMAN B.E., (MBA)

LECTURER, AERONAUTICAL DEPARTMENT, MADHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI-69.

MR. J. KUMARAGURUBARAN M.E.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT, AERONAUTICAL DEPARTMENT, MADHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHENNAI-69.

Viva voce held on___________

INTERNAL EXAMINER

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank our chairman and founder of Madha group of Academic institutions Dr. Ln. S. Peter for his Excellent contribution towards the department. We would also like to thank our kind principal Dr. C. B. Lakshmikantha B.Tech., M.Tech., Ph.D., MISTE, MTAI., for his extended support and motivation. We would also like to thank our beloved HoD, Mr. J. Kumaragurubaran M.E., for helping us in times of need and guiding us and maintaining the department in an excellent manner. We would like to thank our guide, class in charge, Mr. R.K. Muthuraman B.E. (MBA), for his contribution towards making this project into a successful one and guiding and for motivating us. Finally, we would like to thank the staff members of the department of aeronautical engineering and our beloved friends who stood by us and helped us in the completion of the project.

CONTENTS
Expt. Date No. of Expt.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 04:01:11 18:01:11 1801:11 25:01:11 02:02:11 09:02:11 09:02:11 17:02:11 24:02:11 03:03:11 10:03:11 17:03:11 24:03:11

Name of the Experiment Page Guides initial no

The design process Literature survey Comparative study Selection of main parameters Weight estimation Selection of airfoil Estimation of Maximum Cl Selection of wing & control surfaces Estimation of wing loading Estimation of thrust to weight ratio Selection of powerplant Performance curves 3 view diagram 4 13 24 27 29 37 44 47 55 62 66 70 79

INDEX

Description

page no.

1. Abstract1 2. Introduction to aircraft design project2 3. Introduction to design process4 Starting a design process.4 Phases of airplane design5 Conceptual design...5 Preliminary design...5 Detail design6 Requirements...7 Weight of the airplane.7 Critical performance parameters7 Configuration layout...8 Better weight estimate.8 Performance analysis......8 Optimization....8 New design..9 Design aspects9 Performance aspects...9 4. Literature survey.13 Classification of airplanes..14 Based on operation.14 Based on configuration..14 Based on position of wings....15 Based on shape of wings....16 Based on engines....19 Based on fuselage...21 5

 Based on landing gear21 Consideration for own aircraft..22 5. Comparative study.24 Comparative data sheet.25 6. Selection of main parameters27 7. Weight estimation..29 Fuel fraction estimation30 Estimation of empty weight ratio.34 Iteration table35 8. Selection of airfoil.37 Airfoil families..37 NACA 4 series..37 NACA 5 series..38 NACA 1 series (16 series)....39 NACA 6 series..39 Selection of airfoil....41 Characteristic curves of selected airfoils....41 9. Estimation of maximum lift coefficient..44 Average maximum lift coefficient..44 Landing maximum lift coefficient..44 Take off maximum lift coefficient..44 10. Selection of wing and control surfaces...47 Calculation of wing dimensions.47 Dihedral and sweepback effect..49 Selection of control surfaces..52 11. Estimation of wing loading.55 Stall velocity constraint..55 Landing distance constraint...56 12. Estimation of thrust to weight ratio...62 13. Powerplant selection..66 Specifications.68 6

14. Performance curves..70 Drag polar.71 V vs. L/D..72 V vs. Treq.73 V vs. Preq.73 V vs. Tav..74 V vs. Pav..74 V vs. T..75 V vs. P..75 V vs. R/C..76 15. Three view diagram.78 16. Conclusion...79 17. References80

ABSTRACT
The ultimatum of this project is the design of a long-range business jet aircraft with the desired specifications. This aircraft design project is nothing but designing our own imaginative aircraft with some help from Existing available data of similar types of aircrafts. This project boosts up the innovative and creative part of the mind. During the design process, the Existing theoretical formulae, concepts, basics are scrutinized to aid in the design process, thus developing ones mind and a better understanding capacity. This design process also helps in developing the potential in ourselves. This project is just a basic design with the use of basic formulae. However, designs based on these formulae have been found to comply to the desired specifications with minimal variations. This design process includes some of the basic estimations like weight, wing parameters and airfoil, critical performance parameters and the powerplant and finally the three-view diagram of the aircraft for which the design is being proposed.

INTRODUCTION TO AIRPLANE DESIGN

Airplane design is both an art and a science. We can see by the name itself, airplane design involves Experience and practice rather than just a book. However, theory and Experimentation are interconnected, so we ought to go through the available books on design before starting a detailed design procedure. Airplane design is the intellectual process of creating on paper or on a computer screen a flying machine to meet certain specifications and requirements established by us, the designers or the concerned person or the firm for whom we are designing the aircraft. Airplane design is said to have started from the ages of Leonardo Da Vinci, Sir George Cayley, Otto Lilienthal, Alexander Mozhaiski, Felix Du Temple, Langley and the Wright brothers. In Indian Mythology, the demon king Ravan was believed to be fond of science. He is said to have designed an aircraft called the Pushpak Vaaghan that he used to abduct Sita, the wife of lord Ram, the prince of Ayodhya. The design process is thus a process that does not stop. Even though, many modern configuration aircrafts Exist today and yet more are to come, the design process will never stop until the human desires of 100% efficiency, comfort, convenience and luxury are met.

EX. No. 1

THE DESIGN PROCESS

04:01:11

Aim
To make a brief study of the airplane designing process to aid in the designing of long range business jet aircraft.

Introduction
Those involved in design can never quite agree as to just where the design process begins. The designer thinks that it starts with a new airplane concept. The sizing specialist knows that nothing can begin until an initial estimate of weight is made. The customer feels that the design begins with requirements. They all are correct. The design process is actually an iterative process.

Starting a design process

The start of the design process requires the identification of need. It is essential to understand at the start of the study where the project originated and to recognize what External factors are influential to the design before the design process is started. The design process never ends as the designers continuously provide many modifications to the aircraft to improve its safety and performance, services and any repairs, maintenance instructions etc that are necessary to keep the aircraft in an airworthy condition.

Many airplanes never make it beyond the initial or preliminary design phase. In fact most dont. What happens beyond the preliminary design phase depends largely on the results obtained during the preliminary design and on the real or perceived market interest afterwards.

If, because of the preliminary design studies a specific need can be met, then the fullscale development of the aircraft can follow. If, because of the preliminary design phase certain problem areas are discovered and then a research and development program can

10

be initiated aimed at overcoming these problems. Eventually, with the problems solved which then can lead to a full-scale development.

Phases of airplane design

The complete design process involves three distinct phases that are carried out in sequence. The phases are, Conceptual Design Preliminary Design Detail Design

Conceptual Design
Usually, the design process starts with a set of preliminary requirements or specifications for the new airplane or with the desire to introduce some innovative ideas and technology. In this the overall shape, weight size and performance of the new design are determined. The result of conceptual design is the layout on a sheet of paper or on the computer screen of the airplane configuration. However, these drawings have to be visualized as flexible lines as they are prone to modifications during the second phase of the design process. It gives out some data like the wing and tail dimensions, position and type of the engine etc. During the conceptual design phase, the designer is influenced by qualitative aspects such as the increased structural loads imposed by a high horizontal Ttail versus a conventional tail location through the fuselage, and the difficulties associated with the cut outs in the wing structure if the landing gears are to retract into the wing rather than the fuselage or engine nacelle.

Preliminary Design
Minor changes are made to the configuration layout from the conceptual design in this preliminary design process. It is in this process serious structural and control system analysis and design takes place. In addition, during this phase substantial wind tunnel testing will be carried out and CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) calculations of the complete flow over the airplane configuration will be made. These tests will uncover some undesirable aerodynamic interference, or some Expected stability problems. At the 11

end of preliminary design, the airplane configuration is fixed. It will not undergo any further modifications. The drawing process called lofting is carried out that mathematically models the precise shape of the outer skin of the airplane, making sure that all the sections of the aircraft properly fit together. The future of the design rests in the result of the preliminary design process whether to commit to the manufacture of the airplane or not.

Detail Design
The detail design is literally the nuts and bolts phase of the airplane design. The aerodynamics, propulsion, structures and flight control analyses all have been finished with the preliminary design phase. In this, the airplane is simply a machine waiting to be fabricated. The precise design of each individual component like the ribs, spars, section of skin etc, takes place. The size, number and location of fasteners are determined. Manufacturing tools and jigs are designed. The flight simulators for the aircraft are developed. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be fabricated.

12

Requirements
Where and how to start the design? Clearly, with a list of requirements for the airplane, we can start the design process. The requirements might be from the designer himself or the customer for whom he is designing the airplane. Like the fingerprints for every human being differ, so do the requirements of every new airplane. Frequently stipulated aspects of requirements include the following, Range Take off distance Stalling velocity Endurance Maximum velocity Rate of climb For combat type of aircraft maximum turn rate and minimum turn radius Maximum load factor Service ceiling Cost Reliability and maintainability Reasonable size

Weight of the airplane

For an airplane to get off the ground, it must be able to produce a lift greater than its weight. Therefore, the estimation of weight is an important step in the design process. It is known to all as the weight of airplane increases, so does the lift required to overcome it and consequently the drag of the airplane increases. Therefore, the estimation of weight of the airplane is the first step in the design process.

Critical performance parameters

It focuses on the estimation of some critical performance parameters like, Maximum lift coefficient CLmax Lift to drag ratio L/D (usually at cruise) Wing loading W/S 13

 Thrust to weight ratio T/W

Configuration layout
The configuration layout is the drawing of the airplanes shape and size. The critical performance parameters along with the initial estimate of weight give enough information to approximately size the aircraft and draw the configuration.

Better weight estimate

The pivot point at this stage is the improved estimate of weight based on the performance parameters. A detailed component weight breakdown based on the configuration layout and a more detailed estimate of the fuel weight necessary to meet the requirements.

Performance analysis
At this pivot point, the design of the aircraft from the previous stage is put through a preliminary performance analysis. The configuration is judged whether it can meet all the original specifications set forth. This is obviously critical point in conceptual design process. An iterative process is initiated wherein the configuration is modified, with the Expectation of coming closer to meeting the requirements. The iteration is repeated until the resulting airplane meets the requirements.

Optimization
After the iteration process, the next question that arises in the designers mind is that Is it the best design? This leads to optimization analysis. The optimization is carried out by plotting the performance of different airplanes on graphs that provide a sizing matrix or a carpet plot from which the optimum design can be found.

14

New design
The following are some basic areas where we should concentrate to design a new aircraft Aerodynamics Propulsion Light weight structures Controls

The above areas involve some parameters like Size Shape Weight Performance

Of these parameters, we should use the optimized value for our new design, and it should be selected on the basis that it would not affect the other parameters.

Design aspects For passenger aircraft

High AR wings High wing loading, in order to minimize lift and induced drag for efficient cruise.

For fighter aircraft

Low AR wings Low wing loading

Structure factor
It is defined as the ratio between empty weight to the total take off weight.

15

Performance aspects
Aircraft purpose Type of payload Cruise and maximum speeds Maximum cruise altitude Endurance Range Take off distance at maximum weight Landing distance with 50% of maximum fuel weight Purchase cost Other requirements

Aircraft purpose
Our design of aircraft starts with deciding the purpose of the aircraft. There are three major purposes for use of aircrafts Military aircrafts [fighter & bomber] Passenger aircrafts Cargo aircrafts

Payload
The material, which is carried onboard and delivered as a part of the mission, is called the payload. There are two types of payloads Non-Expendable payloads Expendable payloads Non-Expendable payloads are Expected to be transported during the complete duration of flight plan. E.g. Passengers and cargo. At some point in the flight plan, it permanently leaves the aircraft. E.g. bombs, rockets, missiles. For business jet aircrafts the payload includes the passengers, passenger baggage and crew members. 16

Cruise and maximum speeds

The mission of the aircraft is usually determined through the range of speed of the aircraft. The propeller driven aircrafts are usually designed to cruise at speeds of 150-300 knots. The jet-powered aircraft has higher cruise speeds than that of propeller driven aircrafts. The speed of jet propelled aircraft is given in terms of mach no. for business and commercial jet aircrafts 0.8<M<0.85

Take off distance

The total take off distance consists of length of the runway required to accelerate the lift and climb to prescribed height. The obstacle height is 50 ft for military aircrafts and 35 ft for commercial aircrafts. The take off distance depends upon various design parameters such as Thrust to weight ratio Maximum lift to weight ratio Rolling friction of landing gear wheels

There are three types in take off, they are CTOL- Commercial Take Off and Landing STOL- Short Take Off and Landing VTOL- Vertical Take Off and Landing A CTOL aircraft has distances that are greater than 1000 ft. for STOL aircraft the distance will be less than 100 ft. Both CTOL and STOL aircrafts need a ground roll but a VTOL aircraft does not need a ground roll.

Conclusion
Thus, the design process and the various factors associated with it were studied briefly. We are sure that these points will help us in the design of our aircraft. 17

EX. No. 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

18:01:11

Aim
To do a brief literature study on the existing airplanes and about their merits and demerits.

Introduction
It is essential to go through some existing data on different types of aircrafts and the components used in them and their evolution with time, before starting the design process. Literature survey is one such thing. It consists of configuration studies, design trades etc. first, a basic understanding of the types of flying machines present is necessary. The aircrafts are classified according to their weight, propulsion system, and place of use. Lets see the classification of airplane, Aircrafts

Lighter than air

Heavier than air

Airships Free Balloons Captive Balloons

Power driven

Non power driven

Man power driven

Gliders

Seaplanes

Kites

Airplane

Rotorcraft

Ornithopters

Land plane

Sea plane

Amphibian Helicopter Gyroplane Cyclogyroplane

18

Float plane

Flying boat

Classification of airplanes Based on operation

Subsonic Transonic Supersonic Hypersonic

Based on configuration Monoplane Merits

Simple to construct Less interference drag Less induced drag Higher aspect ratio

Demerits
Heavier structural weights

Biplane Merits
Lower structural weights

Demerits
Lower aspect ratio Higher induced drag Complex to construct

19

Triplane Merits
Lower structural weight

Demerits
Higher interference drag Lower aspect ratio Higher induced drag Complex to construct

Position of wings High wing Merits

More stable Lesser interference of fuselage on wing flow Easy to fix wing to fuselage Larger height and larger clearance for service vehicles Podded engines are away from the ground.

Demerits
Inspection of top surface is difficult More stick force is required

Low wing Merits

Easy to attach to the fuselage Smaller stick force Inspection of top surface is easy 20

Demerits
Smaller clearance for service vehicles Podded engines are closer to the runway Less stable More interference drag

Mid wing Merits

Provides the lowest drag of any three locations of the wing body Interference is minimized Fillet is not required to decrease interference Wing bending moment can be transmitted across the fuselage by a series of heavy ring frames in the fuselage shell

Demerits
The bending moment due to wing lift will be carried through the fuselage that imposes structural limitations There would be an unacceptable obstruction through the middle of the fuselage

Shape of the wing Rectangular wing Merits

Higher aspect ratio Smaller induced drag Easy to construct

Demerits
Larger structural weight

21

 Tip stall occurs

Tapered wing Merits

Lower structural weight Lesser induced drag No tip stall occurs

Demerits
Difficult to construct Root stall occurs Small aspect ratio

Canard wing Merits

Tail will be more effective and is not in the effect of the wing More lift Lower structural weight Stability increases with Mach number

Demerits
Less stable Large control forces at higher Mach number Small tail lever arm Shock stall can occur

22

Elliptical wing Merits

Least induced drag Smaller structural weight Higher drag divergence Mach number

Demerits
Difficult to construct Smaller aspect ratio

Delta wing Merits

Smaller structural weight Higher drag divergence Mach number Not very difficult to manufacture

Demerits
Smaller aspect ratio Higher induced drag Large area of wing controls

Swept back wings Merits

Higher drag divergence Mach number Smaller structural weight More stable

Demerits
Lower aspect ratio 23

 Higher induced drag Ailerons are less effective

Swept forward wings Merits

Higher drag divergence Mach number Cross flow could be omitted

Demerits
Higher structural weight Smaller aspect ratio Less stable

Blended wing or flying wing Merits

Structurally strong Able to carry more payload Lift generation is more Takes advantage in wing boundary layer ingestion Tail drag is absent

Demerits
Large in shape and size High cost Complicated constructions

Engines Types of engines used for power plant

Piston engines Turbo prop engines 24

 Turbojet engines Turbofan engines Ramjet engines Rocket

Number of engines
Single engine Twin engine Multi engine

Location of engines In modern transport, pylons can hold engines Merits

Weight decreases by 15-20% Wing space can be utilized for fuel Maintenance, inspection and replacement are facilitated Wing structure is free from the heat of the engines that improves fire safety

Demerits
Failure of outboard engine creates a large yawing moment This Moment has to be countered by rudder deflection that results in higher drag High acoustic stresses on the ailerons and load bearing members in the lower part of the wing call for an increase in wing rigidity and weight Noise level in cabin is 5 dB higher as compared to aircraft having engines o the rear fuselage Smaller ground clearance increases chances of FOD

Engines located in wing root Merits

Very little increase in frontal area Entire wing span can be utilized for ailerons and high lift devices 25

Demerits
Weight is more due to compensation of cuts in wing spars Space in the root section of the wing cannot be utilized for the storage for fuel Intake is located at a place where the airflow is not clean

Engines located on rear fuselage Merits

Less noise in the cabin Entire wing space can be used to store fuel Whole wingspan can be used for ailerons and high lift devices Fire hazard is a minimum

Demerits
Fuel is located far from the engines which increases the length of fuel lines required and special fuel pumps Due to weight at the tail, large horizontal and vertical tail surface areas are required

Fuselage
Conventional single fuselage design Twin fuselage design Pod and boom construction type

Landing gear
Retractable landing gear Non-retractable landing gear Nose wheel landing gear Bicycle landing gear

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Consideration for own aircraft

From the above types, we have selected a conventional single fuselage design with twin engines mounted on the rear fuselage and a sweptback tapered low wing configuration. The aim of this project is to design a long-range business jet i.e. having a range of >5000 km. The maximum speed to be in the range of 800-950 kmph, service ceiling around 14000 m. since, it is business jet it will be carrying not more than 20 passengers. Most of the business jet aircrafts have an average accommodation for 12 passengers.

Conclusion
Thus, the brief study on available literature was done and some preliminary factors were considered for our aircraft. 27

EX No. 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY

18:01:11

Aim
To do a comparative study on similar types of existing aircrafts and to prepare a comparative data sheet.

Introduction
The comparative study consists of preparing a comparative data sheet using data collected from Existing aircrafts similar to the aircraft that is to be designed. The data sheet focuses attention on some of the important parameters of the aircraft like, Empty weight Fuel weight MTOW Thrust Powerplant Maximum speed Range Service ceiling T/W ratio Wing loading Passengers and crew Wing area Wingspan

We are considering five aircrafts for our comparative study. They are,

Name of the aircraft Legacy 600 Executive Boeing business jet Falcon 7X Gulf stream V (C-37A) Bombardier Global 5000

Manufacturer Embraer Boeing Dassault aviations Gulfstream aerospace Bombardier aerospace

Country Brazil USA France USA Canada

28

Comparative data sheet

Aircraft/Char Crew

Boeing Business Jet 2+2 flight attendants 39.47 m 35.79 m 43082 kg 57155 kg 77565 kg 32825 kg 2*CFM 56-7 turbofans

Length Wingspan Wing area Empty weight Loaded weight MTOW Fuel weight Power plant

Legacy 600 Executive 2+1 flight attendant optional 26.33 m 21.17 m 13250 kg 16000 kg 22500 kg 8140 kg 2*Rolls Royce AE3007/A1 P turbofans 2*37.1 kN 834 kmph 5926 km 11885 m 439.6 kg/m2

Bombardier Falcon 7X Global 5000 2+1 flight 2+1 flight attendant attendant

Thrust Max. speed Range Service ceiling Wing loading T/W ratio Payload/passeng ers

121.4 kN 890 kmph 11482 to 9936 km 12496 m 620.5 kg/m2 0.52:1 8 to 50

Gulf Stream V 2+0 to 2 flight attendants 29.49 m 23.19 m 29.4 m 25.15 m 29.69 m 2 70.7 m 105.6 m2 22838 kg 15456 kg 17917 kg 25401 kg 21682 kg 39780 kg 28893 kg 38600 kg 16329 kg 13109 kg 15966 kg 2*BMW 3*Pratt & 2*Rolls Rolls Royce Whitney Royce BR710 Canada Deutschland turbofans PW307A BR710-48 turbofans turbofans 3*21.7 kN 2*68.4 kN 945 kmph 685 kmph 1056 kmph 8889 km 10556 km 10742 km 15545 m 419 kg/m2 15545 m 408.7 kg/m2 14 15545 m 365.4 kg/m2

0.36:1 13+1 in 19 cockpit jump seat

14 to 19

This comparative data sheet will help us in determining the main parameters and limits for our aircraft.

Conclusion
Thus, the data from similar types of existing aircrafts was studied, and the comparative data sheet was prepared and parameters were compared.

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Ex No. 4

SELECTION OF MAIN PARAMETERS

25:01:11

Aim
To fix or select primary requirements for our aircraft.

Introduction
Before designing the aircraft, the main parameters of the aircraft have to be selected. The customer provides them in case the aircraft is being designed for him. The main parameters are simply the aircrafts requirements. They are as follows,

Criteria Payload-Passengers Payload-Baggage Crew Range Reserve fuel Cruise altitude Cruise mach no. Powerplant

Value 12 at 100 kg each (220.46 lb) 20 kg each (44.09 lb) 2 pilots, 1 cabin attendant at 100 kg each with 20 kg baggage 7000 km (3779.7 nm) 100 nm (185.2 km) followed by 1 hour loiter 12000 m (40000 ft) 0.8 2 turbofans

Take off field length 800 m (2624.47 ft) Landing distance Stalling velocity Estimated weight Thrust 1000 m (3280.84 ft) 50 ms-1 (164.04 fts-1 or 111.85 mph) 38000 kg (83775.66 lb) 70 kN (15730 lbf)

Conclusion
Thus, the primary parameters required for our aircraft were selected with help from the comparative data sheet.

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EX No. 5

WEIGHT ESTIMATION

02:02:11

Aim
To do a conceptual weight estimation of the aircraft. Its fuel weight, empty weight and total weight.

Introduction
Design takeoff gross weight is the total weight as the aircraft begins its mission for which it was designed. This is not necessarily same as the MTOW or the maximum takeoff weight for all aircrafts.

The design takeoff gross weight can be broken down into crew weight, payload or passengers weight, fuel weight and the remaining or empty weight. The empty weight includes the structure, engines, landing gear, fixed equipments, avionics and anything else that is not considered as a part of the crew, payload or fuel. The following equation summarizes the design takeoff weight,

The crew and the payload weights are known. The only unknowns are the fuel weight and empty weight. The following iterative equation is used to calculate the weight,

31

Now, W0 can be determined if Wf/W0 and We/W0 are known. In order to meet the mission requirements the aircraft must be able to take off and climb to the desired cruising altitude and then cruise for the desired range and land. There should be enough additional fuel for emergency climb & cruise and loitering before landing.

Fuel fraction estimation (Wf/W0)

The amount of fuel required to carry out the mission effectively depends upon the efficiency of the powerplant and efficient aerodynamics of the airplane. The total fuel consumed during the mission is the amount that is consumed from engine start, taxi, take off, cruise, descent, landing, and taxi and finally shut down. Sometimes, there is some loitering when the aircraft is put into a holding pattern by the ATC prior to landing. The fuel fraction for each segment can be calculated from Existing graphs or from some other formulae. Generally, Breguets range and endurance equations are used. For loitering segment, a usual timing of 20 min is sufficient. However, we are selecting a loitering time of 1 hour. Further, a reserve of fuel for a cruise for 100 nm is considered. The calculations then are as follows,

Engine start or warm up W1/W0 = 0.99 W1=37620 kg

Taxi W2/W1=0.995 W2=37431.9 kg

Take off W3/W1=0.995

32

 W3=37244.74 kg

Climb W4/W3=0.98 W4=36499.84 kg

Cruise Using Breguets range formula,

R-range in m Ct-TSFC in s-1 W0- initial weight W1- final weight

Value of Ct For high bypass turbofan business jets For cruise Ct=0.5 lb/lbf-h = 14.16*10-6 kg/N-s For loiter Ct=0.4 lb/lbf-h = 11.32*10-6 kg/N-s

Value of L/D (L/D)max = 10+AR =10+9 = 19

L/D = 0.866*(L/D)max = 0.866*19 = 16.454

33

Rearranging Breguets range equation

W5/W4 = Exp (-R Ct g/ (VL/D)) =Exp (-7000*103*14.16*10-6*9.81/ (236.039*16.454))

=0.778516 W5 = 28415.709 kg

Emergency climb W6/W5 = 0.98 W6 = 27847.395 kg

Emergency cruise (for 100 nm = 185.2 km) W7/W6 = Exp (-185.2*103*14.16*10-6*9.81/ (236.039*16.454)) = 0.993398 W7 = 27663.544 kg

Loitering (for 1 hour = 3600 seconds) Using the endurance formula

Rearranging the above equation

34

W8/W7 = Exp (-E*Ct*g/ (L/D)) During loitering L/D is (L/D) max W8/W7 = Exp (-3600*9.81*11.32*10-6/19) = 0.97918 W8 = 27087.559 kg

Descent W9/W8 = 0.990 W9 = 26816.683 kg

Landing, taxi and shut down W10/W9 = 0.992 W10 = 26602.1499 kg

Fuel fraction W10/W0 = (W1/W0)*(W2/W1)*(W3/W2)**(W10/W9) = 0.99*0.995*0.995*0.98*0.778516*0.98*0.993398*0.97918*0.99*0.992

= 0.70006

Therefore, the fuel fraction is

Wf/W0 = (1+mfres)*(1-W10/W0) 35

Where mfres is the weight fraction of reserved and trapped fuel. It is usually about 6% of the total fuel weight.

Wf/W0 = (1+0.06)*(1-0.70006) = 0.3179

Estimation of We/W0 A new design always has an evolutionary change from an Existing aircraft. Therefore, we can assume a value for this ratio from Existing data from similar aircraft. The graphs yield an equation for the calculation of empty weight ratio. It is, We/W0 = AW0cKvs A & c are constants for particular type of aircraft, for business jets A = 1.02 and c = -0.06

Kvs has a value of 1 for fixed sweep and 1.04 for variable sweep We/W0 = 1.02W0-0.06

Weight of crew and payload (passengers) Wcrew = (100*3) + (20*3) = 360 kg Wpayload = (100*12) + (20*12) = 1440 kg Substituting the values in the iteration equation

36

W0 = 1800/ (1-0.3179-(1.02W0-0.06))

Iteration table 38000 12826.703

12826.703 17332.164 17332.164 15761.304 15761.304 16222.459 16222.459 16079.369 16079.369 16123.032 16123.032 16109.639 16109.639 16113.741 16113.741 16112.484 16112.484 16112.869 16112.869 16112.751 16112.751 16112.787 16112.787 16112.77 16112.77 16112.77

Result
Thus, the conceptual weight of the aircraft was estimated. The values of empty weight and fuel weight were found from the iteration table the initial estimate of take of gross weight is W0 = 16112.77 kg Wf = 5122.249 kg We = 9190.521 kg

37

Ex No. 6

SELECTION OF AIRFOIL

09:02:11

Aim
To study different types of airfoils and select an appropriate airfoil for the airplane design.

Introduction
After the estimation of weight, a compatible airfoil for the type of aircraft that would be able to generate enough lift to overcome the weight efficiently has to be selected. First, a study of the Existing airfoils is suggested before proceeding to airfoil selection. NACA provides a wide variety of airfoils, each having its own different merits and demerits.

AIRFOIL Families NACA Four-Digit Series

Around 1932, NACA tested a series of airfoil shapes known as the four-digit sections. The four-digit airfoil geometry is defined, as the name implies, by four digits; the first gives the maximum camber in percent of chord, the second the location of the maximum camber in tenths of chord, and the last two the maximum thickness in percent of chord. For Example, the 2412 airfoil is a 12% thick airfoil having a 2% camber located 0.4 from the leading edge. 38

Advantages
Good stall characteristics Small centre of pressure movement across large speed range Roughness has little effect

Disadvantages
Low CLmax Relatively high drag High pitching moment

NACA five-Digit Series

The NACA five-digit series developed around 1935 uses the same thickness distribution as the four-digit series. The numbering system for the five-digit series is not as straightforward as for the fourdigit series. The first digit multiplied by 3/2 gives the design lift coefficient of the airfoil. The next two digits are twice the position of maximum camber in percent of chord. The last two digits give the percent thickness. For Example, the 23012 airfoil is a 12% thick airfoil having a design Cl of 0.3 and a maximum camber located 15% of c back from the leading edge.

Advantages
Higher CLmax Low pitching moment Roughness has little effect

Disadvantages
Poor stall behaviour Relatively high drag

39

NACA l-Series (Series 16)

The NACA 1-series of wing sections developed around 1939 was the first series based on theoretical considerations. The most commonly used 1-series airfoils have the minimum pressure located at the 0.6 and are referred to as series-16 airfoils. The camber line for these airfoils is designed to produce a uniform chord wise pressure difference across it. In the thin airfoil theory to follow, this corresponds to a constant chord wise distribution of vortices. Operated at its design Cl, the series-16 airfoil produces its lift while avoiding lowpressure peaks corresponding to regions of high local velocities. Thus the airfoil has been applied extensively to both marine and aircraft propellers. In the former application, Low-pressure regions are undesirable from the standpoint of cavitation (the formation of vaporous cavities in a flowing liquid). In the latter, the use of series-16 airfoils delays the onset of deleterious effects resulting from shock waves being formed locally in regions of high velocities. Series-1 airfoils are also identified by five digits as, for Example, the NACA 16212 section. The first digit designates the series; the second digit designates the location of the minimum pressure in tenths of chord. Following the dash, the first number gives the design Cl in tenths. As for the other airfoils, the last two digits designate the maximum thickness in percent of chord.

Advantages
Avoids low pressure peaks Low drag at high speed

Disadvantages
Relatively low lift

NACA 6 Series
The 6 series airfoils were designed to achieve desirable drag, compressibility, and C l, performance. These requirements are somewhat conflicting, and it appears that the

40

motivation for these airfoils was primarily the achievement of low drag. The chord wise pressure distribution resulting from the combination of thickness and camber is conducive to maintaining Extensive laminar flow over the leading portion of the airfoil over a limited range of G values. Outside of this range, Cd and Clm values are not too much different from other airfoils. The mean lines used with the 6-series airfoils have a uniform loading back to a distance of x/c = 2. Aft of this location the load decreases linearly. The = 1 mean line corresponds to the uniform loading for the series-16 airfoils. There are many perturbations on the numbering system for the 6 series airfoils. The later series is identified, for Example, as NACA 651-212 a = 0.6 Here 6 denotes the series; the numeral 5 is the location of the minimum pressure in tenths of chord for the basic thickness and distribution; and the subscript 1 indicates that low drag is maintained at Cl, values of 0.1 above and below the design Cl, of the 0.2, denoted by the 2 following the dash. Again, the last two digits specify the percentage thickness. If the fraction, a, is not specified, it is understood to equal unity.

Advantages
High CLmax Very low drag over a small range of operating conditions Optimized for high speed

Disadvantages
High drag outside of optimum range of operating conditions Higher pitching moment Poor stall behaviour Very susceptible to roughness

41

From the collected data, the airfoils that we have selected are Root section: NACA 23021 (CLmax = 1.5) Tip section : NACA 23012 (CLmax = 1.8) Average CLmax = (1.5+1.8)/2 = 1.65 Characteristic lift versus angle of attack plots.

42

Conclusion
The different types of airfoils were studied and the appropriate type of airfoils for the airplane design were selected. 43

Ex No. 7

ESTIMATION OF MAXIMUM CL

09:02:11

Aim
To estimate the values of maximum lift coefficient during landing and takeoff for the selected airfoils.

From the collected data, the airfoils that we have selected are Root section: NACA 23021 (CLmax = 1.5) Tip section : NACA 23012 (CLmax = 1.8)

Average CLmax = (1.5+1.8)/2 = 1.65 For ease of calculations, a plain flap is used. Flaps are high lift devices that are used temporarily to increase the lift during takeoff and landing. Other high lift devices are slots and slats. To aid in landing a flap deflection of 450 will yield an increase in CLmax of CLmax =0.9 Therefore, CLmax = 1.65+0.9 = 2.55 For finite wings with aspect ratio greater than 5, the CLmax is 0.9 times of the previous CLmax CLmax = 0.9*2.55 = 2.295 To aid in take off, a flap deflection of 200 is provided that yields an increase in CLmax of CLmax = 0.5

Therefore, CLmax = 1.65+0.5 = 2.15

44

For finite wings with aspect ratio greater than 5, the C Lmax is 0.9 times of the previous CLmax Therefore, CLmax = 0.9*2.15 = 1.935 Therefore, the airfoils that we have selected yield the following values of maximum lift coefficients

Result
The values of maximum lift coefficient during takeoff and landing were calculated for the selected airfoils sections.

Average maximum lift coefficient = 1.65 Landing maximum lift coefficient = 2.295 Takeoff maximum lift coefficient = 1.935

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Ex No. 8

SELECTION OF WING AND CONTROL SURFACES

17:02:11

Aim
To select the appropriate wing and its dimensions and the control surfaces

Description
The wing is the lift generating component and the selection and estimation of its dimensions and the control surfaces is a crucial step in the design process as it would affect the performance and stability of the aircraft.

We can start designing the wing by the assumed value of our aspect ratio and the span area obtained from the wing loading value.

First we will select the type of wing for our aircraft. We have already discussed the effects of wing shapes and their positions in the airplane in the literature study. So, from that we are selecting a swept back dihedral tapered low wing. Now, let us proceed with the wing calculations.

From the wing loading value,

Calculation of wing dimensions Wing area

S = W0/ (W/S) S = 16112.77/358.228 = 44.9791 m2

46

b = sqrt(44.9791*9) = 20.1199 m

Therefore, the wingspan obtained by wing loading is b = 20.1199 m. If ct be the tip chord and cr be the root chord and taper ratio be = ct/cr

For most of the commercial aircrafts, a taper ratio of 0.3 is taken

cr = 2*44.9791/ ((1+0.3)*20.1199)
Root chord = 3.439 m

Tip chord = 1.0318 m (where tip chord = 0.3*root chord)

The thickness of the wing at the root (NACA 23021) = 3.439*0.21 = 0.722 m The thickness of the wing at the tip (NACA 23012) = 1.0318*0.12 = 0.124 m

47

To find mean aerodynamic chord

Y = (20.1199/6)*((1+2*0.3)/(1+0.3))

Y = 4.127 m

C = (2*3.439/3)*((1+0.3+0.32)/ (1+0.3)) = 2.4514 m

The mean aerodynamic chord has a value of 2.4514 m at a distance of 4.127 m from the root.

Dihedral and sweep back effect

The dihedral and sweep back can be seen in almost all of the heavy aircrafts. The dihedral improves the lateral stability of the aircraft and the sweep back of the wings allows the wing to have a critical mach number higher than that of a relatively straight wing.

Busemann, a German aerodynamicist, proposed the concept of swept wing. The main reason for applying wing sweep is to increase the drag rise or drag divergence Mach number and consequently, the critical Mach number. However, the wing sweep also affects other aerodynamic parameters like the lift slope curve. In swept wings, the pressure distribution is due to the effective velocity component perpendicular to the wing and not the freestream velocity. Therefore, the components like lift drag etc have to be calculated in terms of this effective velocity instead of the freestream velocity. This gives us the following relationships, 48

Me = Mscos CPe = CPs /cos2 CLe = CLs /cos2 e = s /cos (Z/C)e = (Z/C)s / cos Where e stands for effective and s stands for streamwise and is the sweep angle. From the above relations we can see that sweep decreases the lift coefficient. Therefore, an aircraft with sweep has to be careful during low speed regimes and would probably require high lift device to take off and land satisfactorily. Another disadvantage of swept wings is their characteristic tip stall behavior because of the outboard spanwise flow causing the boundary layer to thicken as it approaches the tips.

There are several ways of preventing tip stall on swept wings. Most measures, such as shark or dog teeth (local leading-edge extensions), saw cuts or leading edge boundary layer fences create at high angles-of-attack a streamwise vortex such that the boundary-layer cross flow on the inboard wing is swept inboard thus relieving the boundary layer on the outer wing.

The oldest device for preventing tip stall is a vertical plate fitted on the wing upper surface in a streamwise direction thus forming a physical barrier for the boundary-layer cross flow, the full-chord fence.

A disadvantage of wing fences is the increase in drag. For this reason on modern aircraft wing fences are only applied when at a late stage in the development or during flight testing stalling characteristics are found to be unsatisfactory.

In swept back wings the wingtips are located behind the centre of gravity. Therefore, any loss of lift in the wingtips causes the centre of pressure to move forwards. This in turn will cause the airplane nose to come up and consequently the angle of attack will be 49

increased that results in loss of control. Therefore, the useful lift coefficient actually decreases with increasing sweep angle. This can be avoided by use of stall fences which prevents outboard spanwise flow. Therefore, keeping in mind the above restrictions, we are selecting a sweep angle of 250

Wing dihedral improves the lateral stability of the aircraft. Dihedral is the upward angle of wing along the span against the horizon. Due to the dihedral effect, if the airplane goes into a roll because of a gust or some aileron input, a restoring force will be generated which tends to bring the aircraft back to the steady level position. Another stabilizing effect is that though the airplane is steadied after gust or aileron movement but due to inertia, the airplane continues to rotate. Under this condition, the up going wing has decreased angle of attack and the down going wing has increased angle of attack that generates a restoring force inducing counter rotation that brings the aircraft back to steady level flight. This counter rotational force ceases after steady level condition is achieved. However, every good thing has something bad associated with it. Too much dihedral results in a characteristic movement called Dutch roll. Therefore, keeping in mind the limitations, we are selecting a wing dihedral angle of =30

The contributions of both dihedral and sweepback of the wing are enhanced if the center of lift of each wing is far out along the wingspan.

Along with these, we are adding a small winglet at the wingtips in order to reduce the wingtip vortices. For the horizontal tail, we are selecting a sweepback of 300 and a dihedral of 50. For the vertical tail, we are selecting a sweepback of 450

Selection of control surfaces

The primary control surfaces aileron, elevator and rudder are essential for stability and control. Besides the primary control surfaces, there are secondary and auxiliary control surfaces. Some of them are slats, slots, flaps, spoilers, trim tabs, spring tabs etc. 50

We have already selected a plain flap for our aircraft. Flaps are high lift devices to increase the lift during takeoff and landing. Spoilers are used to increase the drag to slow down for landing or to overcome over speeding. There are two types of spoilers. Flight spoilers and ground spoilers. The ground spoilers are automatically deflected up after touch down if they had been engaged by the pilot.

The tabs are auxiliary control surfaces that help in the movement of primary control surfaces. The tabs are deflected opposite to the direction of movement of the control surface so that the wind incident on it would produce a force that aids in the movement of the control surface in the intended direction.

51

Finally, the control surfaces that we have selected for our aircraft are, Aileron Elevator Rudder Plain flap Spoilers Trim tabs

Conclusion
Thus, the wing, tail and control surfaces were selected and the wing dimensions were estimated.

52

Ex No. 9

ESTIMATION OF WING LOADING

24:02:11

Aim
To estimate the value of wing loading for the airplane design based on stall velocity and landing distance constraints.

Introduction
Wing loading plays an important role in aircraft performance. The related parameters such as wingspan and chord calculations are based on the value of wing loading. The wing loading for most of the airplanes is determined by the considerations of Vstall and landing distance. The Vmax of an airplane increases as W/S increases. We are considering Vstall and landing distance as our primary constraints. First, let us consider the constraint imposed by stall velocity. This can be given by the relation,

The above equation can be rewritten as

From our requirements, the stalling velocity is not to Exceed 50 ms-1 W/S = 0.5*1.225*502*2.295 W/S = 3514.219 N/m2 W/S = 358.228 kg/m2 53

This is the value of wing loading constrained by stall velocity.

Now, let us examine the constraints imposed by landing distance.

Total landing distance = approach distance + flare distance + ground roll

SLD = Sa + Sf + Sg

For commercial airplanes, Approach velocity Va = 1.3Vstall 54

Touchdown velocity VTD = 1.15Vstall Flare velocity occurs between approach and touchdown velocity. Therefore, it is acceptable to consider flare velocity as an average of touchdown and approach velocities. Flare velocity Vf = Va + VTD Vf = 1.3Vstall + 1.15Vstall Vf = 1.23Vstall Vf = 1.23*50 = 61.5 ms-1 Flight path radius during flare is given by,

During landing velocity is flare velocity and the load factor has an approximate value of n = 1.2

R = 61.52/ (0.2*9.81)

R = 1927.75 m

Flare height

55

For most commercial airplanes, the approach angle a = 30 hf = 1927.75*(1-cos30) Flare height = 2.642 m

Approach distance
The approach distance required to clear a 50 ft obstacle is

Sa = (15.24-2.642)/tan30 Sa = 240.386 m

Flare distance

Sf = 1927.75*sin30 Sf = 100.89 m From our specifications, the total landing distance is not to exceed 1000 m Sa + Sf + Sg = 1000 m Sg = 1000 100.89 240.386 56

 Sg = 658.724 m However, Sg can also be found out using the equation,

For commercial airplanes, the value of j is taken as 1.15. N is the time increment for free roll immediately after touchdown and it is taken as 3 s. r is the coefficient of friction of the runway. Assuming a concrete runway that has a friction coefficient of 0.4. We have, Sg = 1.15*3*(2*W/S/(1.225*2.295))1/2 + 1.152W/S/(9.81*2.295*1.225*0.4) Sg = 2.91sqrt(W/S) + 0.1199 W/S

Solving this equation, we have, W/S = 3965.57 N/m2 W/S = 404.237 kg/m2

Clearly, if the wing loading is less than 404.237, the landing distance will be less than 1000 m. therefore, the wing loading obtained by the stall velocity as constraint is considered as the wing loading of complete airplane as it is lesser than 404.237 kg/m2 Therefore the wing loading W/S = 358.228 kg/m2

57

Result
Thus, the value of wing loading constrained by stall velocity and landing distance was found out, = 358.228 kg/m2

Wing loading constrained by stall velocity

Wing loading constrained by landing distance = 404.237 kg/m2

58

Ex No. 10

ESTIMATION OF THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

03:03:11

Aim
To estimate the value of thrust to weight ratio for the airplane design

Introduction
Like the wing loading, the thrust to weight ratio also plays an important role in affecting the performance of the airplane. It is the ratio of instantaneous thrust to weight. It is used as a figure of merit for quantitative comparison of engine or vehicle design. The value of T/W ratio determines in part the take off distance, rate of climb and maximum velocity. First, let us consider the take off distance that is taken as 800 m in our requirements.

Total take off distance = ground roll + airborne distance

Sg = 1.21*358.228*9.81/ (9.81*1.225*1.935*(T/W)) Sg = 182.864/ (T/W)

Vstall = sqrt (2*3514.219/ (1.225*1.935)) Vstall = 54.45 ms-1

59

Radius of path during lift off

Where velocity is equal to 1.15Vstall and the load factor of n = 1.19 R = 6.69*54.452/9.81

R = 2103.627 m

Included flight path angle

= cos-1(1-15.24/2103.627) OB = 6.9010

The airborne distance

Sa = 2103.627sin 6.9010 Sa = 252.757 m Sg + Sa = 800 Sg = 800-252.757 = 547.243 m 182.664/(T/W) = 547.243 60

 T/W = 0.3341

This is the value of thrust required at a velocity of

V = 0.7VLO = 0.7(1.1Vstall) V = 0.7(1.1*54.45) = 41.927 V = 41.927 ms-1 or 93.79 mph or 137.55 fts-1 At this velocity, the power required is,

PR = TV = (T/W)*W0*V = 0.3341*16112.77*9.81*41.927 PR = 2.215*106 watt or 2.215 MW Power = 2.215*106/746 = 3711.4611 hp

Result
The value of thrust to weight ratio was estimated.

Thrust to weight ratio = 0.3341 Power required = 2.215 MW = 3711.4611 hp

61

Ex No. 11

POWERPLANT SELECTION

10:03:11

Aim
To select a powerplant that seems to meet the aircrafts requirements.

Introduction
Selection of powerplant is an important step in design process because one has to compromise with weight of the engine, thrust provided by it, TSFC etc. different types of powerplants are available, Turbojet Turboprop Turbofan Ramjet Turbojet aircraft was the earliest form of jet engine. It can be classified into two types based upon the type o compressor used Axial flow compressor Centrifugal flow compressor Though the turbojet engine has certain advantages like easy construction, weight and size, it also has disadvantages like low efficiency and disturbing noise of high dB.

Turboprop is a combination of the propeller and the jet engine. It has good advantage of efficiency but has altitude and speed limitations due to the propeller effects. It is better suited for medium altitude and medium speed cruise.

Turbofan is a modified form of jet engine. It has a comparatively large fan attached ahead of the compressor. A turbofan engine has two types of thrust like the turboprop engine, fan (propeller) thrust and jet thrust. There are two flows in a turbofan engine. The outer flow or cold flow and the inner or core or hot flow. The ratio of mass flow rate of outer flow to that of core or inner flow is known as the bypass ratio. Based on this parameter, the turbofan engines can be classified as, 62

 Low bypass turbofan Medium bypass turbofan High bypass turbofan

Higher the bypass ratio, higher the propulsive efficiency. This is the reason why most transport and business aircrafts utilize high bypass turbofan engines. The TSFC of a turbofan engine is almost half of that of a conventional turbojet engine.

Keeping in mind the above data we have selected Rolls Royce AE3007 turbofan engines. It is the most suited engine to meet our specifications.

ROLLS ROYCE AE3007 TURBOFAN ENGINE

63

Specifications

Description Thrust Bypass ratio Fan diameter Length Weight Inlet mass flow

Specification 8900 lb or 39.6 kN 4.8 38.5 in or 0.9779 m 115.1 in or 2.923 m 1586 lb or 719.397 kg 240-280 lbs-1 108.86-127 kgs-1

Stages Overall pressure ratio

Fan ; 14 HPC ; 2 HPT ; 3LPT 18-20:1

Turbine inlet temperature 994 0C

Conclusion
The powerplant with appropriate requirements was selected.

64

Ex No. 12

PERFORMANCE CURVES

17:03:11

Aim
To draw the performance curves for the design.

Introduction
The performance parameters that are so far discussed are tabulated and the curves are plotted to correlate the stability and performance control that will be discussed in our future calculation.

The performance curves are Cl vs. Cd V vs. L/D V vs. Treq V vs. Tav V vs. T V vs. Preq V vs. Pav V vs. P V vs. R/C

Estimation of CL value CL = 2W/(*S*V2) 2*16112.77*9.81/(1.225*44.9791*502) = 2.295

Estimation of CD value CD = CD,0 + KCL2 where CD,0 0.02 and K = 1/(AR*e*) = 1/(9*0.8*) = 0.0442 0.02 + 0.0442*2.2952 = 0.2529

65

Vinf 50 60 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

Cl 2.295 1.5937 1.02 0.5737 0.3672 0.255 0.1873 0.1434 0.1133 0.0918

Cd 0.2529 0.1323 0.066 0.0346 0.026 0.0229 0.0216 0.0209 0.0206 0.0204

L/D 9.076 12.05 15.46 16.6 14.14 11.15 8.693 6.86 5.51 4.506

Drag Polar Cl vs Cd
0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 Cd

66

V vs L/D
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 L/D

Estimation of Treq Treq = 0.5**V2*S*CD = 0.5*1.225*252*44.9791*0.2529 17415.18 N

Estimation of Preq Preq = Treq*V 17415.18*50 = 870759.242 W

Vinf 50 60 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 Treq 17415.18 13120.87 10227.21 9519.365 11175.31 14179.33 18183.39 23042.12 28686.06 35078.63 Preq 870759.242 787252.194 767040.58 951936.472 1396914.11 2126899.66 3182093.33 4608423.05 6454362.41 8769657.86

67

V vs Treq
40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Treq

V vs Preq
16000000 14000000 12000000 10000000 8000000 6000000 4000000 2000000 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Preq

Estimation of Tav Tav = 72000 N

Estimation of Pav Pav = Tav*V = 72000*50 = 3600000 W = 3.6 MW

68

Vinf 50 60 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

Tav 72000 72000 72000 72000 72000 72000 72000 72000 72000 72000

Pav 3600000 4320000 5400000 7200000 9000000 10800000 12600000 14400000 16200000 18000000

V vs Tav
80000 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Tav

V vs Pav
20000000 18000000 16000000 14000000 12000000 10000000 8000000 6000000 4000000 2000000 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Pav

69

120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Treq Tav

V vs T
25000000

20000000

15000000 Preq 10000000 Pav

5000000

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

V vs P

Rate of climb R/C = (Pav-Preq)/W0 (3600000-870759.242)/(16112.77*9.81) = 17.266

70

Vinf 50 60 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250

Preq 870759.242 787252.194 767040.58 951936.472 1396914.11 2126899.66 3182093.33 4608423.05 6454362.41 8769657.86

Pav 3600000 4320000 5400000 7200000 9000000 10800000 12600000 14400000 16200000 18000000

R/C 17.26643322 22.34978862 29.31023369 39.52812565 48.10062081 54.87002466 59.58201232 61.94602253 61.65538897 58.3953928

V vs R/C
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 -10 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 R/C

Conclusion
Thus, the performance curves were plotted.

71

Ex No. 13

THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

24:03:11

Aim
To draw the three view diagram of the design aircraft.

The three view diagram is nothing but the result or outcome of the conceptual design process. The configuration or layout helps in proceeding to the next level in design process i.e. the preliminary design and then over to the detailed design.

Conclusion
This three-view diagram is the outcome of the conceptual design process.

72

CONCLUSION
The design of the selected aircraft long range business jet was done in a step by step method sticking to the basic rules. Calculations were performed with respect to data and formulae obtained from available design books. Some problems aroused during the process. However, they were solved by good teamwork. The conceptual design done in this project meets the initial requirements that were set by us.. It also helped us to understand some basic things about the aircraft and its design. We saw how the weight of an aircraft plays an important role in the design process. All the other following parameters vary with weight. The estimation of weight was a very crucial step and was also interesting. Then followed by the selection of an appropriate airfoil and estimating the lift that could be obtained using it. Then the estimation of some critical performance parameters to finalize the conceptual design process and selection of an appropriate powerplant. Finally, it ended with the three view diagram. We would like to conclude saying that the experience that we got during the process will be helpful and the moments will always be remembered by us.

73

REFERENCES

Books
Aircraft Performance and Design by John D. Anderson Jr, Tata McGraw Hill Edition 2010 Aircraft Design, a conceptual Approach by Daniel P Raymer, AIAA Education series 2nd edition Airplane Design by Dr. Jan Roskam, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corporation, 1985 Design of the Aeroplane by Darrol Stinton, BSP Professional Books Introduction to Flight by John D. Anderson Jr, Tata McGraw Hill Edition 2009 Airplane Aerodynamics and Performance by Dr. Jan Roskam & Dr. Chuan Tau Edward Lan, DAR Corporation 1997 Theory of Wing Sections by Ira H. Abott & Albert E. Von Doenhoff, Dover Publications 1959

Internet
Wikipedia Google Rolls Royce

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