Module 1m.3 B1B2 Rev 00

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY
MODULE 1 SUB MODULE 1.3 GEOMETRY
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1.3 For Training Purposes Only
Table of contents
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Table of contents
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Geometry Introduction .................................................... 1 Definitions ....................................................................... 2 Symbols used in geometry.............................................. 9 Postulates and corollaries ............................................. 10 Simple geometrical constructions ................................. 11 Drawing a perpendicular from a point to a line ... 12 Driving a straight line into number of equal Parts ................................................................. 12 Bisecting an angle .............................................. 13 Duplicate a given angle ...................................... 13 Duplicate a given triangle ................................... 14 Angle relationships ............................................. 15 Parallel lines....................................................... 16 Triangles ............................................................ 17 Right Triangles ................................................... 18 Parallelograms ................................................... 18 Polygons ............................................................ 19 Rules of polygon ................................................ 19 Circles ................................................................ 20
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Rules of circles ...................................................20 Graphical representations .............................................23 Graphs................................................................25 Nature and use of graphs ..............................................26 Graphs of equations/functions.......................................27 Circular graphs ...................................................28 Nomographs .......................................................28 Trigonometry .................................................................29 Solution of right triangles ....................................31 Functions as lines ...............................................33 Changes in values of functions...........................34 Trigonometrical relationships.........................................35 Functions of particular angles.............................36 The laws of functions .........................................37 Functions of angles greater than 900 ................38 Cartesian and polar coordinates...................................39 Cartesian coordinates.........................................39 Polar coordinates................................................40
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The training notes and diagrams are compiled by SriLankan Technical Training and although comprehensive in detail, they are intended for use only with a Course of instruction. When compiled, they are as up to date as possible, and amendments to the training notes and diagrams will NOT be issued.
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GEOMETRY
INTRODUCTION The word geometry is derived from geo, a Greek word meaning earth, and metria, meaning measurement. Ancient Egyptians were perhaps the first people to study geometry. They were mainly concerned with problems of finding areas of rectangular figures. Later Babylonians also studied the problems of finding areas of various rectilinear figures. Both the Egyptians and Babylonians used geometry for practical purposes. However, they did not develop it as a systematic science. It is desirable to tell the importance of the study of geometry. Primarily geometry teaches you how to reason. The habit of correct thinking acquired in its study is beneficial to all. By its study you will be able to converse more logically and read with a greater understanding. So we may say that geometry literally means the measurement of the earth or land. Actually, geometry deals with the measurement of areas, volumes, and distances, so the name, geometry, is descriptive of the mathematical science, which it denotes. There are two general types of geometry: that dealing with plane surfaces, called plane geometry, and that dealing with three-dimensional objects, called solid geometry. Plane geometry is further divided into Theoretical geometry consisting of theorems and Practical geometry consisting of problems. Any separate geometrical operation, whether a discussion or a construction, is called a proposition. A theorem is a proposition in which a geometrical fact is proved by methodical reasoning. A problem is a proposition in which a geometrical figure is to be actually constructed. In this section we shall not enter into the details of plane or solid geometry. However, we shall examine the fundamentals, of each.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS DEFINITIONS The study of geometry requires the use of many terms, which are not used in everyday conversation, so it is necessary that we become familiar ii with these terms .For this purpose have presented a number of definitions for common geometric terms. Point: A point is that which has no length, breadth, or thickness but has only position. Point Line: A line has no breadth or thickness but has length. Surface:
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY A surface has no thickness but has length and breath.
Surface Plane or plane surface: A plane or plane surface may be defined in several ways as follows: A surface such that a straight line that joins any two of its points lie wholly in that surface. A two-dimensional extent of zero curvature. A surface any intersection, of which by a like surface is a straight line.
Line
Straight Line: A line having the same direction throughout its length, if a portion of straight line is placed so that both ends fall within the ends of the remaining part, the portion must lie wholly within the line. Straight Line
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Solid: A solid, in the geometric sense, is that which has three dimensions, that is, length, breadth, and thickness.
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY Broken Line: A line consisting of a number of different segments of straight lines.
Broken Line Angle: Solid Equal Lines: Two lines are equal if, when placed one upon the other, all corresponding points coincide. Angle An angle is the opening between two straight lines drawn .in different directions from the same.
Equal Lines Curved Line: A line which continuously change direction.
Right Angle: 90.
An angle which is one-fourth of a circle, that is,
Right Angle Curved Line
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Acute Angle: An angle which is less than a right angle. Vertex
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY Reflex Angle: It is any angle that is larger than a straight angle
Acute angle Vertex of an Angle: The common point from which the two sides of an angle proceed Reflex Angles Bisector: A bisector is a point, line, or surface, which divides a magnitude into two equal parts. Bisector
Obtuse Angle Obtuse Angle: An angle, which is more than a right angle but less than a straight angle Straight Angle: An Angle of whose sides from a straight line, that is, an angle of 180 180 Straight Angle Rev. 00 Oct 2006 1.3 Adjacent Angles
Adjacent Angles: Two angles having a common side and the same vertex.
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Vertical Angles: Two angles with the same vertex and with sides that are prolongations of the sides of each other. Circle:
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY A closed curve all portions of which are in the same plane and equidistant from the same point. Chord
Radius Arc Diameter Sector
Vertical Angles Circle Perpendicular Line: Straight line, which makes a 90 with another straight line and is perpendicular to the line.
Circumference
Diameter: Radius:
The length of a line passing through the center of a circle and limited at each end by the circle. A straight line from the center of circle to the circle perimeter. The radius is equal to one-half the diameter.
Perpendicular Line
Circumference Length of the imaginary line enclosing the area of the circle 90 90 Arc: Sector: Chord. Any portion of a circle. The area within a circle bounded by two radii and the arc connecting the ends of the radii. A straight line within a circle connecting two points on the circle.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Parallel Lines. Lines in the same plane, which can never intersect no matter, how far they are extended.
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY Obtuse Triangle. A triangle having one angle greater than 90.
Parallel Lines Acute Triangle.
Obtuse Triangle
Triangle.
A plane bounded by three straight sides.
A triangle having all angles less than 90.
Triangle.
Acute Triangle
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Right Triangle. A triangle having one angle equal to 90. Scalene Triangle.
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY A triangle which has no two sides equal.
90 Right Triangle Scalene Triangle Equilateral Triangle. A triangle in which all sides are equal. Isosceles Triangle. A triangle having two equal sides.
Isosceles Triangle
Equilateral Triangle
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Square. A plane figure bounded by four equal sides and having four right angles. 90 90
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY Trapezium. A four-sided plane figure with two parallel sides and two sides which are not parallel.
90 Square
90 Rectangle.
Trapezium A four-sided plane figure having four right angles. 90 90
Parallelogram. A four-sided plane figure whose opposite sides are equal and parallel.
90 Parallelogram. Rectangle
90
Additional terms are also used in geometry; however, above illustration and terms used will provide a basis for continuing with a study of the principles of geometry. Rev. 00 Oct 2006
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS SYMBOLS USED IN GEOMETRY Certain symbols are used in geometry to indicate terms and relationships. The following listing gives the most commonly used symbols : = > < // Equality Is congruent to Is greater than Is less than Parallel Perpendicular Approximate (1Y) Angle Triangle Parallelogram Rectangle Circle Therefore Since AXIOMS
The proofs of geometrical propositions or theorems are based upon statements justified by reasons. We have already studied about axioms in our previous mathematics lessons. However, it is better to have some additional knowledge about axioms. Selfevident truths, called axioms, are used to justify or prove the statements. The most important axioms are the following: Equals added to equals give equal sums. When equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. When equals multiply equals, the products are equal. When equals divide equals, the quotients are equal. Things equal to the same thing are equal to each other. The whole is greater than any of its parts and is equal to the sum of its parts. Like. powers or like positive roots of equals are equal. Equals may be substituted for equals . Only one straight line can be drawn between two points . The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS POSTULATES AND COROLLARIES Following the axioms are other statements which are apparently true and which may be proved easily. These are called postulates or corollaries. Corollaries are usually based upon a statement previously proved. A postulate needs no proof because it is self-evident, however, it is a specific statement of geometrical fact rather than a general statement. Some commonly stated postulates are the following: Two angles are equal if they can be made to coincide. A geometric figure may be moved without altering its size: or shape. Straight angles are equal. Right angles are equal. , A circle may be described with any point as its center and any line as a radius.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS BISECT A STRAIGHT LINE.
SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS

It is possible with a compass, a ruler, and a protractor to construct many geometrical figures, which accurately fulfill their definitions or descriptions. In most cases the protractor is not needed. But it should be remembered that to make complex engineering drawings we need to have sophisticated devices such as drawing boards, Engineers rulers, different types of papers etc. Knowledge of simple geometric constructions will be a great assistance for a beginner of engineering drawings. Under this lesson we will study the methods of dividing line into given number of equal parts, bisecting lines and angles, drawing lines perpendicular to lines, copying angles and triangles.
The straight line given is ab. To bisect the given line, adjust the compass so that it spans a greater distance than one-half the length of the line. Place the point of the compass on A and strike an arc CDE as shown. Without altering the adjustment of the compass, using B as a center, strike a second arc FGH. Connect the points J and K with a straight line. The line JK bisects the given line AB . C Bisector F J
K E H
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS DRAWING A PERPENDICULAR FROM A POINT TO A LINE In this case we are going to draw a perpendicular to a line from a given point. The point given is P and the straight line is AB. From the point P use the compass to strike arcs at A and B, using the same radius in each case. Then from the points A and B, maintaining the adjustment of the compass, strike intersecting arcs at C. Connect the points P and C with a straight line. The line PC is perpendicular to AB. P
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY DIVIDING A STRAIGHT LINE INTO NUMBER OF EQUAL PARTS. Let the line to be divided be AB. Assume that we need to divide AB into 5 equal parts. Draw another line from A or B. Divide the second line in to 5 equal parts using the compass. This can be done by setting the compass to a fixed length and marking this set distance along the line. Then connect the open end of AB to the last marked point on the second line. After that draw lines parallel to the connecting lines starting from the other marked points to meet AB. C t s r q B A p B
90
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BISECTING AN ANGLE Let the angle given be AOB. Place the point of a compass at O and strike arcs at A and B so that OA = OB. From the points A and B strike intersecting arcs with the same radius. Mark the point of intersection of these arcs as C. Draw the line OC. OC is then the bisector of the angle.
DUPLICATE A GIVEN ANGLE. Let the given angle be ACB. Draw a line and mark it DX. Strike an arc AB having C as the center. Taking D as the center and CB as the distance, draw an arc DE using the radius AC. Using the distance AB as a radius and E as the center, strike an arc to intersect the previous arc. Mark the intersecting point of the arcs as F. Connect D and F. Angle ACB = angle FDE.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS DUPLICATE A GIVEN TRIANGLE Let the given triangle be ABC. Draw a straight line DX. Using AB as a radius and D as the center, draw an arc cutting DX at E. Using AC as a radius and D as a center, draw an arc in the vicinity of F. Using CB as the radius and B as a center, draw an arc to intersect the other arc at F. Draw the lines DF and EF. DEF is the duplicate triangle.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS ANGLE RELATIONSHIPS . There are various specific relationships among angles, which should be observed and understood. Some of these are given in the following statements: When the sum of two angles is 90, the angles are said to be complementary, or complements of each other When the sum of the angles is 180, the angles are said to be supplementary or supplements of each other. When two straight lines cross each other, vertical angles are formed and the vertical angles are equal. When a straight line meets another, supplementary angles are formed. Complements of an angle are equal Supplements of an angle are equal
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS PARALLEL LINES As previously explained, parallel lines are lines in the same plane, which cannot meet, no matter how far they are extended. A straight line, which cuts across a pair of parallel lines, is called a transversal. The transversal makes angles with the parallel lines as shown below a b c d e f g h
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY When parallel lines are cut by a transversal as shown in the diagram, Alternate interior angles are equal. Alternate exterior angles are equal. Corresponding angles are equal. Exterior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary. Interior angles on the same side of the transversal are supplementary. If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they are parallel to each other. Through a given point only one line can be drawn parallel to another. If two straight lines in the same plane cannot intersect, regardless of how far they are extended, they are parallel. Two intersecting lines cannot both be parallel to a third line. A straight line perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is also perpendicular to the other.
A few other facts concerning parallel lines are as follows
In the foregoing diagram the angles are named according to their position in the diagram. Angles a,b,g, and h are called exterior angles. Angles c,d,e, and f are called interior angles. The pairs of angles a and h, and b and g are called alternate exterior angles. The pairs of angles c and f, and e and d are called alternate interior angles The pairs a and e, b and f, c and g, d and h are called corresponding angles, or they may be referred to as interior-exterior angles. 17 For Training Purposes Only
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS TRIANGLES According to their construction and dimensions, triangles have certain relationships with one another. The conditions of congruency are particularly important to remember. These may be stated as below. If two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal respectively to two angles and the included, side of another triangle, the triangles are congruent. That is, they are identical in size and shape. A D B C
If three sides of one triangle are equal respectively to three sides of another triangle, the triangles are congruent. A D
E F The angles opposite the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are equal. On the other hand if two angles of a triangle are equal, the triangle is isosceles. A
B C E F If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal respectively to two sides and the included angle of another triangle, the triangles are congruent A D
B C E F Rev. 00 Oct 2006 18 For Training Purposes Only
Also it should be remembered that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to 180
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS RIGHT TRIANGLES Theorems relating to right triangles are similar to those for other triangles. However, the fact that the right angles are equal makes it possible to determine congruency with fewer given parts. Some of the theorem (rules) for right triangles are given below: If two right triangles have one side and one angle equal respectively, they are congruent. If the two sides adjacent to the right angles in two right triangles are equal, the triangles are congruent. The square of the hypotenuse in a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides (the Pythagorean theorem). A Opposite side B Base (AC)2 = (AB)2 +(AC)2 C D Diagonal Hypotenuse PARALLELOGRAMS
As previously explained, a parallelogram is a four-sided figure (quadrilateral) whose opposite sides are parallel. The most important rules pertaining to parallelograms are stated below. The opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal, and consecutive angles are supplementary. A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if the opposite sides are equal. A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if two of the opposite sides are equal and parallel. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. Parallelograms are congruent if two adjacent sides and the included angle are equal. A B
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS POLYGONS A polygon is a plane, closed figure bounded by straight lines joined end to end. Hence, a polygon may have any number of sides from three upward. Polygons are given names descriptive of their characteristic number of sides. A four-sided figure is a quadrilateral, a five-sided figure is a pentagon, a six-sided figure is a hexagon, a seven-sided figure is a heptagon etc. A regular polygon has all sides and angles equal. RULES OF POLYGON
The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to 180 times the number of sides less two. Thus if a polygon has n number of sides the sum of interior angles are 180 (n-2) Hence for a pentagon the sum of interior angles is 180 (5-2) = 180x3 = 540
B a A
b C c When a regular polygon has n sides, each interior angle is equal to:
2(n 2) x90 where n = the number of sides. n
e E d
If the sides of a polygon are extended consecutively in the same direction, the sum of the exterior angles thus formed will be equal to 360 .
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS CIRCLES A circle is a closed curve such that all points on the curve are equidistant from a fixed point within the circle. RULES FOR CIRCLES
In the same circle or in equal circles, equal central angles intercept equal arcs and equal arcs subtend equal central angles. X A
Lets see some useful terms related to circle. We have already discussed some of these terms at the beginning of this module A minor arc is one of less than 180. A major arc is one of more than 180. A semicircle is an arc of 180. A quadrant is a sector with an arc of 90. A chord is a straight line in a circle connecting two points on the circle. A tangent is a straight line of unlimited length, which has only one point in common with a circle. A secant is a straight line, which intersects a circle. An inscribed angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is on the circle. A central angle in a circle is an angle whose vertex is at the center of the circle. 21 For Training Purposes Only
All radii of the same circle or of equal circles are equal. In the same circle or equal circles, equal chords subtend equal arcs. A line perpendicular; to a chord and passing through the center of a circle bisects the chord and the arcs subtended by it
O A B
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS RULES FOR CIRCLES (Cont..) A line is tangent to a circle, if it is perpendicular to a radius at the point where the radius meets the circle.
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY If tangents are drawn from an external point to a circle; they are equal and make equal angles with the line joining the external point and the center of the circle. A
O 90 A
B One-half the intercepted arc measures an inscribed angle in a circle. A a C O 2a B
Through three points, which are not in a straight line, only one circle can be drawn.
O B A
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Any angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle. D C
In this case AB is a diameter which divide the circle into two halve. Angles ABC and ADB are inscribed angles in the semicircle. These angles are right angles.
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY Any point defining a given pair of related values is plotted with respect to the two axes. For example, consider the plotting of the following points. Point A defined by x = 4, y = 4 Move 4 units along the x-axis in the positive x direction (to the right from the origin); move 4 units in the positive y direction (upwards). The point corresponding to x = 4, y = 4 is marked in as A in the figure. Points are usually marked on the graph paper by a dot. A small circle may be drawn around the dot point to aid rapid recognition. Alternatively a small cross may be used. Y
7 6 5 Origin Y axis
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS
In this chapter we consider the ways of presenting numerical information in pictorial, diagrammatic and graphical forms. This subject is known generally as graphical representation. It provides in almost all cases a much clearer presentation of results and a much easier means of making assessments than can normally be gained from trying to shift through a mass of data. Graphs, charts, diagrams are extensively employed in both scientific and non-scientific disciplines from plotting experimental results to assessing a companys trading performance-from demonstrating the properties of a mathematical equation or formula to predicting energy requirements in the twenty-first century, from solving equations to representing medical statistics. A chart may be designed to provide almost any type of information. Charts are used to present pictorial data, numerical data, graphical data and various other types of information. Consider the figure below to explain the framework used to plot points in the graph. The pair of reference lines X'OX and Y'OY, which are drawn at right angles to each other, are known as axes. The horizontal reference line X'OX is known as the horizontal axis or the x-axis. The vertical reference line Y'OY is known as the vertical or y-axis. Appropriate scales are marked on these axes-it is up to us to decide the most suitable scale for each axis for the problem in hand. In the figure for simplicity, both the x and y-axes are marked at unit intervals to cover a range -7 through to +7. The zero point O at the intersection of the two axes corresponds to a point x = 0, y = 0. This point is known as the origin. Rev. 00 Oct 2006 24
(O)
4 3 2 1
X axis -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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7 6 5 4 3 2 1 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 -1 D -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 F -7
Y axis B
C 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X axis
Similarly any point like point A can be marked on the graph. So in this case we have marked point B (5, 6), point C (2,1), points D (-2,-2), point E (-3,-4), and point F (-7,-4). It should be understood that in this graph the dotted lines are shown fro clarity. They are normally not drawn. After marking the required points, they are connected by a line as it appear in the figure above. This line may be straight or a non-straight depending on the values we have selected.
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS GRAPHS The term graph is normally applied to the line, straight or curved, which defines the relationship between two or more quantities. A "conventional" graph is constructed by plotting a pair or number of related values as points on a piece of graph paper and then drawing a "smooth curve through the plotted points. In mathematics it is common practice to use x and y as the symbols to denote two sets of related values. In introducing graphs we will use x and y, but we could-and indeed will use other symbols most relevant to our particular problem. For example, if the speed or time of flight of an airplane changes, the distance traveled in a given time will change. This is illustrated in the graph in the next column. If any two of the variables are known, the approximate value of the other can be quickly determined. The dotted line indicates how distance is determined when speed and time are known. The value shown is 937.5 nautical miles.
1 2 3 4 5 4.5 4.0 3.5
DISTANCE NAUTICAL MILES X 100 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
3.0 2.5 2.O 1.5 1.0 0.5 1 2 3 TIME - HOURS 4 5
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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DISTANCE NAUTICAL MILES X 100
SPEED-KNOTS X 100
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS NATURE AND USE OF GRAPHS A broken-line graph or a bar graph is used to show comparative quantitative data. The broken-line graph is useful to show trends in quantitative data over a period of time. In the illustration below the broken-line graph and bar graph provide the same information. In this case, the graphs represent the number of engines completed in a large overhaul shop for each month during the year.
100 95 90 85 80 75
100 95 90 85 80 75
UNITS COMPLETED
70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
UNITS COMPLETED
70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN
MONTH
JUL
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Bar graph
MONTH
JUL
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Broken line graph Rev. 00 Oct 2006 27 For Training Purposes Only 1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS GRAPHS OF EQUATIONS/FUNCTIONS. Graphs are often used to solve mathematical problems. Equations with variables such as x and y can be plotted on a graph. It will provide a visual indication of the values of each variable as the other changes. Such a graph is shown below. The first equation plotted on this graphs is x + y = 8. We already know that when x is given a value of 0, y = 8. In the same manner, when y is given a value of 0, x = 8. It should be understood that when the equation is of first degree; that is the variables in the equation are of power 1, the line of the graph is a straight line. Therefore the line drawn between the plotted points provides all the values of x for any value of y and vice versa.
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY By using the graph, now we can find corresponding values of the variables in the equation. When the equation x y = 5 is plotted on the same graph, the line for the equation intersects the first line at a point where x = 6.5 and y = 1.5. These values satisfy both equations. It is apparent, then, that simultaneous equations can be solved graphically. For example simultaneous equations 2x+3y=6 and 4x+5y= 9 are solved graphically in the graph below. In the first equation, x = 0, y = 2, and when y = 0, x = 3 and in 4 the second equation, when x = 0, y = 1 or 1.8 and when y = 0, 5 1 X = 2 or 2.25. When the lines are plotted on the graph, they 4 intersect at a point where x = -1.5 and y = 3. These values satisfy both equations.
Y axis 5 6.5,1.5 X axis 3 4 5 6 7 8 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 X-Y=5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 1 2 3 4 5 6 X axis
8 7 Y axis 6 5 4 3 2 1 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 2
X+Y=8
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS CIRCULAR GRAPHS Circular or pie graphs are used often to indicate a distribution of money. For example, the circle graphs shown in Figure below indicate the distribution of the gross amount of money received by a general aviation agency during a year of operation. Each sector of the circle represents a quantity of money. NOMOGRAPHS
A nomograph, also called a monogram or alignment chart, is a calculating chart with scales that contain values of three of more variables. The distances between the lines and the scales on the lines are placed in such a manner that the user may employ a straightedge to line up two known values and obtain a third value. Nomographs are often used in computing horsepower problems, cruise-control problems, and similar problems involving three or more variables.
PROFITS 4.3% EQUIPMENT & OPERATION 1.5% MATERIALS & SUPPLIES 28.9% UTILITIES 4.5 TAXES 11.3%
WAGES & SALERIES 46 4%
LEASE 3.1%
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Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY In trigonometry the ratios of the sides of a right triangle to one another are given particular names. These are sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant. These ratios are called trigonometric functions and may be explained by the use of the triangle in figure below. B c
TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry is the branch of mathematics, which makes possible the solution of unknown parts of a triangle. When the values of certain angles and sides of a triangle are known, it is possible to determine the values of all the parts through the use of trigonometric processes. Trigonometric functions are based on the ratios of the sides of a right triangle to one another. In the diagram below, the right triangle ABC is superimposed on right triangle ABC with the angles at A coinciding. The lines B'C' and BC are parallel: hence the triangles are similar. In similar triangles the ratios of corresponding sides are equal and so AB/AC = AB /AC'. In like manner, the ratios of the other sides are also equal. Furthermore, any right triangle, which has an acute angle equal to A will have the same ratios as those for the triangles shown in the figure. B B
C b In the triangle ABC, side c is called the hypotenuse, side b is called the side adjacent to angle A, and side a is the side opposite to angle A. The functions of angle A are then as follows: The sine of angle A, called sin A, is
opposite a = hypotenous c
The cosine of angle A, called cos A, is
adjacent b = hypotenous c opposite a = adjacent b
The Tangent of angle A, called tan A, is
A C C
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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Also
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY In the same triangle, the functions of the angle B are the co functions of angle A. That is, sin B = cos A a C cos B =sin A tan B = cot A cot B = tan A sec B =cosec A cosec B = sec A These relationships can easily be shown by noting the sides adjacent to and opposite to angle B.
B c
adjacent b = The cotangent of angle A, called cot A, is opposite a

The secant of angle A, called sec A, is
hypotenous c = adjacent b hypotenous c = opposite a
The cosecant of angle A, called cosec A, is
The importance of the foregoing functions in the fact that a particular function always has the same value for the same angle. For example, sin 50 is always equal to 0.7660. This means that in a right triangle, which has an acute angle of 50, the sine of 50 will always be 0.7660 regardless of the size of the triangle. The table "Trigonometric Functions" in the Appendix of this book may be used to determine the values of the functions of any angle.
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1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS SOLUTION OF RIGHT TRIANGLES If any side and one of the acute angles of a right triangle are known, all the other values of the triangle may be determined. For example, if an acute angle of the right triangle is 35 and the side adjacent to this angle is 6 inches long, we may determine the other values as follows: B c
35
From table of functions we find cos 35 = 0.8192 Then:
b 6 = 0.8192 or = 0.8192 c c 6 = 7.32 0.8192
c= a C
b Sin 0.5736 0.5750 0.5764 0.5779 0.5793 0.5807 0.5821 0.5835 0.5850
From the table of functions we find tan 35 = 0.7002 Cos 0.8192 0.8181 0.8171 0.8161 0.8151 0.8141 0.8131 0.8121 0.8111 Tan 0.7002 0.7028 0.7054 0.7080 0.7107 0.7133 0.7159 0.7186 0.7212 Cose Then
a a = 0.7002 or = 0.7002 b 6
deg. Deg min 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 35.6 35.7 35.8 35.9 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
a = 4.2012 Since the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180, the other acute angle of the triangle is 55. The sides of the triangle are 4.2012, 6, and 7.32. We can verify those answers by the formula a2 + b2 = c2 , which shows that the square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the other two sides.
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1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS If the sides of a right triangle are known, the angles can also be determined. This is shown in the problem below. In this triangle ABC, side a = 8, b = 15, and c = 17. B a= 8 c= From the table of functions
0.4706 = sin 284' (approximately) Then angle A = 28 4 ' ( approximately)
Then sin A =
a 8 = = 0.4706 b 17
deg. Deg min 27.8 27.9 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 28.7 27 27 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 48 54 00 06 12 18 24 30 36
Sin 0.4664 0.4679 0.4695 0.4710 0.4726 0.4741 0.4756 0.4772 0.4787
Cos 0.8846 0.8838 0.8829 0.8821 0.8813 0.8805 0.8796 0.8788 0.8780 0.8771
Tan 0.5272 0.5295 0.5317 0.5339 0.5362 0.5384 0.5407 0.5430 0.5452
Cose
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1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS FUNCTIONS AS LINES The functions of a right triangle can be represented by a single straight line if we adopt a triangle with one side equal to unity. By employing a unit circle as shown in figure below, this method can be demonstrated. Y A X a O B C X
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY denominator is always equal to 1, we can represent each function by a single line. In the triangle ABO sin a = And
AB( Side _ opposite ) . AO( Hypotenous )
AB = AO sin a
Since AO is equal to 1, the sine of angle a is AB. Continuing with the same process and reasoning. Cos a =
OB AO
OB = AO cos a Since AO = 1 Cos a = OB. Similarly..
Tan a = Cot a =
CX = CX OX EY = EY OY
OC = OC OX
In the circle shown, diameters XX and YY are drawn with radii OY and OX and another radius, AO, all equal to 1. AB is then drawn from the end of the radius OA and perpendicular to OX. OA is extended to E, where it intersects the tangent (perpendicular) drawn to OY. CX is drawn tangent to the circle at X and perpendicular to OX. There are now three similar triangles: ABO, CXO and OYE. The angle designated a is the same in all three triangles. By arranging the functions so that the Rev. 00 Oct 2006
Sec a =
Cosec a =
OE = OE OY
1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS CHANGES IN VALUES OF FUNCTIONS If we study the unit circle shown in Figure below very carefully, we can visualize what will happen to each function as the angle a increases or decreases. Y A X a O B C X a E
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY The values of the functions as the angle changes from 0 to 90 are as follows. sin a, 0 to 1 cos a, 1 to 0 tan a 0 to cot a, to 0 sec a, 1 to cosec a, to 1
Y As angle a increases; Sin a will increase to I. Cos a will decrease to 0. Tan a will increase to infinity () Cot a will decrease to 0. Sec a will increase to infinity () Cosec a will decrease to 1
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1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS TRIGONOMETRICAL RELATIONSHIPS The relations between functions and co functions have already been shown .However, certain relationships exist among all the functions, and these should be understood. A b C c
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY FUNCTIONS OF PARTICULAR ANGLES The angles 30, 45 and 60 are particularly useful in the solution of triangles. Hence, it is well to become familiar with the numerical values of the functions of these angles. They are given on the following table: ANGLE Sine 30 1 2 45 1 60
2 1 2
1 1
3 2
1 2
Cosine Tangent
In the first discussion of functions, it was pointed out that sin A = a
3 2 1 3
and
3 1 3
2
cos A =. b Then
Co tangent Secant Co secant
Sin A a c a = c = = = tan A b Cos A c b b c

sin A = tan A cos A cos A = sin A cot A
2 3 2
2 2
In a similar manner it can be shown that
2 3
There are numerous other relationships which can be worked out and if it is desired and become thoroughly proficient in the use of trigonometry, a substantial amount of study and practice should be given to this type of work. Rev. 00 Oct 2006 36 For Training Purposes Only 1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS THE LAWS OF FUNCTIONS LAW OF SINES By appropriate proof it can be shown that in any triangle the sides, of the triangle are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles. This is known, as the law of sines and is most useful in solving triangles other than right triangles. A c B b B c THE LAW OF COSINES
The law of cosines is also useful in solving oblique triangles and may be stated thus: The square of any side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides diminished by twice the product of the other two sides and the cosine of the included angle. A b D a
The law of sines may be written a = c b = Sin A Sin B Sin C or and and
The law of cosines may also be written as BA2 = AC2 + BC2 2AC.BC.cos Or c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos
a Sin A = b Sin B
a Sin A = c Sin C
b Sin B = c Sin C
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1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS THE LAW OF TANGENTS The law of tangents is derived from the law of sines and is stated thus: The difference between two sides of a triangle is to their sum as the tangent of half the difference between the opposite angles is to the tangent of half their sum. A c B b
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY FUNCTIONS OF ANGLES GREATER THAN 90 It is obvious that in Oblique triangles there will be times when the functions of angles greater than 90 are needed. The following table gives the method for determining function values for such angles.
C 90
The law of tangents may be written
( A B) a b tan 2 = ( A B ) + a + b tan 2
sin (90 + ) = cos Cos (90 + ) = -sin Tan(90 + ) = -cot Cot (90 + ) = -tan For simplicity in computation it is best to work with angles of less than 90, and this is possible in most, cases.
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1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS CARTESIAN AND POLAR COORDINATES CARTESIAN COORDINATES Cartesian and polar coordinates are discussed with graphs of their type. First we concentrate on the conventional x -y or Cartesian coordinate (also known as rectangular coordinates) graph. This form of graph is one of the most common ways of presenting relationships and numerical information in graphical form. Cartesian coordinate graphs are extensively used in mathematics to illustrate equations and mathematical relationships; and in science and engineering to plot experimental results and to investigate the characteristics of such results. A "conventional" graph is constructed by plotting pairs of related values as points on a piece of graph paper and then drawing a "smooth curve through the plotted points. In mathematics it is common practice to use x and y as the symbols to denote two sets of related values. In introducing graphs we will use x and y, but we could-and indeed will use other symbols most relevant to our particular problem. We already know how to mark a point on a graph and define it as we have already studied the method of graph plotting. The system in which a point is located in a plane by specifying its distance from two axes drawn at right angles (that is, the x and y-axes) is known as the Cartesian system of coordinates. The values of x and y defining a point are known as cartesian coordinates.
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY The perpendicular distance of the point from the y-axis, that is the value of x, is known as the abscissa; the perpendicular distance of the point from the x-axis, the y value, is known as the ordinate.
Y- axis X(abscissa) P(x,y)
Y(ordinate)
X- axis
The mathematical convention used to indicate the coordinates of a point is (x, y), e.g. Point B, x= -3, y=5 is indicated by (-3, 5)
X value Y value (abscissa) (ordinate)
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1.3
CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS The various areas into which the x and y axes divide the graph plane are known as quadrants
Y
Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY POLAR COORDINATES. A second useful way of defining the position of a point is by means of polar coordinates, r and . The point P in figure below is defined by the radial distance r = OP from the origin O and the angle = POX, which is the angle the radial line makes with the x-axis. Plots made using polar coordinates are known as polar diagrams. Such diagrams are very useful in graphing certain forms of data.
Y r cos P(r sin , r cos )
+
1st quadrant (+,+)
2ndquadrant (-,+)
+ O
rd
r 3 quadrant (-,-) 4 quadrant (+,-)

th
r sin
O In the 1st quadrant x and y values are both positive (+, +) In the 2nd quadrant x values are negative, y values are positive ( -, + ) In the 3rd quadrant x values and y values are both negative (-, -) In the 4th quadrant x values are positive, y values are negative ( + , -)
The mathematical convention used to indicate the polar coordinates of a point is (r sin , r cos ), e.g. If the radius (r) of a Point B, is 3 units and angle () it makes with x axis is 30, then point B polar coordinates are 3 sin 30 and 3 cos 30
Rev. 00 Oct 2006
1.3

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CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

MODULE 1 SUB MODULE 1.3 GEOMETRY

Rev. 00 Oct 2006

1.3 For Training Purposes Only

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

Rev. 00 Oct 2006

1 For Training Purposes Only

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

Rev. 00 Oct 2006

2 For Training Purposes Only

Rev. 00 Oct 2006

3 For Training Purposes Only

Equal Lines Curved Line: A line which continuously change direction.

Right Angle: 90.

An angle which is one-fourth of a circle, that is,

Right Angle Curved Line

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4 For Training Purposes Only

5 For Training Purposes Only

Radius Arc Diameter Sector

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6 For Training Purposes Only

Parallel Lines Acute Triangle.

A plane bounded by three straight sides.

A triangle having all angles less than 90.

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7 For Training Purposes Only

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8 For Training Purposes Only

Trapezium A four-sided plane figure having four right angles. 90 90

9 For Training Purposes Only

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

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10 For Training Purposes Only

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

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11 For Training Purposes Only

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS BISECT A STRAIGHT LINE.

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

SIMPLE GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTIONS

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12 For Training Purposes Only

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13 For Training Purposes Only

CATEGORY B1/B2 MECHANICAL/AVIONICS

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

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14 For Training Purposes Only

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

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15 For Training Purposes Only

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

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16 For Training Purposes Only

A few other facts concerning parallel lines are as follows

Rev. 00 Oct 2006

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY

B C E F Rev. 00 Oct 2006 18 For Training Purposes Only

Module 1 MATHEMATICS Sub Module 1.3 GEOMETRY