COMP PACKET HistoryandSystems

HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY
KNOWLEDGE COMPETENCY EXAM REVIEW PACKET
History and Systems of Psychology
Part 1 of 1
February 2005

TABLE OF CONTENTS
The table of contents for this packet corresponds closely to the outline prepared by the faculty. The most recent version of that outline and the recommended readings for it may be obtained via the link in the upper portion of main COMPS web page in the portal. Please DO NOT use the outline on the OLD comps web page at http://www2.alliant.edu/sandiego/comps/. The material on that site is no longer current."
ABOUT THE COMPS AND THIS STUDY PACKET Please Note: The Faculty as a whole endorses the policy that each doctoral program in psychology should ensure knowledge in certain core content areas in psychology. Such knowledge enhances the breadth of students understanding of the field, and allows students to make connections between basic and applied areas of the discipline. The Knowledge Competency Examinations provide one way of assessing this knowledge. This outline provides an overview of the topic areas you should study to prepare for the Knowledge Competency Exam in History and Systems of Psychology. These areas define core knowledge bases with which you should be familiar to demonstrate basic graduate-level knowledge in this area. The exam will test your knowledge of concepts and their application, terminology, important and consistent research findings, and historical figures and their major contributions.
THIS REVIEW PACKET HAS BEEN PREPARED BY STUDENTS FOR STUDENTS

This packet was prepared by Katey and completed in February 2005. Edited by Kopitzee Parra-Thornton
This packet is designed to be an additional resource to help students study. This packet is not designed to be a comprehensive guide. Although the packet was prepared diligently and carefully, the reader is advised that the packet was prepared per a students interpretation of the topic headings of the outline. It is your responsibility to verify any information that seems incorrect to you. The inclusion of material in this packet has been decided by students with no input or review from faculty. For a complete list of all possible areas you are responsible for on the comprehensive exam, please see the outline designed by faculty available online at www.alliant.edu/sandiego/comps.
February 2005
RECOMMENDED READING LIST Original Materials: Classics in the History of Psychology On-line collection of dozens of historically influential psychological texts, and links to 100+ others, edited by Christopher D. Green, York University. The Web link is http://psychclassics.yorku.ca Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1992) A history of psychology in letters. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. General textbooks: Hothersall, David (1995). History of psychology (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Watson, R. I. & Evans, R. B. (1991) The great psychologists: A history of psychological thought (5th ed.). Harper Collins. Brennan, J. F. (2002). History and systems of psychology (6th ed.). Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Finger, S. (2000). Minds behind the brain: A history of the pioneers and their discoveries. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Gardner, H. (1987). The minds new science: A history of the cognitive revolution: with a new epilogue, cognitive science after 1984. New York, NY: Basic Books. Reisman, J. M. (1991). A history of clinical psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Hemisphere.
I) THE PRE-ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS A) The Greeks 1. Nativism- there is a hereditary basis for human characteristics & intelligence Socrates (469-399 BC) Philosopher who did not write anything down, his views were later recorded by his protg Plato Rationalist- believed in logic Dualist- believed mind & body are separate believed that some knowledge pre-exists when we are born believed the unexamined life was not worth living, and sought knowledge everywhere thought teachers should not try to implant truth, but rather facilitate learning by discovery. This approach of asking questions to help someone figure something out on his/her own became known as the Socratic Method of Inquiry. During Socrates time it was referred to as "dialectic, or logical argumentation" (Thorne & Henley p. 27) around this time Antiphon used the Socratic Method to treat people with grief, and was considered the first psychotherapist Plato (427-347 BC) wrote The Republic about a Utopian Society with a hierarchy Theory of "Forms"- you get knowledge through reasoning, sensations can be misleading and the purpose of perception is to remind us of what we already know; there are universal Ideals, or Forms, that underlie what we know through our senses and that these Forms can be realized only through rational, deductive, logical means "Learning to understand and appreciate the perfect Forms is a matter of anamnesis, or recollection of information we already possessPlato's belief that Truth and Knowledge are present in the soul before birth is an extreme nature position that lays the foundation for other philosophers such as Kant" (Thorne & Henley p.29) wanted to describe the world in mathematical principles, geometry & measurement believed the brain was the seat of all mental processes tripartite soul- consists of reason, spirit, and appetite; reason is rational, but spirit and appetite are irrational thought human qualities were localized to certain parts of the body: 1) reason in the head, 2) courage in the chest, 3) appetite in the abdomen Like Socrates, was a Rationalist, Dualist, and believed in pre-existing knowledge believed in deductive reasoning- going from a known to an unknown principle founded the Academy outside Athens, where philosophy and math were taught Observation & Induction: Aristotle (384-322 BC) believed mind & body are connected Empiricist- derived principles from careful observation, with a focus on data not logic; "believed that perception is a direct avenue to reality and that all concepts are derived from sense experience" (Thorne & Henley p.30) thought of the mind as a blank slate with no pre-existing knowledge believed the heart was the "psyche"- the seat of all mental processes developed the idea of psychological catharsis through the arts- such as by watching tragic drama, but was not the first to use the term
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believed that memory works through associations, which are comprised of similarity, contrast & contiguity believed repetition contributed to improving memory, and thought emotional memories were better remembered than unemotional ones had a theory of causes: 1) material (matter)- what something is made of, 2) formal (shape)- what it is, 3) efficient (how it came to be)- who or what made it, 4) final (purpose)- why it was made believed in teleology- explains things in terms of purpose/goals, "the idea that everything is directed toward a definite end and a final purpose" (Thorne & Henley p.32) used inductive reasoning- from a particular principle to a general one studied under Plato at the Academy founded a school called the Lyceum Atomism: Democritus (460-370 BC) Atomism = Materialism- there is only body, reality is physical the world is a mass of atoms in ceaseless motion the mind is a collection of atoms that can influence & be influenced by the external world the behavior of atoms follow certain laws which determine both physical and mental events determinist- all events are determined by prior causes perception occurs when objects in the external world emit beams of atoms which impinge on the mind Anatomy Galen (130-200 AD) believed that no part of the body was superfluous had a spiritual approach to anatomy thought that diseases of the soul arise from "passions"- anger, fear, grief, envy, lust thought "passions" were governed by an irrational power within us that refuses to obey reason thought self-knowledge could be achieved with the help of a mentor, and therapists would free the person of "passions" brain ventricles are the reservoir for animal spirits
b. Hippocrates (460-377 BC) Father of Medicine believed that all disease results from natural causes & nature allows the body to heal itself Thought there were 4 humors: 1) black bile, 2) yellow bile, 3) blood, 4) phlegm an imbalance in humors causes illness or disease C) 1. Renaissance Thinking Mind and Body: Descartes (1596-1650) Father of reflex psychology because he explained the reflex "as a stimulus-response process occurring through the nervous system" (Thorne & Henley p. 60); He also distinguished between automatic reflexes and learned reactions Rationalist- I think therefore I am; he relied on reasoning to gather knowledge rather than sensory experiences or experimentation thought of the body as material and machine-like, comparing nerves to tubes, muscles to engines, and tendons to springs He thought the mind was intangible/immaterial with both innate (makes him a nativist) & derived ideas. Innate ideas are a potential for a certain thought that can be brought out through experience. Derived ideas "come from environmental experiences and are stored in memory through an
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alteration of the nervous system." (Thorne & Henley p. 60) He was a dualist because he thought mind & body were separate, but was also an interactionist because he thought the mind could interact with and control the body...he thought the mind-body interaction happened in the brain's pineal gland was the first to describe the retinal image The Beginnings of Science Galileo (1564-1642) astronomer & mathematician supported Copernicus' view that the sun was the center of the universe lay the foundations for the modern scientific method differentiated between primary qualities (those inherent in matter, such as shape & quantity) and secondary qualities (those that result from the primary qualities impinging on a person's senses, such as color, smell & taste) Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered the universal nature of gravity developed physics through the analysis of light, discovered that white light is a mixture of all colors constructed first reflecting telescope refraction of light into its component colors was later used as a model for consciousness William Harvey (1578-1657) studied blood circulation; discovered that blood is the basis for life & that the heart functions as a pump showed that biological systems could be studied experimentally
Mind & Body Connected Aristotle
Mind & Body Separate Socrates Plato Descartes
Some Inborn Ideas Socrates Plato Descartes
Mind is Blank Slate Aristotle John Locke
VI)
ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHERS A. British Empiricism- knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and science flourishes through observation & experimentation 1. John Locke (1632-1704) the mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate), with no innate ideas People gain knowledge (ideas) through sensation & reflection. Sensation is comprised of the impressions we passively receive from our sense organs and then transmit to our minds. The impressions are simple ideas that cannot be broken down. Reflection is the perception of the mind's operations (such as "perception, thinking, doubting, believing, reasoning, knowing, willing" (Thorne & Henley p. 78)). The mind can use these operations to create simple ideas from reflection. Complex ideas are combinations of simple ideas of reflection and simple ideas of sensation. abstraction is the process of separating simple from complex ideas He "differentiated between primary and secondary qualities of objectsthe primary qualities were solidity, extension, figure, and mobility. Secondary qualities are 'qualities which in truth are nothing
in the objects themselves but powers to produce various sensations in us'examples include color, sound, taste, smell, and temperature" (Thorne & Henley p. 79) intuitive knowledge- when the mind perceives immediately whether two ideas agree or not demonstrative knowledge- when the mind uses other ideas to decide whether two ideas are in agreement sensitive knowledge- "knowledge of things received through our sense. Sensitive knowledge is less precise and verifiable than intuitive and demonstrative knowledge, which makes it difficult to be sure that things exist (Thorne & Henley p. 80)
2. George Berkeley (1685-1753) subjective idealism (immaterialism / mentalism)- all knowledge comes from experience & the existence of the world depends on perception "our perceptions of distance and objects are mental constructs," there are three cues to the perception of distance: interposition, relative size, and convergence (Thorne & Henley p. 82-83) the mind exists, but matter only exists because it is perceived"to be, is to be perceived" (Thorne & Henley p. 83) everything is perceived by God, and the world gets its permanence from God's infinite mind 3. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) epiphenomenalism- closely related to materialism- brain activity produces the mind as a byproduct. The mind does not influence the brain or behavior. all knowledge comes from the senses, there are no innate ideas believed "thought was a sequence of imaginations or memories, determined by laws of the association of ideasused contiguity to explain how one thought leads to another" (Thorne & Henley p. 75) "Leviathan" theory of human nature- people form groups for security, because human nature is essentially selfish and aggressive, but people give up the right of aggression to an absolute ruler in addition to being an empiricist he was a determinist, materialist, reductionist, nurturist B. Associationism (18th-19th Century) 1. David Hume (1711- 1776) pneumatic philosophy- the scientific study of mental life sensing is critical (I sense therefore I am) "all the mind's contents come from experience through impressions, by which Hume meant 'all our more lively perceptions, when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or hate, or desire, or will" (Thorne & Henley p. 85) ideas are "faint copies of impressions" (Thorne & Henley p. 85) "Although there must be a prior impression for every idea, not every idea reflects a corresponding impression" (Thorne & Henley p. 86) simple ideas combine to form complex ones according to 3 laws of association of ideas: 1) resemblance (similarity), 2) contiguity in time or space, 3) cause-effect relationship (which was later absorbed under the contiguity law) impressions could be simple or complex also considered a British Empiricist rather than an Associationist in the Thorne & Henley book 2. David Hartley (1705-1757) mind & body are related biologically in the brain vibrations become associated with each other by occurring simultaneously a sufficient number of times nerves are solid not hollow
"The vibrations in the nerves produce miniature vibrations (vibratiuncles) in the brain's 'medullary particles.' Hartley considered vibratiuncles the physical manifestation of ideas" (Thorne & Henley p. 88) positive after image- "vibratiuncles continue briefly after the triggering sensation has been withdrawnthus, ideas are faint copies of sensations and the twoare associated through contiguity" (Thorne & Henley p. 88)
3. James Mill (Father) (1773-1836) he was both mechanistic and deterministic differentiated between simple and complex ideas believed sensations and ideas were the mind's basic elements explained associations through contiguity alone= mental mechanics believed a strong democratic government is needed to keep people in line He added 3 senses to the standard five: muscular sensations, sensations of disorganization in a part of the body, and alimentary canal sensations (in stomach that produce sea sick feelings). He thought these 3 senses were the elements of consciousness mental compounding 4. John Stuart Mill (Son) (1806-1873) was a child prodigy, and later known for being a feminist ideas are weaker than impressions, and make up impressions; added intensity as a third law of association (similarity and contiguity are the other two) mental chemistry- allows for creative synthesis; a complex idea might at times be generated by the simple ideas underlying it rather than purely consist of those simple ideas he thought the study of the scientific process itself was important defined ethology as the influence of external circumstances on the formation of moral & intellectual character proposed utilitarianism- actions are wrong in proportion to the unhappiness they cause others C. Nativism (Heredity) 1. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) certain intuitions are inborn (a priori) and do not derive from experience, but rather they frame our experiences knowledge is derived from experience (a posteriori) thought there were 3 categories of the human mind: 1) cognition, 2) affection, 3) conation (motivation) Kant was a rationalist "our experience of the outside world, which he called the noumenal world, is filtered through the structure of our minds to give us the phenomenal world, our inner world. The noumenal world consists of 'things -in -themselves,' which we can never experience directly. Our phenomenal world is created by the intuitions and conceptions (the categories) of our minds." (Thorne & Henley p. 112) believed we have 12 innate categories of thought that are part of our mind's structure (include things such as reality, existence and nonexistence) and shape our experiences believed that both moral and scientific knowledge were based on a priori judgments categorical imperative- "a person should act in such a way that the rule behind his or her actions could serve as a universal law for all to follow. Although the categorical imperative is innate, humans can choose whether to act in accordance with it" (Thorne & Henley p. 113) (this was seen as an alternative moral approach to that of utilitarianism
VII) B)
PHYSIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS Spinal Reflexes: Robert Whytt (1714-1766) a frog without a brain & spinal cord is totally unresponsive, but a frog decapitated only (without brain, but with spinal cord) responds to a pinch by withdrawing its leg differentiated between voluntary and involuntary movements "thought the nervous tissues contained a sentient (conscious) principle" (Thorne & Henley p. 133) Whytt's reflex- the contraction of the pupil when exposed to light Specific Nerve Energies: Johannes Mller (1801-1858) founded experimental psychology, and thought psychologists should be medical doctors doctrine of specific of nerve energies- different nerves have different energies; different nerves are associated with different senses Spinal Cord Roots: Sir Charles Bell (1774-1842) & Francois Magendie (1783-1855) Bell-Magendie Law- distinguished between dorsal & ventral roots of nerves- dorsal (afferent) are sensory and ventral (efferent) are motor each nerve imposes its own specific quality on what we perceive Electrical Nerve Conduction 1. 2. Luigi Galvani (1737-1798) electricity is generated by the brain & distributed throughout the body by the nervous system galvanic skin response is named after him
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F) 1.
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz (1821-1894) a reductionist and a materialist believed the time lag between a stimulus & the body's reaction depends on the length of the nerve Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of color vision- there are 3 kinds of nerve fibers: red, green & blue developed an early version of place theory of pitch perception Brain Localization Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1828) phrenology- personality can be inferred from features of the skull ( a person will have bumps in well developed areas) disproved by Flourens using ablation (surgical removal)
2. Pierre Jean Marie Flourens (1794-1867) Cerebral lobes are the seat of all voluntary actions & perception (thinking processes) Cerebellum controls & coordinates motor activities (walking, jumping, standing) Medulla Oblongata ("vital knot") controls heart rate, respiration & other vital functions Midbrain controls visual & auditory reflexes believed that other brain areas had the capacity to take over some of the functions of ablated areas= neural plasticity 3. Legallis identified a region of the medulla essential for respiration
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4. Pierre Paul Broca (1824-1880) used "clinical method"- performing autopsies on patients with speech problems 1861- identified Broca's area in the left frontal lobe, which is involved in speech production damage to this area causes expressive aphasia he was also associated with craniometry- the measurement of skulls, and the belief that brain size was related to intelligence 5. Wernicke (1848-1904) 1874- identified an area of the left temporal lobe (bordering on the parietal lobe) involved in speech comprehension damage to this area can produce receptive aphasia, in which patients' speech sounds like a word salad VIII) B) THE BEGINNINGS OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Psychological Experimentation, Introspectionism, The First Laboratory: Wundt and Titchener 1. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) 1879- Established the 1st Psychological Research Lab at the University of Leipzig in Germany Considered the 1st Experimental Psychologist 1881- Started the 1st Psychological Journal, called "Philosophical Studies" Tried to identify the elements of consciousness, beginning with sensations developed laws of consciousness: a) Sensations- have 2 dimensions: 1) quality (touch, vision, etc), 2) intensity of quality b) Feelings- have 3 dimensions: 1) pleasant-unpleasant, 2) tense-relaxed, 3) excited- calm/depressed believed that internal perceptions (used in sensation & perception studies) could be as valid as external perceptions developed voluntarism- three components: 1) perception- when a stimulus enters consciousness, 2) apperception- an act of will involving focusing attention on a sensory impression (interpretation, giving meaning to your perception based on your experiences), 4) voluntary behavior- the voluntary release of a response (Thorne & Henley p. 175-6) mediate experience (Thorne & Henley p. 173)- your interpretation of what you see, indirect, mediated by instruments used to collect data (ie- natural science data) immediate experience (Thorne & Henley p. 173)- what you actually see, immediate reaction uninfluenced by previous knowledge of the stimulus, gives data for experimental psychology Edward Titchener (1867-1927) {Cornell University} coined the term "structuralism" looked at the senses through introspection- method used to break an experience down into its basic elemental parts thoughts consist of sensations & images (Thorne & Henley) theorized that consciousness is composed of: 1. sensations- the elements of perception, the basis for everything else in the mind, 2. images (ideas/memories)- elements of ideas, which arise when a particular sensation has been experienced before 3. feelings (associated with the idea)- affections (pleasant-unpleasant)
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C) 1.
described the elements of consciousness in terms of modality (quality), intensity (attributes), attensity (how clear it is due to attention, how much it stands out), protensity (duration), and extensity (limited to vision & touch, spatial dimension-how spread out) talked about stimulus error- describing the object observed rather than the conscious content, which yields a physical description rather than psychological data all our experiences are mediate and so involve interpretation meaning- something we attribute to our conscious experiences based on the context in which we experience them (Thorne & Henley) thought the relationship between the brain and behavior is reciprocal wrote psychological manuals distinguished between the structure and function of the brain: structure=anatomy, function=physiology
Laws of Sensation, The Beginnings of Psychophysics: Fechner & Weber Psychophysics- the study of the relationship between physical stimulus magnitudes and their corresponding psychological sensations. Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) Fechner's Law: Sensation = k log R (sensation is directly related to the amount of stimulation) the relationship is logarithmic Father of Psychometrics proposed 3 psychophysical methods: 1. method of adjustment- average error 2. method of constant stimulation 3. "method of limits" (phrase coined by Kraeplin, 1891)- used to determine detection thresholds (ex-sound detection) believed consciousness is one of the brain's properties& theorized that consciousness would become 2 streams if the corpus callosum were cut studied color vision and after images Ernst Weber (1795-1878) Weber's Law: R/R=K (2 stimuli must differ by a constant proportion, not amount, for the difference to be perceived) developed the idea of limen or two-point threshold, which is an absolute threshold. There is a minimum amount of stimulation needed to produce a sensation, therefore there is not always a change in sensation for a change in stimulation developed concept of "just noticeable difference" ( jnd, AKA difference threshold)- the minimum difference a person can detect between any 2 stimuli half the time. A difference threshold is the smallest increment in stimulus intensity needed to recognize the difference between two stimuli (jnd= R) jnd increases with the magnitude of the stimulus
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Imageless Thought and the Beginnings of Gestalt Psychology: Oswald Kulpe (1862-1915) did his PhD under Wundt developed notion of imageless thought- thought processes without discrete mental images aimed to develop positivistic psychology- focused on thinking, judging & remembering believed that thinking could not be fully accounted for by associationism developed the Wrzburg School in Germany Memory, Forgetting, Nonsense Syllables:
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Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) studied memory and learning began studying memory in same manner as Fechner studied sensations, using careful experimentation (Brennan) developed the forgetting curve graph, where info is lost quickly at the beginning and then slower as time passes used nonsense syllables (cvc trigram) to show that meaningful material is learned more easily (through the formation of associations) used the law of repetition as the key to quantifying memory (Brennan) 1885- published "Memory" overlearning- continued rehearsal beyond mastery leads to retention (overlearned lists are retained better than lists that have not been overlearned AND the greater the overlearning the greater the savings after 24 hours) (Thorne & Henley) distributed practice is better than massed practice IX) B) BRITISH AND AMERICAN BEGINNINGS: THE INFLUENCE OF DARWIN Heredity and Measurement, Statistics & Correlation 2. Francis Galton (1822-1911) (Darwin's cousin) considered by many to have started the testing movement (Brennan) showed that mean and standard deviation could represent a distribution of scores invented correlation and regression established the Eugenics Society- for the improvement of the human race by selectively breeding the best people researched human heredity, and performed the 1st twin studies believed mental intelligence was hereditary, published "Hereditary Genius" developed mental tests for intellect & motor performance {Columbia University} 3. James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) opened 2nd Lab (at U Penn) after working with Wundt in Germany coined the term "mental test" considered the father of testing researched sensation & perception developed Psych Corp in 1920, which markets psychological expertise & measurement instruments to the public (Brennan) C) Functionalism- how mental and behavioral processes function, how they help people adapt and survive 1. William James (1842-1910) 1st American Psychologist sometimes credited with the 1st Lab (it was at Harvard) 1890- published "Principles of Psychology" coined the phrase "stream of consciousness"- to convey that consciousness cannot be divided into components developed idea of pragmatism- beliefs are true because they work, and not vice versa plasticity of nervous system- nervous system can be changed by experience most behavior is habit, but habit is of no use in novel situations habit- a well learned pattern of behavior, connected with a pathway in the brain; new habits (or absence of old ones) should be practiced until becoming 2nd nature (Thorne & Henley) habit analysis impacted functionalism and learning theory
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James-Lange theory of emotion (has been disproved)- emotion results from physiological feedback (we are sad because we cry) consciousness functions to aid people in adaptation, and has 5 adaptive functions: 1) it's personal, 2) ever-changing, 3) continuous, 4) selective, 5) appears to deal with objects outside of itself (Thorne & Henley)
2. G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) {Clark University} 1878- 1st PhD in Psychology in U.S. (from Harvard) was a student of Wundt's established a Psychological Lab at Johns Hopkins 1892- formed APA at Clark U and became APA's 1st President 1909- invited Freud, Jung & Adler to Clark, this was Freud's only lecture in the U.S. had a recapitulation theory of child development- stages of child development parallel evolution of the human race (Thorne & Henley) 3. John Dewey (1859-1952) {Chicago U} 1896- Published "The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology", which helped formalize functionalism Reflex Arc- a stimulus produces a sensation, which triggers a response thought adaptation to the environment should be studied, and that the reflex arc was too simple Dewey's idea- a sensory stimulus & motor response are coordinated and can't necessarily be separated, thought the reflex arc should be conceptualized as a coordinated whole with a purpose or function, not a series of individual components (Thorne & Henley) he advocated that it is a circle instead of an arc because a person is stimulated then responds, and the person is then affected by his/her response {Chicago U} 4. James Angell (1869-1949) APA President (1906) gave a lecture titled "Province of Functional Psychology" in which he wanted to explain the role of mental processes his lecture advanced 3 main concepts of functionalism: a. the psychology of mental operations not mental elements b. fundamental utilities of consciousness mediating between the environment & needs of the organism c. the mind-body relationship is significant for any appreciation of mental life (Thorne & Henley) 5. E.L.Thorndike (see part VII-B-1 of Outline) X) GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY- IN GERMANY AND AMERICA Gestalt=Configuration or Form Gestalt Psych is interested in the principles of perceptual organization Phenomenology- perception of environment determines behavior Gestalt Psychologists studied perception to rebel against Wundt, but were also interested in philosophy, learning & thinking A. Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) saw insight in chimpanzees' problem solving, they did not learn by degree but rather had sudden insights studied figural after effects
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B. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) Published "Perception: An Introduction to Gestalt Theory" in the Psychological Bulletin in 1922, which brought Gestalt Psych to the US discussed the difference between geographic and behavioral environments- two people can share the same geographic environment while having two different behavioral environments (based on their particular perceptions) was the major spokesperson of Gestalt Psych, and published many articles about it C. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) Introduced Gestalt Psychology in 1912 was puzzled by how tress move by while you're in a train, which led to his discovery of "apparent movement", aka phi phenomenon supporter of synthesis rather than analysis- the whole is greater than the sum of its parts thought children should be taught the whole situation rather than its components used a tachistoscope- a device that flashed lights on & off for brief intervals in apparent movement experiments D. Principles of Gestalt Psychology (Thorne & Henley p.405-410)
Structuralism (Germany)
Functionalism
Gestalt Psychology
Behaviorism
XI) B)
EARLY BEHAVIORISM Conditioning Theory Sechenov (1829-1905) Russian Physiologist, and Pavolv's mentor believed that all physical acts are reflexes believed psychologists needed to understand the brain's reflexes- ex- thoughts are reflexes with inhibited motor expression (Thorne & Henley) developed a hierarchical model of the nervous system using an experiment with a salt crystal or electricity applied to part of the frog's brain- the spinal reflexes are inhibited, which demonstrates a higher center's inhibition of a lower one
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2. Pavlov discovered classical conditioning by studying digestion in dogs You condition a reflex by pairing a neutral stimulus (CS, ex-bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS, ex-food), a response like the unconditioned response (UCR, ex-salivation) will be elicited by the conditioned stimulus alone after pairing it with the unconditioned stimulus, this is the conditioned response (CR, ex-salivation)
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UCSUCR UCS & CSUCR CSCR Chart or table Figured out that the CS must precede the UCS for effective conditioning, and a slight delay between the two often leads to the best results as long as they overlap somewhat (delayed conditioning) (Thorne & Henley) classical extinction- after a reflex has been conditioned it can be extinguished, this is done by repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS spontaneous recovery-after extinction a conditioned response may reappear nearly as strong as before, which means that extinction probably involves suppression rather than unlearning higher order conditioning- when a conditioned stimulus is paired with another previously neutral stimulus, and the new stimulus is able to elicit a conditioned response (so the CS is acting like a UCS here) stimulus generalization- when stimuli similar to the CS can evoke the CR stimulus discrimination- opposite of generalization, when you can distinguish between two stimuli law of equipotentiality- any neutral stimulus is equally likely to become a conditioned stimulus
3. John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) Founder of Behaviorism; a Functionalist 1913- Published "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (also known as "the behaviorist manifesto")- Rejected introspectionism and called for objective psychology 1920- Little Albert study with Raynor in which they conditioned fear of white rats in a young boy (rat was paired with loud noise) C) 1. Learning Theory Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) Functionalist, James' student known for studying trial & error learning using a puzzle box with cats believed in Instrumental Learning and connectionism Proposed the Law of Effect- connections are strengthened or weakened due to the consequences Truncated Law of Effect- rewards increase learning more than punishment Law of Exercise- connections are strengthened through repetition
2. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) Radical Behaviorist- only studied observable behavior Established principles of Operant Conditioning Invented an apparatus called the Skinner Box/operant chamber Developed 3 term contingency- ABCs: Antecedents, Behaviors & Consequences reinforcement- strengthens a behavior punishment- decreases a behavior primary reinforcers- innately reinforcing for most people secondary reinforcers- become reinforcing via association with primary reinforcers Something Added in Consequence Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment Something Taken Away from Antecedent Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment
Behavior Increases Behavior Decreases
Schedules of Reinforcement- variable ratio most powerful Operant Extinction- decreasing a learned response that has been learned through operant conditioning
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3. a. Clark Hull (1884-1952) APA President- 1936 Hull's 3 main interests included aptitude testing, hypnosis & learning theory Hypethetico Deductive Approach- (similar to Law of Effect) "For Hull, a valid theory was one containing a logical system of postulates from which theorems could be derived" (Thorne & Henley p.373) drive reduction theory of reinforcement- homeostasis is the basis of all learned behavior tried to construct a single factor learning theory by extending the principles of classical conditioning to instrumental trial & error learning situations, but he could not do it a drive energizes behavior and a stimulus directs behavior b. Hull-Spence Theory drive reduction theory of learning E= HxD (Excitatory Potential = Habit Strength x Drive/Motivation) c. Neal Miller (1909-) simplified Hull-Spence drive reduction theory of learning while working with Dollard -drives are acquired through classical conditioning, there is a thought between the stimulus and response (S-thought-R) people respond in 3 ways: 1) physiological/motor, 2) emotional, 3) cognitive Proposed Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis with Dollard- frustration automatically leads to aggression (disproved) Types of conflict: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance showed that learning could be motivated by electrical stimulation of the brain looked at conditioning of autonomic responses, which had implications for biofeedback- rats could modify their own heart rate if given pleasant brain stimulation d. O.H. Mowrer (1907-1982) Two Factor Theory of Anxiety: 1) Anxiety is classically conditioned, and 2) Anxiety is Operantly maintained through avoidance 4. Edward Tolman (1886-1959) Purposive Behavior- all behavior serves a purpose Distinguished between learning and behavior/performance discussed formation of cognitive map through exploration of environment (an example of latent learning) discussed sign-Gestalt- learned relationship between expectancies and environmental cues Proponent of Contiguity Psychology, not in favor of reinforcement (learning does not require reinforcement) place learning is easier than response learning, place learning supports notion of cognitive map proposed concept of intervening variable- a variable that is influenced by the independent variable (come between the stimulus and response) chairman of APA's first Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychologists 5. Edwin Guthrie (1886-1959) all learning is based on contiguity between the stimulus and response reward prevents unlearning an already formed association forgetting=formation of new associations methods for breaking habits- fatigue or exhaustion method, toleration or threshold method, method of incompatible stimuli (Thorne & Henley)
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6. Albert Bandura (1925-) famous for 1950's Bobo Doll Studies of observational learning of aggression, later researched selfefficacy Social Learning Theory-"focuses on role of modeling or imitation in acquiring social behavior" (Thorne & Henley p.515) believed in observational learning, and that learning is not always a result of reinforcement modeling- acquisition of values, attitudes & patterns of thoughts & behavior (not mere imitation or identification) vicarious reinforcement- learning to expect reinforcement by observing a model receive reinforcement observational learning- 4 subprocesses: 1) attention, 2) retention, 3) reproduction, 4) motivation 5 functions of modeling: 1) observational learning effects, 2) inhibition/disinhibition, 3) response facilitation, 4) environmental enhancement, 5) arousal effects people attend to: 1) interesting & attractive models, 2) models who receive rewards, 3) salient & relevant events, 4) models who accentuate essential features XII) B) PSYCHOANALYSIS Classic: Freud & Jung 1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) went to medical school in Vienna and became a neurologist was influenced by Janet, who proposed a psychological theory of hysteria 1882- Breuer told Freud about his patient Anna O. whose hysterical symptoms disappeared after talking; Anna o. referred to this as the "talking cure" 1885- Freud spent a year in Paris with Charcot. Charcot was a neurologist that believed hysterical symptoms were caused by a lesion somewhere in the central nervous system Freud's Basic Assumptions: 1) psychic determinism- symptoms are caused by something, 2) unconscious psychological processes- they exist & some material is easier to bring into consciousness Freud organized his theories around the concepts of intrapsychic conflict and instinctual drives Affect-Trauma Theory (~1880-1897)- hysterical symptoms resulted from sexual abuse during which the victim behaved passively Freud later came to believe that his patients had fantasized the sexual abuse rather than actually experiencing it 1900- Published Interpretation of Dreams Topographical Model (1915)- mind is made up of the conscious, unconscious and preconscious; conflict results if unconscious drives & wishes become conscious Structural Model (1923)- distinguished the processes of the mind by their functions, conflicts between the id, ego & superego cause psychopathology: 1. id- unconscious instinctual drives that follow the pleasure principle (people are born with this and ego &superego grow out of it), 2. ego-acts as mediator between needs of id & constraints of environment, follows the reality principle
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3. superego- societal standards or parental values that have been internalized repression is the main defense mechanism found in hysterical patients In Psychoanalysis, used technique of free association to access his patients' unconscious dreams are a form of wish fulfillment, ego is weak during sleep; dream work changes latent content to manifest content; dreams are a window to the unconscious that should be interpretation through free association talked about anxiety as a signal to the ego that a defense mechanism is necessary; distinguished between realistic, neurotic, and moral anxiety Psychosexual Stages: (Myers p.578) oral- (0-18 months) pleasure focuses on the mouth anal- (18-36 months) pleasure centers on bowel and bladder elimination, related to coping with demands for control phallic- (3-6 years) genitals are the pleasure zone, Oedipus/Electra complex latency- (6-puberty) sexual feelings lie dormant genital- (puberty on) sexual interests mature
2. Carl Jung (1875-1961) Analytical Psychology personality (psyche) is a product of ancestral history, and is composed of several systems that operate at 3 levels of consciousness levels of consciousness: 1. conscious- guarded by ego, so certain thoughts and memories don't get in, 2. personal unconscious- stored thoughts & memories the ego doesn't admit and are easier to reach, including clusters of ideas called complexes, 3. unconscious- much more difficult to reach Proposed the idea of a Collective Unconscious- a collection of memories & thought forms from the ancestral past, all the way back to our animal roots; gives us a predisposition for certain ideas that can be helpful; ignoring it may lead it to be expressed in the form of symptoms; includes archetypes Archetypes- models that ways of acting or experiencing are patterned to; they are consciously expressed symbols that people can use to cope; "a universal thought-form (idea) that transcends the individual's experience" (Thorne & Henley p.466) There are 5 main archetypes: 1. the self- the ultimate unifying system of personality, which is crucial to functioning and provides the power needed for individualization & transcendence, 2. the persona- the mask or faade people show in public, which is necessary for survival, 3. the anima- feminine side of the male psyche, 4. the animus- masculine side of the female psyche, 5. the shadow- reflects animal instincts & urges inherited (similar to Freud's id) talked about describing people according to Attitudes and Functions (later incorporated into MyersBriggs test) there are 2 Attitudes: 1. Introversion- orientation towards subjective, inner experience, 2. Extroversion- orientation toward objective, outside world focused experience there are 4 Functions: 1. Thinking- intellectual function, 2. Feeling- evaluative function, 3. Sensing- operation of the senses, 4. Intuiting- perception by unconscious, subliminal means talked about synchronicity- events may occur in unison or be related (this can be caused by archetypes) focused on manifest content in dream interpretation
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C) Social: Alfred Adler (1870-1937) Individual Psychology life's major goal is to achieve superiority by overcoming inferiority believed in the importance of social interest, and that concern for the welfare of others guides people's behavior discussed "styles of life"- an individual's unique ways of seeking goals ( set by age 4-5) talked about the importance of birth order in influencing personality: first borns- can take charge or can feel insecure (most likely to have neurosis), middles-can be ambitious or envious (best adjusted), last borns- can be highly energized or spoiled, only children- pampered, runs risk of wanting to be center of attention & being too stubborn fictional finalism- our false perception of perfectionism, it guides our actions
D) Neo-Freudians: Fromm, Horney, Sullivan 1. Erich Fromm (1900-1980) influenced by S. Freud & Karl Marx, his ideas were a combination of psychoanalytic & existential existential dilemma- inherent conflict between our animal limitations & our human possibilities dialectic humanism- character traits result from experience with others people have social needs in addition to biological ones; there are 8 social needs: 1) relatedness-rootedness- to be a part of a community, 2) transcendence- to transcend our animal nature, 3) unity- remedy the split between human strivings & animal nature, 4) identity- a sense of individuation, 5) frame of orientation- to make sense of the world, 6) frame of devotion- direction & purpose, 7) excitation-stimulation- make use of brain capacities, 8) effectiveness- exercise one's competence personality develops out of a need to substitute something for the animal instincts that humans have abandoned; personality develops from societal pressure to behave in certain ways personality falls along a continuum between productiveness & non-productiveness distinguished between types of love 2. Karen Horney (1885-1952) feminist, proposed idea of womb envy to counter Freud's penis envy believed security is the prime motivating force in personality, and believed that aggressive behavior is not an instinct but a means of protecting one's security everyone experiences anxiety about being helpless & vulnerable to uncontrollable natural events basic anxiety- all-pervading sense of loneliness & helplessness in a hostile world; causes hostility, anticipation of harm & distrust of others, and makes people always on guard people have an idealized self-image to deal with the inferiority involved in basic anxiety there is an actual self that is hated for falling short of the idealized self-image; people use a tyranny of shoulds to hold themselves to a standard they cannot reach the real self underlies both, and impels growth & self-realization search for glory- an unrealistic attempt at idealized self-realization proposed 3 ways of relating to others: 1) moving towards others in self-effacement (defer to others to avoid angering them), 2) moving against others in expansion (seeking dominance & overcoming all obstacles), 3) moving away from others in resignation (withdrawal, the most harmful approach); most people move in & out of all 3 styles, but people who have not conquered basic anxiety usually get stuck in one style
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3. Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949) Interpersonal Theory people are energy systems whose primary motivation is to decrease anxiety & tension tension & the behaviors that reduce it are experienced in 3 ways of thinking & perceiving (3 modes of cognition): 1) prototaxic- an undifferentiated infant state of simple sensations, preverbal, 2) parataxic- experiencing by associating stimuli to previous experiences, preverbal, 3) syntaxic- logical thought, reaching a consensus with others & testing it out in representative experiences discussed 3 parts of personality: 1) dynamism- a habitual pattern of behavior, 2) self-esteemminimizes anxiety and serves self protective functions, 3) personification-an image of one's self or another that is formed to respond to or understand the person in particular situations talked about stages of development focusing on learning to satisfy the needs of interacting with others believed people's final goal is self-respect talked about a self-system that minimizes anxiety, and needs for security & satisfaction that do the same thing E) Ego Psychologists/Developmental: Anna Freud, Bowlby, Erickson, Hartmann 1. Anna Freud (1895-1982) Ego-Psychologist elaborated ego defense mechanisms, looking at sequence of development & normal adaptive functions not just psychopathology repression, regression, rationalization, projection, reaction formation, displacement, sublimation focused her clinical work on child psychoanalysis talked about developmental lines- dimensions of functioning outlined as a sequence in the child's maturation, can assess both level & sequence of a child's progress broke S. Freud's oral stage down into 2 parts: 1) sucking-taking in, 2) biting- aggression talked about identification with the aggressor as being related to internalization & establishment of superego 2. Bowlby (1907-1990) British Attachment theorist (object relations) proximity related to mother-infant bond discussed separation trauma when mother and infant are separated 1990- Bowlby and Ainsworth received APA Award for Distinguished Scientific Contribution for their work on attachment 3. Erik Erickson (1902-1944) Ego-Psychologist, Self-Psychologist emphasized the importance of interaction with the social environment in shaping personality expanded S. Freud's psychosexual stages to include the ego's role in adapting to the environment (psychosocial), and extended the stages through adolescence & adulthood each of the 8 stages of psychosocial development focuses on a crisis point the ego must overcome to adapt & move on (Myers p. 166) 1) Trust vs. Mistrust (to 1 yr) 2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-2 yrs) 3) Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 yrs) 4) Competence vs. Inferiority (6 yrs-puberty)
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5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (teens-20s) 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s-40s) 7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (40s-60s) 8) Integrity vs. Despair (late 60s on) epigenesis- in each stage a person must develop skills that build on skills from previous stages, but a person doesn't need to completely resolve a stage before moving to the next (not all or nothing, must achieve enough skills qualitatively)
4. Heinz Hartmann (1894-1970) Father of Ego-Psychology believed that babies have built in ego-potentials thought that the ego develops independently of the id and actively tries to adapt to the environment, and is not always dealing with conflict conflict-free sphere of the ego- involved in reality testing, problem-solving, remembering, and perceiving in adapting to a situation; arises in an average expected environment defenses can be used to deal with non-pathological conflicts between the different ego-processes neutralization- strips drives of sexual & aggressive qualities autoplastic- the organism develops the ability to act on itself alloplastic- the organism develops the ability to effect responses from the environment F) Object Relations: Kernberg, Winnicott, Mahler, Fairbairn, Kohut a. Otto Kernberg (American School) Studied Borderline Personality Disorder an internalized object relationship has: 1) self-image, 2) object-image, 3) feeling that links them (affect disposition) internalizing an object relationship involves: 1) introjection- using splitting, 2) identificationrecognizing role, 3) ego identity- consolidation of psychological structures character pathology can be classified across 3 severity levels: 1) punishing superego, repressive defenses, stable object relations (highest functioning- ex: hysteria, OCD), 2) poor ego regulation, mood swings due to harsh superego (ex-narcissistic pd), 3) sadistic superego, impaired capacity for guilt & concern, lack of self-concept, poor object relations (ex-antisocial & borderline pd) neurosis borderline functioning psychosis 2 developmental tasks: 1) distinguishing mentally between self & other, 2) overcome splitting 2. Donald Winnicott (1896-1971) (British School) the parent is a crucial part of the environment that shapes a child's development good-enough mother- adapts to child's needs, fosters good ego development & less harsh superego pathology results from failure of the environment to provide child feels competence through imagining satisfaction of own needs, occurs before child becomes aware of need for others true self- (healthy development) firm distinction between self & environment false self- (pathology) self-alienation & false relationships, occurs when parents don't adapt to child's needs & child must adapt by complying with others' needs (language is implicated in false self development) transitional objects- serve as intermediate areas of experience between subjective objects (imagined) and true object relationships (1st not me possession, ex-baby blanket); it helps ease the child from omnipotence to true object relationships emphasized the baby-mother dyad
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3. Margaret Mahler (1897-1985) (American School) Ego-Psychologist also people go through a psychological birth where they begin to separate & individuate from caregiver: separation- understanding that one is separate from the mother autism- 1st 2 months of life symbiosis- ~2-6 months, intrapsychic experience of being totally undifferentiated from mother hatching (differentiation)- ~4-9 months, increased alertness, gaze is more outwardly directed, check back to mother as point of orientation practicing- ~9-15 months, locomotive ability, excitedly explores environment, feels at one with mother, comes back for refueling rapprochement- ~15 months-2 years, psychological crisis, disequilibrium, psychological development catches up with physical maturation, leads to a distressing awareness that mobility shows psychological separateness from mother individuation- ~2-3 years, sense of identity, object constancy, understand mother still loves child when out of sight psychopathology results if a phase is not complete & child fails to separate or individuate child is most vulnerable during rapprochement, can develop Borderline PD 4. W.R.D. Fairbairn (British School) talked about an object-seeking libido universal splitting of the ego- part toward real parents, and part toward internal object parents 5. Heinz Kohut (1923-1981) (American School) Self-Psychologist also believed the self is at the center of a person's psychological universe; psychopathology involves disorders of the self can only discover the self through introspection & empathic immersion (see psychological manifestations of the self in another person, ex-therapist) development of cohesive self comes from relatedness to others in the environment initially the self has an object (idealized parent image) and subject (grandiose self), which is tamed & merged into a cohesive personality importance of need to be mirrored self-objects- objects experienced as part of the self, or provide a function for the self (required for optimal personality functioning) transmuting internalization- aspects of self-objects internalized to self childhood trauma or deprivation may prevent the grandiose/narcissistic self from developing into a healthy personality 6. Melanie Klein (1882-1960) (British School) had id driven theories about biological drives and infant fantasy sees drives as inherently directed towards objects babies do not exist solely as intrapsychic entities, but start out with feelings about the object part objects- things such as the breast that the infant relates to (seen as good or bad) infant uses psychological mechanisms to control needs- projection, introjection, splitting projective identification- impose inner world on external then re-internalizing by splitting death instinct- inner anxieties & persecutory fears paranoid schizoid position- (0-4 months) baby's anxieties are paranoid & he/she relates to others by splitting them in an attempt to annihilate internal & external persecutors (terrors of annihilation) depressive position- (4 months-2 years) baby increasingly sees object as separate & feels guilt for causing imagined harm to it, and possibly losing it (which would endanger its survival); realizes good and bad mother are the same person, and has fears of abandonment reparation- (after 2 yrs old) effort to repair perceived damaged relationship with mother talked about envy being destructive
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Other Psychoanalytic Theorists: Ainsworth- Attachment Theory Schafer- people create narratives about their lives- part reality, part fantasy, together lead to one's sense of agency Kris & Loewenstein- superego needs an ego ideal; talked about identification being a normal part of development Edith Jacobson- Ego Psychologist Rene Spitz- Studied failure to thrive infants (infants whose needs weren't met); having a libidinal object is a developmental achievement; psychic plasticity; mother starts out as baby's auxiliary ego XIII) HUMANISM B) Humanism: Rogers, Maslow 1. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) interested in organism & self- congruence between the two determines mental health organism= the physical creature with all of its physical & psychological functions; includes person's phenomenal field- the totality of experiences (conscious & unconscious material); behavior is a function of the subjective reality included in the person's phenomenal field a portion of the phenomenal field becomes differentiated into the self self-actualization- person's only driving force, to maintain & improve the self; a person has needs for positive regard of others & positive self-regard client-centered therapy- therapist gives client unconditional positive regard; client is supported & reinforced for anything he/she says or does, which allows the true self to come out talked about the importance of empathy from the therapist 2. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Father of the Humanistic School (the American version of European Existentialism) humanistic school stressed overall dignity & worth of humans & the capacity for self-worth he saw people as basically good; development involves actualizing self to fulfill potential psychopathology develops if basic needs are denied hierarchy of needs: hierarchy goes from basic needs (D-Realm)- clear deficits within a person, to metaneeds (B-Realm)- a person's need to pursue goals & become better. The highest need in the hierarchy is self-actualization (S-A)
S-
esteem
belongingness & love
safety
physiological
personality syndrome- organized, interdependent, structured group of symptoms holistic-analytic methodology- emphasizes both whole organism & subparts
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C)
peak experiences- mystical experiences had by people who realized their potentials
Existentialism: Rollo May (1909-1994) psychopathology results from obstructions in early life that derail normal development looked at ways people become alienated from the world & their true being conformity- leads to a loss of identity & focus on unimportant things all humans have anxiety about death, but denial of death causes alienation transcendence- the ability to experience oneself & others in both objective & subjective terms; transcending the two polarities leads to authenticity
D) Gestalt: Perls was a neuropsychiatrist, had no background in Gestalt Psychology advocated for Gestalt Therapy (which was developed separately from Gestalt Psychology) Gestalt Therapy is based on the idea that disowning parts of the self lead to self-alienation
E) Phenomenology: Giorgi- 1970- Published "Psychology as a human science" XIV) HISTORY OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY B) Medical Antecedents: Tuke, Pinel, Charcot, Janet, Dix, Kraeplin 1. William Tuke (1732-1822) was upset by the bad conditions & treatment of the mentally ill at asylums 1796- opened "York Retreat" in England, a place where mentally ill people would be treated better 2. Phillipe Pinel (1745-1826) 1793- ordered the removal of chains, and kindness & humane treatment for the mentally ill in France at Bicetre asylum 3. & 4. Charcot & Janet- see section VIII-A-1 (Sigmund Freud) 5. Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) campaigned for improved conditions for the mentally ill in the United States 1862- helped create psychiatric hospitals 6. Emil Kraeplin (1856-1926) 1896- created the 1st comprehensive system of classifying psychological disorders argued that mental disorders have the same basis as physical ones, and should therefore be identified using the same type of diagnostic criteria, i.e. diagnoses should be based on symptoms developed the concepts of: 1) dementia praecox (i.e. schizophrenia) as a single disorder with various subtypes, and 2) manic-depressive insanity (was the 1st to combine the two separate disorders into one) theorized that schizophrenia was related to "impaired attention" C) Clinical Psychology in America
1892- APA formed by G. Stanley Hall at Clark University, founded as a research based organization whose sole purpose is the advancement of psychology as a science
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1. Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) coined the term "Clinical Psychology" 1896 at U Penn- started the 1st Psychological Clinic, which was geared towards helping children with learning difficulties 1908- established a residential school for children 1909 In Chicago- the 2nd Psychological Clinic was established- the Juvenile Psychopathic Institute" 2. World War I Yerkes- (1914) developed group intelligence test for evaluation of U.S. military personnel -Army Alpha- Verbal -Army Beta- Nonverbal Yerkes was APA President in 1917 1915- Industrial Psychology begins; Munsterberg- America's 1st Industrial Psychologist, was brought to Harvard by W. James Applied Psychology begins to expand after the war- psychologists become testers, not only researchers 1917- splinter group off of APA is formed- American Association of Clinical Psychology (AACP) because APA had not established standards for practice and this group wanted to; they rejoined APA in 1919 3. World War II U.S. in the war from 1942-1945 (after Pearl Harbor in 1941) there were not enough psychiatrists after WW II to do therapy with the veterans, so psychologists began doing therapy 1939- 2nd splinter group from APA- the American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP)they rejoined in 1945, that is when APA formed a committee to train Psychologists to do therapy which led to the 4 year curriculum model veterans were given free education 4. APA Training Models Boulder Model- APA programs will follow Scientist-Practitioner Model, with 4 year curriculum 1947- 1st 22 Clinical Psychology program approved by APA VA offered sites for clinical training b. Vail Model- 1973- PsyD programs approved by APA, Practitioner Degree D) Development of Professional Psychology 1903-1904- Beginnings of group treatment- Joseph Pratt starts a self care group for TB patients 1920's- Vienna- Jacob Moreno develops psychodrama, which is used in groups 1946- states start licensing psychologists 1947- APA's first Committee on Ethical Standards for Psychologists, which was chaired by Tolman 1948- APA sets up the American Board of Examiners in Professional Psychology (ABEPP) since not all states had licensure laws yet 1950's- there is a rise in the number of APA programs & Internship sites First APA Code of Ethics adopted in 1952 and published in 1953 1968- all states & Washington DC have licensure laws late 1960's- PsyD degree introduced 1969- CSPP is 1st free standing school of professional psychology (everyone in administration are psychologists) 1980's- there is increasing dissatisfaction with APA's focus on applied psychology
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1990's- American Psychological Society (APS) is formed as a splinter group for the advancement of Psychology as a science
E) Psychological Testing Movement 1905- France, Binet-Simon Intelligence Test for Children 1910- Goddard translates the Binet-Simon into English 1917- Stanford revision & standardization of the Binet-Simon by Terman (which is why the name changed to Stanford-Binet); Terman coined the term "intelligence quotient", but Stern came up with concept of "mental quotient" being (mental age/chronological age) x 100 1920- James Cattell sets up Psych Corp 1921- Rorschach test introduced 1926- Draw A Man test introduced by Florence Goodenough 1935- Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) by Morgan & Murray 1937- Revision of the Stanford-Binet by Terman; Criticisms- it is too verbal & too difficult to administer 1938- Bender-Gestalt test 1939- Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence test Woodworth Personality Data Sheet (for military) year? 1942- Revision of Wechsler-Bellevue 1943- MMPI- Hathaway & McKinley
F) Psychotherapies (Myers and Corsini & Wedding) 1. Psychoanalytic Therapies Psychoanalysis Freud thought psychoanalysis should be done several times a week over the span of several years There are 4 phases of treatment: 1) opening, 2) development of transference, 3) working through, 4) resolution of transference free association is the main technique, also used for dream analysis resistance to free association is overcome by interpretation therapist should sit out of patient's line of vision Psychodynamic Therapy help clients gain insight into unconscious roots of problems & work through their feelings explore childhood experiences therapist and patient can meet face to face can meet weekly, and may meet for a few months rather than years 2. Humanistic & Existential Therapies emphasize people's inherent potential for self-fulfillment though self-awareness and selfacceptance focus is on conscious rather than unconscious thoughts focus is on the present & future rather than the past focus is on promoting growth people should take immediate responsibility for their feelings & behavior, and not look for hidden determinants Rogers- Client-Centered Therapy: non-directive treatment using non-judgmental active listening; important therapist qualities are genuineness, acceptance & empathy; active listening- involves echoing, restating & seeking clarification; unconditional positive regard from therapist helps people internalize unconditional positive regard for themselves
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3. Behavior Therapy goal is to replace maladaptive learned behaviors with constructive behaviors Classical Conditioning Techniques: counterconditioning- pairs trigger stimuli with new responses that are incompatible with the problem (ex- incompatible with fear) 1. systematic desensitization- involves gradual exposure which leads to habituation, ex- uses progressive relaxation to replace anxiety 2. aversive conditioning- associates an unpleasant state (ex- nausea) with an unwanted behavior (ex-alcohol use), helps client avoid the behavior 3. prolonged exposure Operant Conditioning Techniques: -token economy- rewards desired behavior with tokens or points -praise can be a reinforcer 4. Cognitive and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies Aaron Beck's Cognitive Therapy based on schemas, cognitive triad (negative thoughts about self, future & experiences) and faulty information processing (cognitive errors-automatic thoughts) treatment uses collaborative empiricism approach 4 components to treatment: 1. Trust/Rapport & Orientation to the treatment, 2. Assessment & Case Formulation, 3. Activity Scheduling, 4. 4) Modifying Maladaptive Schemas using Socratic Questioning treatment uses thought records and tests of evidence (for or against the thoughts) Albert Ellis' Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) 3 types of irrational thoughts: 1) self, 2) others & 3) world primary intervention is cognitive restructuring 3 step treatment approach: 1) Assessing Core Irrational Beliefs, 2) Challenging Irrational Beliefs in & out of treatment, 3) Changing Behavior ABCDE paradigm: Activating events, Beliefs, Consequences (of beliefs)- thoughts & behaviors, Disputing the belief in treatment, and positive Effects of confronting the belief therapist is active, directive, confrontational, disputing; therapist should interrupt client to point out presence of irrational beliefs
4. Family Systems Therapies treats the family as a system, using the family as a frame of reference an individual's behavior is influenced by or directed at other family members attempts to guide family members toward positive relationships &improved communication there is usually an identified patient viewed by the family as the problem 5. Integrative Therapies- Ex- Expressive Arts Therapies, etc
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G) Child Psychology 1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) schemas- mental molds in which we place our experience; organizes information assimilate-interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemas accommodate-adjust schema to fit new experiences 4 stages of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor stage- (birth to 2 years) experience the world through senses &actions; object permanence (~8 months)- awareness that objects continue to exist when out of sight; stranger anxiety 2. preoperational stage- (2 to 6 years) represent things with words & images, but lack logical reasoning; pretend play; language development; egocentrism- inability to see another's point of view 3. concrete operational stage- (7 to 11 years) think logically about concrete events, grasp concrete analogies, do math; conservation- quantity remains the same despite change in shape 4. formal operational- (12 years to adulthood) abstract reasoning, logic; potential for mature, moral reasoning 2. Daniel Stern child comes into the world hungry for relationships infants never experience an autistic phase or self/other undifferentiation (different from Mahler) looked at the subjective experience of infants, was interested in what kind of world an infant creates in his/her mind there is a sense of agency, physical cohesion & continuity in time in infants 4 senses of self develop in infancy & all remain fully functioning (1st 3 senses of self appear to exist in pre-verbal form): 1) emergent self- birth to 2 months, 2) core self- 2 to 6 months, 3) subjective self- 7 to 15 months, 4) verbal self- 15 months on 3. Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) studied language & thinking- by age 7 children can think in words, and can do this to solve problems children internalize their culture's language & rely on inner speech language is the most important symbolic tool in a society cognitive development is culturally based, social interaction plays a fundamental role highest forms of psychological functioning involve logical memory, voluntary attention, categorical perception, & self-regulation of behavior Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)- the situation in which a child can perform "under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky 1978 p. 86) at a more advanced level than s/he can independently 4. Watson & Raynor conditioned fear in Little Albert (see section VII-A-3) 5. 6. 7. 8. Child Guidance Movement Kanner Burlingham & Anna Freud Melanie Klein (see section VIII-E-6)
XV) TWENTIETH CENTURY DEVELOPMENTS B) Social Psychology
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1. G.H. Mead we can only understand an individual's behavior in the context of the whole social group consciousness involves a dynamic relationship between the self & environment 2. Gordon Allport (1897-1968) Trait Theorist functional autonomy- a mature human operates on the basis of factors in the present & future, not the past looked at adaptive (functional) & expressive (individuality of act) components of behavior traits- predispose the person to perceive various stimuli as having similar meaning, as well as to respond with behaviors that are similar common traits- common to most people in a culture personal dispositions- unique traits to each person cardinal dispositions- so general that almost every act of the person reflects them central dispositions- highly characteristic of the person, but do not explain every aspect (each person can be described by 5-10 central dispositions) secondary (peripheral) dispositions- more focalized, tied to a particular situation (rare) habit- is a determining tendency, like a trait, but more specific (occurs in fewer situations) attitude- more general than a habit, but more specific than a trait (more focused on the environment whereas a trait is more focused on the self) type-category larger than traits, habits & attitudes, combinations of these 3 things 3. Kurt Lewin Father of modern social psychology, also a gestalt psychologist Topological psychologist his research showed that discussion is more effective than lecturing believed behavior is a function of life space L=P+E (life space=person+environment) researched group dynamics & action, leadership style, and prejudice used experimentation to test hypotheses 4. Leon Festinger worked under Lewin cognitive dissonance theory- tension results from awareness that our actions & attitudes do not coincide, we then act to reduce this tension by bringing our attitudes in line with our actions was a figure in the post WW II push to make social psychology experimental social comparison model- perceived similarity is related to social attraction did a proximity study in an apartment building, found social attraction & friendship was stronger for close neighbors 5. Stanley Milgram (1933-1984) shock experiments- blind faith in following orders (action conformity), 65% of subjects shocked people to lethal levels 6. Philip Zimbardo (1933-) well known for prison simulation study deindividuation- when people lose their identities or become anonymous within the larger group they are more likely to engage in aggression & violence
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C) Cognitive Psychology 1. Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886-1969) serial reproduction- asked subjects to recall the same story several times; recall got shorter, words changed to make it more modern, additions were made to make the story more comprehensible (reconstructive memory) developed notion of schema- structures used to organize information 2. Jerome Bruner (1915-) Inductive reasoning- from specific instance to formation of a general rule ex- global processing- tests all hypotheses simultaneously rather than sequentially 3. Herbert Simon (1916-) cognitive scientist who used the computer analogy to describe classic psychological problems studied artificial intelligence 4. George Miller (1920-) 1956- published "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information" about our working memory capacity coined the term "chunk" in this article 5. Noam Chomsky (1928-) Linguist, stated that the structure of language is innate saw people as active & planful proposed that there are 3 types of grammar: 1. left to right- each word is determined by the preceding word, 2. phrase structure- sentences broken down into noun & verb phrases, 3. transformational- surface structure is written words, deep structure (kernel) is underlying meaning (phrase structure rules produce deep structure) 6. Piaget- see section X-F-1 D) Family Systems (Corsini & Wedding) a. 1. Whittaker & b. 2. Satir Experiential Family Therapy troubled families need a "growth experience" derived from intimate interpersonal experiences with an involved therapist treatment should show families how to be more honest & expressive Whittaker- "symbolic-experiential family therapy"- depathologizes experience and helps family probe the world of covert symbols Satir- building self-esteem & learning communication are essential goals of treatment 3. Salvador Minuchin developed brief, action-oriented therapeutic procedures aimed at helping reorganize unstable family structures (did this with delinquents in residential settings) structural views on family organization- pays particular attention to family rules, roles, alignments & coalitions, plus boundaries & subsystems family systems are on a continuum from open to closed system symptoms are conflict defusers that divert attention from family conflicts
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4. Murray Bowen transgenerational view of family system the people with the strongest affective connections (fusion) with the family are the most vulnerable to personal emotional reactions to family stress differentiation of self- a separate sense of self independent from the family, related to the ability to resist being overwhelmed by the emotional reactivity of the family the child most vulnerable to dysfunction is the child most easily drawn into family conflict the most attached child is often the least mature, has the most difficulty separating from the family, and selects a similar marital partner, which leads to a multigenerational transmission of dysfunction process 5. Jay Haley Strategic Family Therapy design novel strategies to eliminate undesired behavior, not interested in insight paradoxical interventions- used to help rid clients of symptoms 6. Nathan Ackerman psychodynamics & family life founded 1st journal in family systems with Don Jackson- "Family Process" (Haley was the Editor) E) Neuroscience 1. David Hubel & Torsten Wiesel 1981- Nobel Prize for research on single-cell recordings in visual cortex that identified feature detector cells (cells that respond to a scene's specific features) 2. Donald Hebb studied how neurons contribute to learning 1949- Hebbian Learning- rule of covariation of synaptic weight between 2 neurons, the connection between 2 neurons is strengthened when both are firing 3. Karl Lashley (1980-1958) trained rats to solve a maze, then cut out pieces of their cortex was trying to find the engram (memory trace) could not completely eliminate memory no matter what part he cut out, concluded that memory does not reside in a single spot mass action- "the amount of cortical tissue destroyed is more important for complex learning than the tissue's location" (Thorne & Henley, p.347) 4. Wilder Penfield (1891-1976) stimulated brains of epileptics with gentle electric currents, and motor response were observed; the patients were not sedated and were asked to comment on their experience 1950- published "The Cerebral Cortex of Man", which mapped the sensory & motor strips 5. Roger Sperry (1913-1994) (with Gazzaniga) split-brain research demonstrated the different psychological functions of the two hemispheres by cutting the corpus callosum F) Ethology-study of animal behavior; revived interest in the instinct concept
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a. Niko Tinbergen (1907-1988) researched aggression & courtship in stickleback fish, the red underbelly of the males serves as a releasing stimulus for aggression (fixed action pattern) 4 areas of study in animal behavior: development, mechanisms, function, and evolution 2. Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989) Father of Ethology imprinting- did research with geese, animals learn to make particular responses to only one type of animal or object (filial/social attachment) looked at sensitive period- period when animal is capable of learning something critical period- optimal period shortly after birth when certain events must take place to facilitate proper development 3. Karl von Frisch (1886-1982) studied communication in bees dance of the honeybee- the direction & duration of the dance tells other bees where to find the honey XII. MINORITY GROUPS IN THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY A. Women a. Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) studied with James at Harvard, but was denied her PhD from there 1893- She and Christine Ladd-Franklin were the 1st women to become APA members 1905- 1st female president of APA founded Wellesley College was a memory researcher, and did self psychology work also b. Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) 1894- 1st woman to receive her PhD in Psychology (at Cornell) studied with Titchener 1921- 2nd female president of APA 1929- elected to the Society of Experimental Psychologists researched visual phenomena wrote "The Animal Mind" about perception, learning & memory 3. Mary Cover Jones (1896-1987) was an associate of Watson's used the pleasurable activity of eating to replace a boy named Peter's fear of rabbits (counterconditioning-used systematic desensitization) 4. Beverly Prosser 1933- 1st African-American woman to receive her doctorate in Psychology (EdD at University of Cincinnati) B. African-Americans a. Francis Sumner (1895-1954) 1920- 1st African-American person to earn a PhD in Psychology (from Clark University) G. Stanley Hall's student taught at Howard University
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b. Kenneth Clark (1914-) he and his wife, Mamie, were the 1st African-Americans to get their PhD's in Psychology from Columbia University Kenneth and Mamie Clark did research on the effects of segregation, and their work was cited in the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court Case Brown vs. the Board of Ed 1971- he was the 1st African-American president of APA was Sumner's student at Howard U 3. Charles Thompson memory researcher who showed that memory is the same for positive & negative events C. History of Hispanic-American Psychology (Notes from Dr. Madero) a. Alfredo Castaneda (1923-) Received PhD from Ohio State University Performed research in child experimental psychology from the 1950s through the 1970s Designed word association tests for Hispanics Created a Children's Anxiety Scale Taught at Stanford University and UC Riverside Promoted the view that traditional psychological therapy is not always appropriate for Hispanics Stressed the need for a more family/community oriented approach to therapy, rather than an individual focus Organized the first Chicano psychology conference while a professor at UC Riverside b. Edward Casavantes (1927-) Was an educational psychologist Worked extensively for Hispanic rights Served on U.S. civil rights commission from 1960-1971 Conducted numerous Mexican-American studies affecting the education of Hispanics and helped further the Chicano movement Performed studies on drug addiction in the Hispanic population Founded the Association of Psychologists por la Raza in 1969 3. Amado Padilla (born 1942) 1966- Received his M.S. from Oklahoma State University 1969- PhD in experimental psychology from the University of New Mexico Worked as a professor at State University of New York, University of California- Santa Barbara and Los Angeles Director of the Spanish-speaking Mental Health Resource Center in Los Angeles in early 1980s 1988-present- Professor of Education at Stanford University Early in his career he investigated inaccuracies of intelligence testing for Spanish-speaking American children advocated the development of culturally sensitive tests that had appropriate test items and that would be administered by trained bicultural/bilingual personnel rejected other solutions, maintaining that culture free tests were impossible to create and that translated tests lost too many important meanings Current research interests are in early bilingualism and how elementary and secondary school students acquire and use a second language in school-based foreign language programs Also examines how motivational factors, learning strategies and parental involvement contribute to successful second language learning
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Also researches academic resilience and positive school experiences with students from at-risk backgrounds Highly involved with the California Foreign Language Project- assists California teachers and foreign language instruction by offering year-round professional development programs including intensive institutes in the summer and follow-up sessions during the school year Currently Chairman of the Committee on Foreign Language Education, California Department of Education and Editor of the Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science
4. Clarissa Pinkola Estes Jungian Analyst, resides in Denver Greater popular impact than any other Hispanic psychologist, wrote "Women Who Run With The Wolves" (sold over a million copies) promoted the use of stories in the psychotherapy process 5. Martha Bernal 1962- PhD from Indiana University 1st Hispanic woman to get a PhD in psychology Pursued a US Public Health Service Postdoctoral Fellowship, and researched human psychophysiology at UCLA 1966- given a grant by NIMH to establish a lab to study orienting responses and classical conditioning in autistic children 1979- received a National Research Service Award from NIMH to study how psychologists prepared to work with multicultural populations 1979- One of the founders of the National Hispanic Psychological Association, later served as its 2nd President 1984- helped establish the Institute of the Americas at UCSD 1986- became a professor at Arizona State University 2000- recognized at the Latino Psychology Conference for her contributions to Latino psychologists 2001- awarded the Contributions to Psychology Award at APA's Annual Convention 6. John Garcia published a study on taste aversion in rats (with Koelling) preparedness/belongingness- some associations are easier for an animal to learn (ex- taste & illness and shock& light in rats) there are biological constraints on what a species can learn; disproved Pavlov's law of equipotentiality 1979-1st Mexican American/Latino to receive the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award 7. Manuel Ramirez, III PhD from University of Texas Researches multicultural psychotherapy- the relationship of acculturation to mental health and family dynamics 8. George Sanchez Father of the Hispanic movement in psychology 1934- PhD from UC-B Worked at University of Texas until his death in 1972 Spent his life working for equal educational rights for Hispanics
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~1976~ 1st symposium on Chicano Psychology at UCI ~10-15 people attended, only 1 woman (Maria Senour), wanted to address the service needs of the Chicano population, felt Chicanos had been left out of psychological research, and wanted to challenge the pathological depictions commonly found of Chicanos in the psychological literature ~1977~ Joe Martinez wrote the 1st edition of a book "Chicano Psychology", which was the first book dedicated exclusively to the study of Mexican Americans The 2nd edition of the book was edited by Martinez & Mendoza, the editors noted that "famous psychology professors from eastern universities wrote the publisher objecting that there could be no such thing as Chicano psychology", but the need to look at culture, social class, gender and oppression are important for understanding the status of Mexican-origin people in this country ~1979~ 1st issue of the Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science is published, Amado Padilla is editor, articles must be APA style and written in English APA mandated cultural diversity classes for psychology programs ~1982~ 2nd symposium on Chicano psychology met at UC-R- there was an increase in the number of attendees, the meeting focused on acculturation & mental illness, Chicana feminism, bilingualism, social psych, and psychotherapy ~1984~ 1st issue of Puerto Rican Journal of Psychology is published the Puerto Rican Association of Psychology ~1985~ NIMH reorganizes and ethnic minority research is "mainstreamed", all 3 research divisions assume responsibility for funding of ethnic minority focused research ~1998~ 3rd symposium on Chicano Psychology held at Michigan State (1st to be held outside the southwest), sponsored by the Julian Samora Research Institute, official title was "Innovations in Chicana/o Psychology: Looking toward the 21st Century" D. History of Asian-American Psychology (Notes from Dr. Madero) 1. Richard Suinn 1959- PhD from Stanford University in Clinical Psych Chair and Professor Emeritus in Psychology at Colorado State University 1992- CSU Minority Distinguished Service Award 1993- APA Career Contribution to Education and Training 1999- Asian American Psychological Association Lifetime Achievement Award 1999- CSPP Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters 1999- APA President worked at Stanford University, Whitman College, University of Hawaii
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2. Patrick Okura Master's in psychology from UCLA 1941- Imprisoned by US Dept of War because of Pearl Harbor 1942- Rescued by Father Flanagan of Boys Town where he worked for the next 18 years 1962- State Planner for Mental Health 1962- National President of the Japanese American Citizen League 1970- Executive Assistant for Director of NIMH for 17 yrs 1972- helped develop AAPA 1987- Received APA's Award for Outstanding Contributions 1988- Established the Okura Mental Health Leadership Foundation 2000- Received the AAPA's Lifetime Achievement Award Founder of National Asian Pacific American Families Against Substance Abuse, Inc. (NAPAFASA) 3. Derald Wing Sue 1969- Received PhD Worked at UC-Berkeley Counseling Center 1972- Co-Founder of AAPA 1972-1975- AAPA President 1989- AAPA Distinguished Contributions Award 1993- AAPA Lifetime Achievement Award 1997- addressed President Clinton's Race Advisory Board on the National Dialogue on Race was asked to join the Committee for Equal Opportunity in Psychology (CEOP) after the APA heard his Washington DC presentation 1999- President of the Society for Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues (DIV .45 of APA) Author of 2 books on multicultural studies 4. Stanley Sue (brother of D.W. Sue) 1971- PhD from UCLA 1971-1981- Professor of Psychology at the University of Washington 1972- Co-Founder of the Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA) 1972-1975- served as the Executive Director and Secretary for AAPA 1977- served on a sub-panel of the President's Commission on Mental Health 1980- 1st Director of the National Asian American Training Center 1982- Vice-President of the Chinese American Mental Health Association 1986- Dean at UCLA 1988- present- Founder and Director of National Research Center on Asian American Mental Health 1990- Received AAPA's Outstanding Contributions Award 1992- Received AAPA's Lifetime Achievement Award 1996-present- Director of the Asian American Studies Program at UC-Davis Eleven Awards, over 100 publications (most on cross cultural issues) 5. Patricia Heras Received her Master's from USIU and doctorate from CSPP Does research in the area of Filipino American Psychology Focuses on the communication between Filipino parents and children and the differences between Filipino and American values 6. Zing Yang Kuo (1898-1970) Chinese psychologist, received his PhD from University of California 1921- wrote an important paper against the concept of instinct
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REFERENCES Hothersall, David (2004). History of Psychology (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (**primary reference**) Thorne, B. Michael & Henley, Tracy B. Connections in the History and Systems of Psychology Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Myers, David (2004). Psychology (7th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Mitchell, Stephen A. & Black, Margaret J. (1995). Freud and Beyond. New York: BasicBooks. Corsini, Raymond J. & Wedding, Danny (Eds.). (1995). Current Psychotherapies. Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc. Notes from Dr. Madero Class Notes- Theories of Personality: Psychoanalytic & Behavioral Theories of Personality Comp Review Packet (2nd ed.).

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HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

KNOWLEDGE COMPETENCY EXAM REVIEW PACKET

History and Systems of Psychology

HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

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HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

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Mind & Body Separate Socrates Plato Descartes

Some Inborn Ideas Socrates Plato Descartes

Mind is Blank Slate Aristotle John Locke

HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

HISTORY AND SYSTEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY

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