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Demonstrating the need for international cooperation in the management and protection of sea turtles, the map on the

right depicts the migratory movements of a hawksbill turtle (pictured above), which was released in Panama and utilized coastal habitats in Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

USAID PROGRAM FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF AQUATIC RESOURCES AND ECONOMIC ALTERNATIVES
20 September 2011
This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Sea Turtle Conservancy (formerly Caribbean Conservation Corporation) under a Sub-Task Order issued by Chemonics.

THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
SYNTHESIS FOR POLICYMAKERS

Prime Contract and Task Order No. EPP-I-00-04-00020-00, Order #5 Subcontract Number EPP-I-00-04-00020-CCC Deliverable Number 2.2
THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

The green turtle is, therefore, a resource shared among Nations. Nicaragua has the responsibility to prevent this resource from being exploited while it is in their seas." 1 Sea turtles are a shared resource that migrates across the oceans, and the populations of sea turtles in Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama spend part of their lives on the beaches and in the marine areas of the three countries forming a marine biological corridor in West Caribbean. 2 As sea turtle species face extreme extinction worldwide, we as a community native of Kuna Yala, Panama, assume a total commitment of caring for them, keeping them and protecting them as our ancestors have always taught. 3

From National Strategic Biodiversity Action Plan for Nicaragua, Convention on Biological Diversity (2000). Available at http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ni/ni-nbsap-01-es.pdf 2 El Acuerdo de Cooperacin para la Conservacin de las Tortugas Marinas en la Costa Caribea de Costa Rica, Nicaragua y Panama (firmado por Costa Rica and Panama). 3 Importancia de las Tortugas Laud para el pueblo Kuna, Available at: http://festivaldelatortuga.blogspot.com/p/importancia-de-las-tortugas-laud-para.html
THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

CONTENTS
Executive Summary and Recommendations ....................................................... 5 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 8 The Social and Biological Geography of Sea Turtles on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama .................................................................... 9 The Biological Geography of Sea Turtles on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama ...................................................................................... 9 The Social Geography of Sea Turtle Use, Conservation and Management on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama .................................. 14 Key Issues Relevant to Trinational Sea Turtle Conservation, Management and Use .................................................................................................................... 19 Review of Prior Efforts at Trinational Cooperation in the Conservation and Management of Sea Turtles on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.............................................................................................................. 20 The International Law of Sea Turtle Conservation as Applied to the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.................................................... 22 Selected International and Regional Instruments Applicable to Sea Turtle Conservation and Management in the Southwestern Caribbean Ecoregion ...... 23
Convention of the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ................................. 23 SPAW Protocol ....................................................................................................................... 27 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles ................... 29 Central American Convention on Biodiversity

Bilateral and Regional Issues that may Affect Sea Turtle Conservation and Management among Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama ................................ 33 The Domestic Law of Sea Turtle Conservation, Management and Use as Applied to the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama ........................ 38 Laws Specific to Sea Turtle Conservation and Management ............................. 38 Laws Addressing Sea Turtle Conservation and Management Within the Framework of Protected Species Legislation ..................................................... 39 Laws Addressing Sea Turtle Conservation and Management Within the Framework of Fisheries Legislation ................................................................... 41 Spatially Explicit Laws that Conserve Sea Turtles and Their Habitat ................. 42 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 55 Recommendations ............................................................................................. 58 Annexes ............................................................................................................. 60 Annex 1 International legislation ..................................................................... 61 Annex 2 Legislation in Nicaragua .................................................................... 82 Annex 3 Legislation in Costa Rica .................................................................. 97 Annex 4 Legislation in Panama..................................................................... 121
THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS


The Sea Turtle Conservancy commissioned this White Paper in order to explore the potential to reengage what are arguably the 3 most important countries to the life history and survival - of sea turtles in the Western Caribbean. The international law framework supports this objective, and the domestic laws for sea turtle conservation and management embraced by each country appears to be consistent with that international law framework. However, political and cultural complexities have made reengagement problematic. Despite these complexities both governments and sea turtle dependent communities may be interested in renewed cooperation around this iconic natural and cultural resource. Considered together, the Caribbean beaches, offshore foraging grounds and migratory routes under the sovereign control of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama probably represents the most significant assemblage of habitats for the superfamily of sea turtles in the Western Hemisphere, and perhaps the world. These habitats lie within what has been described as the Western Caribbean Marine Ecoregion, much of which is under the sovereign control of the three countries. Nicaraguas extensive sea grass beds offer the most important foraging grounds for the Green turtle. Nicaraguas Pearl Cays and the Bocas del Toro region of Panama are two of the most important nesting grounds in the Western Caribbean for the Hawksbill turtle. Costa Ricas Caribbean shoreline provides the sandy beaches for the largest nesting colony of Green turtles in the Hemisphere, and maybe the world. Panama likely has the largest concentration of nesting Leatherback turtles in the Western Caribbean, and second largest in the greater Atlantic Basin. It is probably not an exaggeration to say that the fate of these populations depends in large part on the conservation and management that the three countries provide for them. From the standpoint of international law, there is no agreement to which all three countries are party that creates a framework for the shared conservation and management of sea turtles across all of their habitats. Four agreements, if ratified by all three countries, would best serve these purposes. These include the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), the Protocol Concerning Specifically Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Cartagena Convention (SPAW), the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC) and the Tripartite Agreement (an executive agreement). Among these four agreements, the legal framework provided by the IAC offers the greatest potential. This Convention, ratified by Costa Rica and Panama, and signed (but not ratified) by Nicaragua, singularly addresses sea turtle conservation and management. The Convention creates a supportive framework for ecologically based sub-regional conservation and management. The Convention bans domestic trade in sea turtles, including products and subproducts derived from sea turtles. However, the Convention creates an exception for the managed human use of sea turtles based upon the economic subsistence
THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

needs of traditional communities, an exception Costa Rica currently employs, Panama is seeking, and Nicaragua pursues outside the treaty framework. Defining this term remains a work in progress within the Convention secretariat. As a matter of domestic law, considerable strides have been made in each country in the conservation and management of sea turtles over the last two decades. Each country prohibits the international trade of sea turtles and products derived from sea turtles in compliance with its CITES obligations. Each country requires the use of Turtle Excluder Devices on shrimp trawls in conformance with trade obligations. Each country prohibits the taking of sea turtles subject only to an exception for subsistence use. Each country has a robust legal framework for the creation of protected areas, and has created protected areas specifically for the conservation and management of sea turtle habitat. However, management planning for those protected areas has languished in each country. In addition, significant habitats, especially marine habitats, remain unmanaged and subject to forms of habitat degradation that will ultimately affect sea turtles. Cultural norms, and their legal effect, profoundly affect sea turtle conservation and management in all three countries, but especially in Nicaragua and Panama. Nicaragua and Panama each have devolved natural resource governance to indigenous or traditional communal management regimes that provides substantial local autonomy in matters involving sea turtle conservation and management, within a national legal framework. This devolution framework likely complies with international treaty obligations, and would enable the three countries to enter into cooperative sea turtle conservation and management agreements beneath those treaties, if all three were parties. The political and policy climate between Panama and Costa Rica remains positive for cooperation in the management of sea turtles, and there does not appear to be any major bilateral difficulties that would stand in the way of formalized cooperation between Nicaragua and Panama. However, relations between Nicaragua and Costa Rica have frayed over issues that spill into sea turtle habitats. Foremost among these are ongoing disputes in the International Court of Justice over the Rio San Juan, the riverine boundary that discharges into the Caribbean Sea. Maritime boundaries may also be affected by proceedings in the ICJ contesting the maritime boundaries of Nicaragua and Colombia, in which Costa Rica has intervened. Internally, Nicaragua continues to grapple with the extent and nature of autonomy afforded to its traditional Caribbean coastal communities and indigenous groups. Despite this uncertainty, significant strides have been made at the governmental as well as the community level to address the nature and extent of subsistence use of sea turtles. Under these circumstances, and for the foreseeable future, the following approaches may make sense: NGOs should support regular trinational stakeholder meetings, especially those involving leaders in indigenous and traditional coastal communities in the 3 countries. These meetings should focus on the common threats faced by both consumptive and non-consumptive users of sea turtle resources, especially
THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

habitat degradation caused by overfishing, sedimentation and other forms of land-based pollution, shoreline development, port expansion, offshore oil exploration and tourism development. An ecoregional conservation planning study should be conducted for the Southwestern Caribbean Ecoregion using a priority setting methodology similar to the one that was conducted for the Western Caribbean Ecoregion (http://www.summitfdn.org/foundation/pdfs/wwf_mesoamerican.pdf ). Such a study would provide policy-relevant conservation science concerning sea turtle habitats for an ecoregion that lies largely within the territorial coasts, waters, and exclusive economic zones of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Columbia. The IAC Secretariat should formally review the current legal framework for subsistence use in Nicaragua to determine whether, and under what further conditions, it would satisfy the Conventions exception for economic subsistence use, and notify Nicaragua through an official communication. Traditional communities with political autonomy over natural resources within sea turtle habitat, and the traditional political authority to self-regulate the consumptive and non-consumptive use of sea turtles by local law or through cultural norms, should be invited to participate in the IAC on a regular basis as non-voting parties or observers at the conference of the parties and the deliberations of its Committees and be provided the resources to do so. Costa Rica and Panama should consider entering into a regional ministerial agreement or memorandum of understanding under the CMS to address sea turtle conservation. Nicaragua should be invited to participate as a non-party, as the Convention expressly permits. Traditional communities, as defined above, should also be invited to participate. Consideration should be given to using the convening power of the Ramsar Convention to address cooperation between protected areas of importance to sea turtles in the 3 countries, and to improve the value and quality of protected area management planning. All 3 countries are parties to the convention and there are 2 or more Ramsar sites on the Caribbean coast of each country that encompass sea turtle habitat. Moreover, Ramsar sites define the borders of Nicaragua and Costa Rica and of Panama and Costa Rica. Synergies between the CMS, Ramsar and SPAW protocol should be pursued to create a focus on the Western Caribbean Ecoregion, which encompasses the marine environment of all 3 countries (and also includes Colombia). Ramsar and the CMS have a longstanding Memorandum of Understanding to cooperate on projects that implicate both treaties. This could be invoked here. Costa Rica and Panama should pursue bilateral approaches to sea turtle conservation and management under the auspices of the ongoing cooperative framework for the Rio Sixaola transboundary watershed. NGOs should remain vigilant to unilateral and bilateral development plans and proposals within the Sixaola Watershed that may affect sea turtles and their habitats.
THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

INTRODUCTION
Considered together, the Caribbean beaches, offshore foraging grounds and migratory routes under the sovereign control of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama may represent the most significant assemblage of habitats for the superfamily of sea turtles in the Western Hemisphere, and perhaps the world. Nicaraguas extensive sea grass beds offer the most important foraging grounds for the Green turtle.4 Nicaraguas Pearl Cays are one of the most important nesting grounds in the Western Caribbean for the Hawksbill turtle. 5 Costa Ricas Caribbean shoreline provides the sandy beaches for the largest nesting colony of Green turtles in the Hemisphere, and maybe the world.6 Panama likely has the largest concentration of nesting Leatherback turtles in the Western Caribbean, and second largest in the greater Atlantic Basin.7 It is probably not an exaggeration to say that the fate of these species depends in large part on the conservation and management that the three countries provide for them. At the same time, political and cultural complexities within and between the three countries complicate efforts to achieve the conservation and management these species require for their continued existence. Each country has a unique relationship to the sea turtle and to the coastal communities who interact with sea turtles. Much of coastal Nicaragua and Panama is inhabited by indigenous groups with varying degrees of self-governance over land and resources, and a longstanding cultural tradition of consumptive use of sea turtles. Costa Rica does not share this indigenous cultural and political overlay and recently moved to a non-consumptive approach to sea turtle use through ecotourism. These economic, social and political drivers of sea turtle policy have led the three countries to different strategies for sea turtle conservation and management, reflected in the legal regime that applies to each country. Efforts have been taken in the past to achieve greater levels of transnational cooperation through international agreements, with limited success. The purpose of this white paper is to review and synthesize the current status of international and domestic law that affect sea turtles in the three countries and to draw conclusions concerning whether efforts at trinational cooperation should be renewed, and if so how best to accomplish this. This work updates, builds on and synthesizes a large body of natural and social science and legal literature. It is intended to serve as the basis for continuing discussion within the regional and national sea turtle conservation and management policy communities. Four
4

Mark D. Spalding, Corinna Ravilious, Edmund P. Green, World Atlas of Coral Reefs p. 122- 124 (2001). 5 Cynthia J. Lagueux, Cathi L. Campbell and William A. McCoy, Final Report: 2008 Pearl Cays Hawksbill Conservation Project, Wildlife Conservation Society (April, 2008). 6 Trong, S. and E. Rankin. 2005. Long-Term Conservation Efforts Contribute to Positive Green Turtle Chelonia Mydas Nesting Trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Biological Conservation 121: 111116. 7 See An Assessment of the Leatherback Population in the Atlantic Ocean, NOAA Tech. Mem. NMFS-SEFSC-555 http://www.sefsc.noaa.gov/turtles/TM_555_DcTEWG.pdf.
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appendices support the analysis provided here. These include a review of the international law of sea turtles as it applies to the three nations, and reviews of the domestic law applicable to sea turtles in each of the three countries.

THE SOCIAL AND BIOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
THE BIOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
As shown in Figure 1, the coastlines and offshore waters of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama constitute a large part of the Southwestern Caribbean Marine Ecoregion.8 One defining feature of the ecoregion is the presence of a recirculation gyre that spins off from the Western Caribbean current. Another key physiographic feature of the ecoregion is the broad, relatively shallow Nicaraguan platform that extends approximately 250 kilometers offshore in the north of the country tapering down to just a few kilometers near the Costa Rican border. Coral reefs can be found along the coast throughout the ecoregion but it is not characterized as a continuous barrier reef system. There are several small archipelagos off the coasts of Nicaragua and Panama. Coastal Nicaragua, Coast Rica, and western Panama receive large quantities of nutrient-rich sediment laden runoff from the Caribbean slope, suppressing nearshore reef development while promoting inshore flooded forest and estuarine conditions. There are few long sandy beaches; these are mostly in Costa Rica and eastern Panama.

Spalding, M.D., H.E. Fox, G.R. Allen, N. Davidson, Z.A. Ferdaa, M. Finlayson, B.S. Halpern, M.A. Jorge, A. Lombana, S.A. Lourie, K.D. Martin, E. McManus, J. Molnar, C.A. Recchia and J. Roberston. 2007. Marine ecoregions of the world: a bioregionalization of coastal and shelf areas. BioScience 57(7):573-583.
THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

Figure 1. Marine Ecoregions of the Caribbean. (The Nature Conservancy)

Within this broader ecoregional context, the coastal and offshore biogeographies of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama present distinct habitat niches for the three species of sea turtles most prevalent in the ecoregion. Sea turtles habitats are typically described as nesting habitat, inter-nesting habitat, foraging habitat, developmental habitat (sub-adults) as well as the migration routes between these habitats and into the greater Atlantic Basin. It is quite likely that at one time sea turtles inhabited all of the available marine waters, sandy beaches, coral reefs and sea grass beds in the ecoregion. However, the decline of sea turtles in the Atlantic Basin coupled with the decline in the quality of these habitats across the ecoregion has limited concentrations of these species to discrete areas still favorable for their continuing existence. Although it has 350 kilometers of coastline, Nicaraguas coastal geography is not favorable to the formation of long, sandy beaches or fringing nearshore reefs.9 However, Nicaraguas shallow and broad continental shelf supports a significant but discontinuous coral reef system,10 upon which Hawksbill turtles forage, and one of the largest sea grass meadows in the world, 11 crucial foraging habitat for green turtles. Two groups of offshore islands provide nesting and foraging habitat
9

H.H. Roberts, S.P. Murray, Controls on reef development and the terrigenous-carbonate interface on a shallow shelf, Nicaragua (Central America) 2:2 Coral Reefs 71-80 (1983) 10 Mark D. Spalding, Corinna Ravilious, Edmund P. Green, World Atlas of Coral Reefs p. 122- 124 (2001)(The authors suggest that Nicaraguas reef system may be sufficiently continuous to constitute a true barrier reef system) 11 Id. 10 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

for sea turtles. The Miskito Cays are a group of mangrove islands 50 kilometers offshore from the northern mainland coast, surrounded by sea grass beds and extensive fringing and offshore reefs that provide foraging grounds for green and hawksbill turtles respectively, but very little suitable nesting habitat. The small nearshore islands known as the Pearl Islands in Southern Nicaragua, and their associated fringing reefs, provide favorable nesting and foraging habitat for the hawksbill sea turtle. These islands likely harbor the most significant remaining nesting concentration of hawksbill turtles in the ecoregion.12 The marine waters between Nicaragua and Costa Rica, across the mouth of the San Juan River, form a major migratory corridor between the foraging grounds in Nicaragua and nesting grounds in Costa Rica.

Figure 2. Maps showing location of sea turtle nesting sites on the Caribbean coast of Nicaragua and Costa Rica Dow, et. (2007), Sea Turtle Nesting in the Wider Caribbean, Widecast Technical Report No. 6.

Costa Rica has 212 kilometers of Caribbean coastline, much of it high-energy shoreline with sandy beaches. Beginning near the border with Nicaragua, Northern Costa Ricas long and largely unpopulated black sand beaches support
12

Cynthia J. Lagueux, Cathi L. Campbell and William A. McCoy, Final Report: 2008 Pearl Cays Hawksbill Conservation Project, Wildlife Conservation Society (April, 2008).
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the largest nesting aggregation of green turtles in the hemisphere. This coastline, interrupted by several river mouths, is otherwise continuous from mouth of the Rio Colorado to Moin, just north of Puerto Limon, near the center of the countrys Caribbean coast. The longest stretch of beach runs for 22 miles from the mouth of the Tortuguero River to the mouth of the Parismina River, interrupted by one inlet. The marine waters offshore from these nesting beaches serve as inter-nesting habitat, as well as migration routes to the foraging grounds off the Nicaragua coast and to the open waters of the Caribbean. Fringing coral reefs can be found between Moin and Limon.13 South of Limon, there is another stretch of highenergy sandy beach that runs to Cauhita, but reported nesting is sporadic. Sandy beaches continue between Cauhita and Puerto Viejo. Beginning at Cahuita, Southern Costa Ricas compromised coral reef system provides foraging habitat for hawksbill turtles. These reefs were dramatically affected by an earthquake in 1990. South of Puerto Viejo, patchy fringing reefs and crescent beaches between rock outcroppings offer nesting habitat for the hawksbill as well as the leatherback and green turtles. This coastal geology continues to mouth of the Sixaola River, and the Panama border. Near the Costa Rica border, eastern Panamas sandy beaches on either side of the large semi-enclosed water bodies known as Chiriqu Lagoon and Bahia Almirante provide nesting habitat for the ecoregions greatest concentration of nesting leatherback turtles also the second largest nesting aggregation of this species in the entire Atlantic Basin. Substantial coral reefs in this vicinity offer foraging habitat for hawksbill turtles. At 24 kilometers, Chiriqu Beach is the longest stretch of continuous sandy beach on Panamas long Caribbean coastline. Evidence suggests that the Chiriqu lagoon is utilized as developmental habitat by Green, Hawksbill and even Loggerhead Turtles (which otherwise dont have much of a presence in the ecoregion).14 The marine waters off of Bocas del Toro have also been described as an important station for migrating green turtles en route to and from the nesting beaches of northern Costa Rica and the foraging grounds in Nicaragua.15

13

Jorge Corts, Carlos E. Jimnez, Ana C. Fonseca & Juan Jos Alvarado, Status of Coral Reefs in Costa Rica, Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol. ISSN-0034-7744) Vol. 58 (Suppl. 1): 33-50, May 2010 14 Ruiz, A., M. Daz y R. Merel. 2007. WIDECAST Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas de Panam (Hedelvy J. Guada, Editora). Informe Tcnico del PAC No. 47. UNEP Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston. xii + 119 pp. 15 Id. at 6.
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Figure 3. Maps showing location of sea turtle nesting sites on the Caribbean coast of Panama. Dow, et. (2007), Sea Turtle Nesting in the Wider Caribbean, Widecast Technical Report No. 6.

West of the Chiriqu Lagoon the coastline give way to the Golfo de los Mosquitos, a low energy shoreline with few sandy beaches and little coral formation favorable for sea turtle nesting foraging. The notable exception is the reef formation surrounding the island of Escudo de Veraguas on the western side of the Gulf. Central Panama is dominated by the canal zone, the Port City of Colon and several offshore islands. West of Colon and the Panama Canal, the San Blas Island Archipelago (Kuna Yala) extends along the 373 kilometers of coastline to
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the Colombian border, and includes around 350 small coral islands.16 Mangrove shorelines characterize the low energy mainland coast. The marine waters of the San Blas (Kuna Yala) are of notably good quality, with low sediment inputs from the mainland. This promotes a rich and extensive complex of coral reefs and sea grass beds that surround the islands of the archipelago, highly favorable for foraging by hawksbill and green turtles. The islands sandy beaches also offer good nesting opportunities for the Hawksbill. Nonetheless, there does not appear to be a substantial nesting population, perhaps attributable to high levels of human predation.

THE SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF SEA TURTLE USE, CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
The social geography of the Caribbean coastlines of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama is as varied as the biography. The northern half of the Nicaraguan coast is inhabited by the Miskito indigenous people, whose range extends from the Honduran border south to the Laguna de Perlas basin. Turtle fishing among the Miskito has been documented for at least 400 years and was once a primary subsistence activity engaged in by a large majority of the male population.17 Turtles were once hunted by harpoon, though the use of nets in sleeping grounds is now the dominant hunting strategy.18 Green turtles are an important source of protein for the Miskito communities. Traditionally, green turtle meat was one the most respected types of protein, suitable for sharing with the wider community in order to gain social prestige and secure future reciprocity.19 Hawksbills, due to their smaller size, were not as desirable for meat, though they were occasionally hunted. What was once subsistence-level turtle fishing among the Miskito transformed with their increasing exposure to the broader market economy. In the mid-1600s, an English trading company opened in Caribbean Nicaragua, which provided an external market for sea turtle products.20 In 1969 and 1970, turtle meat-packing plants opened in Bluefields and Puerto Cabezas, respectively, which greatly increased the level of green turtle exploitation.21 At the same time, hawksbills, once undervalued for their meat, became highly valued for their shells on the
16

Carlos E. Diez, Robert P. van Dam, Guillermo Archibold, In-water Survey of Hawksbill Turtles at Kuna Yala, Panam, 96 Marine Turtle Newsletter 10-16 (2002) available at http://www.seaturtle.org/mtn/PDF/MTN96.pdf 17 Nietschmann, B. 1972. Hunting and Fishing Focus Among the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. Human Ecology 1(1): 4167. 18 Garland, K.A. and R.R. Carthy. 2010. Changing Taste Preferences, Market Demands and Traditions in Pearl Lagoon, Nicaragua: A Community Reliant on Green Turtles for Income and Nutrition. Conservation and Society 8(1): 55-72. 19 Nietschmann, B. 1972. Hunting and Fishing Focus Among the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. Human Ecology 1(1): 4167. 20 Helms, M. 1971. Purchase Society: Adaptation to Economic Frontiers. Anthropological Quarterly 42(4): 325342. 21 Nietschmann, B. 1972. Hunting and Fishing Focus Among the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. Human Ecology 1(1): 4167. 14 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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international market. Though the meat packing plants were permanently closed when Nicaragua became a signatory of CITES in 197722, the booming market economy permanently altered the Miskito culture and its relationship to sea turtles.23 In addition to Miskito inhabitants, the Laguna de Perlas basin is also the home of three other ethnic groups: Creole (52%), Garifuna (14%), and Mestizo (1.4%).24,25 Historically, these groups have hunted green and hawksbill turtles for meat and have harvested hawksbill eggs from nesting beaches on the Cayos Perlas. In addition to being used for personal consumption, turtle meat is sold both within and between communities in the basin.26 Though the basin is now better connected to the rest of Nicaragua by a recently completed road between the towns of Laguna de Perlas and El Rama (approximately 50 km inland, up the Rio Escondido), its prior isolation created a culture of turtle consumption given the predictable availability of turtle and the absence of other forms of protein. Even today, turtle meat is considerably less expensive than chicken, beef, or pork, and most older residents prefer the taste of turtle to that of other meats.27 Though turtle fishing was greatly reduced during the Nicaraguan civil war in the 1980s, the 1990s saw a resurgence and it is now estimated that a minimum of 11,000 green turtles are harvested annually in Nicaraguan artisanal fisheries.28 In recent years, increasing and uncontrolled development on the Cayos Perlas has also affected turtle populations. These islands are the home to both permanent residences and centers for the purchase of marine products (acopios). Approximately 200 people live on the Cayos during the fishing season, but an additional 2000 visited the islands 2007, about 800 of whom were fishermen.29 The Cayos Perlas have also been identified in the international press as an undiscovered paradise, undoubtedly making them a target for future tourism development.30 Connected to the recent infrastructural development on the islands
22

Garland, K.A. and R.R. Carthy. 2010. Changing Taste Preferences, Market Demands and Traditions in Pearl Lagoon, Nicaragua: A Community Reliant on Green Turtles for Income and Nutrition. Conservation and Society 8(1): 55-72. 23 Nietschmann, B. 1972. Hunting and Fishing Focus Among the Miskito Indians, Eastern Nicaragua. Human Ecology 1(1): 4167. 24 Beer, G. and S. Vanegas. 2007. Diagnstico para la Demarcacin de las doce comunidades Indgenas y Afrodescendientes de la cuenca de Pearl Lagoon. Bluefields, Nicaragua: Universidad de las Regiones Autnomas de la Costa Caribe Nicaragense (URACCAN) y Instituto de Recursos Naturales, Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible (IREMADES). 25 Riverstone, G. 2003. Living in the land of our ancestors: Rama Indian and Creole territory on Nicaraguas Caribbean Coast. Managua: Agencia Sueca para el Desarrollo Internacional (ASDI). 26 Garland, K.A. and R.R. Carthy. 2010. Changing Taste Preferences, Market Demands and Traditions in Pearl Lagoon, Nicaragua: A Community Reliant on Green Turtles for Income and Nutrition. Conservation and Society 8(1): 55-72. 27 Ibid. 28 Campbell. C and C.J. Lagueux. 2005. Survival Probability Estimates for Large Juvenile and Adult Green Turtles (Chelonia Mydas) Exposed to an Artisanal Marine Turtle Fishery in the Western Caribbean. Herpetologica 61(2): 91-103. 29 Gonzalez, C. and S. Jentoft. 2011. MPA in Labor: Securing the Pearl Cays of Nicaragua. Environmental Management 47: 617-629. 30 Ibid. 15 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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are activities that destroy nesting habitat, including vegetation removal, artificial beach lighting, pollution, sand mining, wharf construction, and the presence of exotic fauna.31,32 In addition to the indirect effects of human presence, egg poaching has also been of concern to turtle conservation organizations working in the area.33 The stretch of Nicaraguan coastline south of Bluefields and directly north of Costa Rica, El Cocal, is sparsely populated (~600 residents in 1998). It provides nesting habitat for leatherback, hawksbill, and, to a lesser extent, green turtles. This area is largely understudied but it has been reported that the primary threats to turtles are from egg poaching, the killing of nesting females, and bycatch in commercial and artisanal fisheries.34 Commercial bycatch of sea turtles along the entire Nicaraguan coastline was exacerbated in the late 1980s by the expansion of the Nicaraguan fishing fleet, thanks to a loan from the Inter-American Development Bank.35 In contrast to Nicaragua, Costa Ricas Caribbean coast today has very few indigenous inhabitants, though there is a history of turtle hunting among indigenous peoples prior to European arrival.36 The majority of the current population in the region is of Afro-Caribbean descent, whose ancestors arrived in Costa Rica from Jamaica the British West Indies in the 1870s to work on the Atlantic railroad and banana plantations. As discussed previously, two major stretches of the Costa Rican Caribbean coastline provide suitable nesting habitat. Green, leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles nest from the Nicaraguan border at Barra del Colorado as far south as Isla Uvita (encompassing the major settlements of Tortuguero, Jaloba, Parismina, Pacuare, Matina, and Moin). Leatherback, hawksbill, and green turtles nest in the southern region from Cahuita to Gandoca (encompassing the community of Puerto Viejo). When Archie Carr arrived in Tortuguero in the early 1950s, nearly every green turtle that arrived on the beach to nest was captured and taken to market.37 Carr implemented research and conservation programs in the area in an attempt to prevent the total disappearance of the nesting population at Tortuguero and by the late 1950s there were legal limits placed on the harvest of adult turtles and eggs. 38 Egg and turtle collection were completely banned in
31 32

Ibid. Lagueux, C.J., C.L. Campbell, and W.A. McCoy. 2008. 2008 Pearl Cays Hawksbill Conservation Project, Nicaragua. Final report. Bronx, NY: Wildlife Conservation Society. 33 Ibid. 34 Lagueux, C.J. and C.L. Campbell. 2005. Marine Turtle Nesting and Conservation Needs on the South-East Coast of Nicaragua. Oryx 39(4): 398-405. 35 Archbold, M. 2008. Conservation of Green Turtles on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua A Governance Approach. M.A. thesis, University of Troms. 36 Lefevre, H. 1992. Turtle Bogue, Afro-Caribbean Life and Culture in a Costa Rican Village. Selinsgrove: Susquehanna University Press, Selinsgrove. 37 Bjorndal, K.A., J.A. Wetherall, A.B. Bolten, and J.A. Mortimer. 1999. Twenty-Six Years of Green Turtle Nesting at Tortuguero, Costa Rica: An Encouraging Trend. Conservation Biology 13(1): 126134. 38 Ibid. 16 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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1963, the export of calipee (an edible, gelatinous substance found beneath the turtle shell) was banned in 1969, and Tortuguero National Park was founded in 1970, all of which furthered the goal of promoting the non-consumptive use of sea turtles in Costa Rica.39 Since the mid-1980s, ecotourism has been promoted in Tortuguero as an alternative source of income for local people. Today, Tortuguero receives tens of thousands of visitors annually. Though the increase in eco- and scientific tourism has not eliminated turtle and egg poaching, the hope is that the existence of economic alternatives to turtle hunting will incentivize the nonconsumptive exploitation of the various turtle species that arrive in Tortuguero to nest. Turtle research and conservation projects have also been established on beaches south of Tortuguero, including Jaloba, Parismina, and Pacuare. The southernmost stretch of Costa Ricas Caribbean coast, from Cahuita to Gandoca, is primarily leatherback nesting territory. Research and conservation programs are in place in this region, but poachers still claim approximately 1-3% of all clutches laid at Gandoca.40 Another key threat is the loss of nesting habitat through beach erosion and the deposition of debris from upland development and deforestation at the river mouths, which blocks the movement of female adults and traps emerging hatchlings. Other less critical threats include coastal development, sand mining, agricultural runoff, and beachfront illumination.41 Poaching of adult turtles is rare in this area, but is more common across the nearby Panamanian border. Ecotourism based on the non-consumptive use of turtles has been promoted in Gandoca, though to a lesser extent than in Tortuguero. Upon crossing the border to Panama, the first important location for sea turtle nesting and foraging is the Bocas del Toro region. Leatherback turtles nest on the beaches north of the Bocas del Toro archipelago, including Playas Sixaola, San San, Soropta, Bluff, and Larga (all of which have active turtle research and conservation projects in place), and on various islands of the archipelago, including Bastimentos and Isla Colon. Leatherbacks, hawksbills, and greens nest on Playa Chiriqu, just east of the Laguna Chiriqu.42,43 Juvenile green, loggerhead, and hawksbill turtles forage in the Laguna Chiriqu.44

39

Trong, S. and E. Rankin. 2005. Long-Term Conservation Efforts Contribute to Positive Green Turtle Chelonia Mydas Nesting Trend at Tortuguero, Costa Rica. Biological Conservation 121: 111116. 40 Chacn-Chaverri, D. and K. Eckert. 2007. Leatherback Sea Turtle Nesting at Gandoca Beach in Caribbean Costa Rica: Management Recommendations from Fifteen Years of Conservation. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 6(1): 101-110. 41 Chacn-Chaverri, D. and K. Eckert. 2007. Leatherback Sea Turtle Nesting at Gandoca Beach in Caribbean Costa Rica: Management Recommendations from Fifteen Years of Conservation. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 6(1): 101-110. 42 Id. 43 Ordoez, C., S. Trong, A. Meylan, P. Meylan, and A. Ruiz. 2007. Chiriqui Beach, Panama, the Most Important Leatherback Nesting Beach in Central America. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 6(1): 122-126. 44 Engstrom, T.N., P. Meylan, and A.B. Meylan. 2002. Origin of Juvenile Loggerhead Turtles (Caretta Caretta) in a Tropical Development Habitat in Caribbean Panam. Animal Conservation 5: 125-133. 17 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

Culturally, this region is home to the Ngbe-Bugl indigenous group, in addition to mestizo and Afro-Caribbean peoples and a growing foreign population. Much of the turtle foraging and nesting habitat is located within the Comarca Ngbe-Bugl. Turtle hunting is an important traditional activity among men, and turtle meat is afforded a reverence that terrestrial meats are not.45 For cultural reasons, the Ngbe do not consume leatherback eggs or meat46,47, though greens are hunted for meat and hawksbills are killed for their shells. Within the Comarca, the communities of Playa Roja, Rio Caa, and Rio Chiriqu participate in turtle research and conservation projects led by the Sea Turtle Conservancy. While poaching of nesting turtles is infrequent on Playa Chiriqu (poaching is more common outside the Comarca than within it)48, juvenile turtles are fished from foraging grounds in the Laguna Chiriqu and some nesting turtles are killed for their eggs as they arrive on the beaches. Hunting is conducted by both indigenous and non-indigenous residents of the region. Interestingly, the greatest humanrelated threat to leatherback turtles in this area is predation by dogs.49 Another human activity of concern is tourism development, which impacts nesting habitat through construction and beach illumination.50 The eastern end of Panamas Caribbean coast contains hawksbill f oraging grounds and nesting habitat for both hawksbills and leatherbacks. It is also home to the Comarca Kuna Yala, formerly known as San Blas. The Kuna, known for their intricate layered fabric panels (molas) many of which carry designs inspired by their marine environment, historically consumed only sea turtle eggs. Turtles were thought to be humans who were being punished by Bab Dummad, or Great Father, the Kuna deity responsible for creating the world in tandem with the Great Mother. Anyone who ate turtle meat was at risk of contracting tuberculosis. Later, customs changed and the Kuna began to hunt turtles for personal consumption. In addition, much like with the Miskito, exposure to the market economy led to the overexploitation of turtles for profit.51 Recently, however, the Kuna implemented a

45

Seifert, M.E. 2007. Guaymi Provisioning in the Rural Caribbean of Panama: A Diachronic Analysis of Market Forces and the Identification of Indigenous Micro-Economies. Ph.D. Dissertation, Brandeis University. 46 Ordoez, C., S. Trong, A. Meylan, P. Meylan, and A. Ruiz. 2007. Chiriqui Beach, Panama, the Most Important Leatherback Nesting Beach in Central America. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 6(1): 122-126. 47 It should be noted that Seiferts research among the Guaym indicates that leatherbacks are, indeed, hunted and consumed. 48 E. Harrison, pers. comm. 49 Ordoez, C., S. Trong, A. Meylan, P. Meylan, and A. Ruiz. 2007. Chiriqui Beach, Panama, the Most Important Leatherback Nesting Beach in Central America. Chelonian Conservation and Biology 6(1): 122-126. 50 E. Harrison, pers. comm. 51 Ventocilla, J., H. Herrera, and V. Nuez. 1995. Plants and Animals in the Life of the Kuna. Austin: University of Texas Press.
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voluntary ban on the hunting of sea turtles and their eggs, in recognition of the species declining population.52

KEY ISSUES RELEVANT TO TRINATIONAL SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE
Sea turtles can be impacted directly through the intentional take of adults, juvenile and eggs, or they can be impacted indirectly through habitat modification. The law has been quicker to deal with the former, through bans or limits on harvests, and through the imposition of technologies that limit indirect takings. Habitat modification has proven to be a more difficult issue to address, especially given the complex and wide-ranging habitat requirements of sea turtles. To the extent this has been addressed, it is addressed largely through spatially-explicit regulation, e.g. the creation of protected areas. However, no protected area protects any species of sea turtle throughout its range, and most are geographically limited to the nesting beach. Habitat modification can occur through shoreline development, incompatible resource extraction, such as off shore oil and gas exploration and exploitation, and the introduction of land-based sources of pollution. Both anthropogenic and natural climate and geological processes can also affect habitats, and these sometime compound one another. Examples include earthquakes, erosion inducing tropical cyclones, and climate variability such as El Nio/La Nia patterns. Longer-term climate patterns can also induce erosion through sea level rise and create conditions that may affect nesting and foraging habitat, such as elevated sand temperatures. Issues of particular regional concern at this time include sedimentation from deforestation that occurs along the Caribbean slope, far from sea turtle habitat; proposals to develop offshore oil and gas potential; the development or expansion of ports as a result of the expansion of the Panama Canal, and incremental coastal and shoreline population growth spurred by tourism and other development opportunities. Over-fishing also has a significant effect on the quality of marine habitats such as coral reefs.

52

Patino-Martinez, J., A. Marco, L. Quiones, and B. Godley. 2008. Globally Significant Nesting of the Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys Coriacea) on the Caribbean Coast of Colombia and Panama. Biological Conservation 141: 1982-1988. 19 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

REVIEW OF PRIOR EFFORTS AT TRINATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
Efforts to create a formal collaboration mechanism to conserve and manage the shared sea turtle populations in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama began with the efforts of University of Florida herpetologist Dr. Archie Carr and the three countrys first generation of conservationists in the late 1960s. At least one meeting took place with representatives from the three countries and term tripartite agreement was used to describe the proposal, which was presented in a small pamphlet.53 However, before the Agreement could be furthered, Nicaragua apparently received external funding to develop a commercial export industry in turtle products.54 As a result, the proposed Tripartite Agreement went no further. The 1990s ushered in an era of environmental regionalism in Central America, beginning with a dramatic proposal to link the protected areas of the isthmus and ensure a contiguous biological corridor between North and South America.55 Archie Carrs son, Archie Carr III, then Director of the Mesoamerica Program coined the term Paseo Pantera to describe this ambitious biogeographic project.56 The idea gained currency and the Paseo Pantera became the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor.57 Former Costa Rican president Oscar Arias, fresh from his Nobel Prize for brokering the peace agreement that allowed regionalism to flourish, proposed a series of peace parks linking border protected areas on the isthmus.58 The institutional infrastructure to pursue this effort emerged through as series of regional agreements and the creation of the Central
53 54

Available on file with author See http://www.conserveturtles.org/costarica.php?page=tripartite (the turtle processing facility was closed down when Nicaragua ratified the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species in 1977). 55 See generally, Thomas T. Ankersen, The Mesoamerican Biological Corridor: The Legal Framework for an Integrated System of Protected Areas, 9 J. of Envtl L. & Lit. 499 (1994). 56 See Archie Carr III, The President Smiled: First Steps on the Path of the Panther Project (undated)(available at http://www.scribd.com/doc/32380987/The-President-Smiled 57 See Kenton Miller, Elsa Chang Nels Johnson, Defining Common Ground for the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor (World Resources Institute, 2001) available at http://www.bionica.info/Biblioteca/Miller2001.pdf (providing a succinct history of the concept) 58 See Generally, Arias, O. and Nations, J.D.,1992. A Call for Central American Peace Parks. In: Sheldon, A. and Byers, A.M. (Eds.), Poverty, Natural Resources, and Public Policy in Central America. pp. 4358. Overseas Development Council, Washington, DC, USA.
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American Commission on Environment and Development.59 In coastal waters, a Mesoamerican Reef Initiative also gained traction. Under the umbrella of this regionalism, Costa Rica and Nicaragua created the binational peace park Si-aPaz, and Costa Rica and Panama created the binational peace park La Amistad. Though binational in name only there is no joint management regime - these symbolic efforts helped shape the view that transnational cooperative conservation was possible in a region shaped by conflict and mistrust of its northern neighbors. Thinking big was the order of the day, and one particularly big proposal created the Moskito Coast Biological Reserve on the southern Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua, through an executive decree signed by President Violeta Chomorro.60 On the other side of the border, Costa Rica expanded its protected area system north to the Nicaraguan border creating the Barra del Colorado National Wildlife Refuge.61 Against this backdrop of environmental regionalism, the Caribbean Conservation Corporation, an NGO with a long time presence in Costa Rica, revived the long dormant notion of a trilateral agreement between the three countries of greatest importance to the life history of three turtle species that inhabit the Western Caribbean.62 The CCC had been also been a strong proponent of the Moskito Coast Biological Reserve Project and had a growing on the ground presence in Panama. Environmental law NGOs and academics from each of the three countries and the United States contributed to the legal infrastructure, undertaking a comprehensive analysis of the international and comparative law governing sea turtles,63 and preparing a draft agreement for the purposes of negotiations. With support from a USAID regional technical assistance project known as PROARCA-CAPAS, and with the diplomatic support of the U.S. Department of States Environmental Hub, a round of negotiations was concluded that led to a draft agreement ready for signature by each of the three presidents. The foreign affairs ministry of each of the participating governments signed off on the draft agreement on and a signing ceremony was scheduled to coincide with the inauguration of Costa Rica president Miguel Angel Rodriguez. The Tripartite
59

Matthew Wilburn King, Marco Antonio Gonzlez, Mauricio Castro Salazar, and Carlos Manuel Rodriguez, Paving the Way: The Role of the Central American Commission for Environment and Development (CCAD) in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding through Environmental Governance (undated), available at: http://www.eli.org/pdf/pcnrm/Abstracts/King.CentralAmerica.pdf 60 The site was officially designated La Reserva Biolgica Marina Cayos Miskitos y Franja Costera Inmediata by Executive Decree No. 43 of 30 October 1991. See Central American and Caribbean Research Council, Diagnstico general sobre la tenencia de la tierra en las comunidades indgenas de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua (1996)(available at: http://ccarconline.org/marcogeneral.pdf ) 61 Major expansion planned for Tortuguero National Park, Velador: Newsletter of the Caribbean Conservation Corporation (Winter, 1992) 62 Nicaragua hosts the most important nesting beaches for the Hawksbill turtle and the most important foraging ground for the green turtle. Costa Rica is the most important nesting ground for the green turtle and Panama for the Leatherback. 63 Chris Wold, The Status of Sea Turtles under International Environmental Law And International Environmental Agreements, Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy, 5: 1148 (2002)(international law)(the 2002 Comparative law diagnostics remain on file with the authors). 21 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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Agreement would be the new Presidents first official international act. With no advance notice, the Nicaraguan President, Arnoldo Aleman, who was in San Jose for the inauguration, failed to appear for the signing ceremony at the Casa Presidencial in San Jose. In his absence, President Rodriguez and President Balladares signed the Agreement.64 The reason for the Nicaraguan Presidents failure to sign the Agreement was never disclosed, though for a period of time thereafter there remained speculation that it would be signed. To become effective, the Agreement required the signature of all three parties. To date, the final signature has not been forthcoming.

THE INTERNATIONAL LAW OF SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION AS APPLIED TO THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
As part of the effort to create the tripartite agreement described above, the Caribbean Conservation Corporation (now Sea Turtle Conservancy) commissioned a white paper addressing the status of sea turtles under international law. That white paper was published as a journal article in 2002.65 Much of the underlying international law addressed in that article remains the same in 2011. However, there have also been significant developments in terms of the international law agreements that were analyzed in that article, as well as in the nature and extent of the tripartite nations participation in those agreements. In addition, longstanding international law disputes involving Costa Rica, Nicaragua and other neighbors continue to confound cooperation efforts. The four agreements that appear to offer the greatest promise for achieving ecosystem scale conservation and management in the Southwestern Caribbean Ecoregion are the Bonn Convention, the SPAW protocol, the Inter-American Convention and the dormant Tripartite Agreement. A fifth agreement, the broadly worded Central American Biodiversity Agreement is not specifically tailored to the needs of sea turtles, but does represent an umbrella for cooperation that all countries participate in. The table below provides the legal status of these agreements in each of the three countries. A more comprehensive treatment of all international agreements that contribute to conservation and management of sea turtles is included I in Appendix I.

64

International Agreement for the conservation of Caribbean sea turtles signed by Central American Presidents, Velador: Caribbean Conservation News letter (Spring 1998). 65 C. Wold, The Status of Sea Turtles under International Environmental Law and International Environmental Agreements, 5 J. of International Wildlife Law and Policy 11 (2002)
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SELECTED INTERNATIONAL AND REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS APPLICABLE TO SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE SOUTHWESTERN CARIBBEAN ECOREGION
Table 2. Summary of key international and regional instruments applicable to sea turtle conservation in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama

Nicaragua Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species and Wild Animals (CMS) Protocol Concerning Specifically Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC) Central American Convention on Biodiversity Tripartite Agreement (executive agreement does not require ratification) N N S R N

Costa Rica R N R R S

Panama R R R R S

S = Signed; R = Ratified; N = Not a party

THE CONVENTION OF THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES OF WILD ANIMALS The Convention of the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (the CMS) focuses on the protection of migratory species by imposing conservation obligations to protect endangered migratory species listed in Appendix I of the CMS. The CMS also establishes a process for creating specific agreements for the conservation of species listed on Appendix II of the CMS.66 The duties imposed upon a party depends on whether they are a Range State. A Range State is any State with jurisdiction over the areas of land or water where a particular species migrates through or inhabits.67 Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam have been identified by the Conference of Parties (COP) of the CMS as Range States for all four species of marine turtles addressed in this paper. 68 The COP is a decision-making body of the CMS charged with monitoring the status of
66

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983) [hereinafter CMS], Article IV. 67 CMS, Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (2002). 68 CMS, Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (2002). 23 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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migratory species, making recommendations to Parties as well as supporting the work of the Scientific Council69 and the Secretariat.70 For Appendix I species, Range State Parties must endeavour to conserve and, where feasible restore the essential habitat of the Appendix I species. 71 In addition, Parties must endeavor to prevent or mitigate obstacles to the migration of the species,72 and to the extent feasible, reduce factors leading to endangerment.73 Furthermore, Parties are directed to prohibit the taking,74 of any Appendix I species.75 An exception to this take prohibition is allowed for scientific purpose, enhancing the survival of the species in the wild, traditional subsistence needs, and extraordinary circumstances.76 Any exceptions made for extraordinary circumstances must be precise as to content and limited in space and time. 77 For Appendix II species, the CMS provides a process by which Parties may enter into international conservation agreements.78 Specifically, Parties must endeavor to develop agreements for the conservation of Appendix II migratory species.79 The purpose of the agreement is to restore the migratory species concerned to a favorable conservation status or to maintain it in such a status.80 Application. Panam and Costa Rica are parties to the CMS; however, Nicaragua is not. Under the CMS guidelines Parties can enter into CMS sub-agreements or memoranda of understanding with any non-member. It is therefore not necessary for Nicaragua to become a party to the CMS for the three parties to form an effective CMS agreement. The CMS is more concerned with effectively protecting the entire migratory range of a species, regardless of if the Range State is a Party or not. With relation to sea turtles, the CMS encourages Range States to engage
69

The Scientific Council is charged with providing advice on scientific matters and is created by Article VIII of the CMS. 70 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article VII. 71 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article II. 72 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article III(4)(b). 73 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article III(4)(c). 74 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article I(1)(i) (the term taking means taking, hunting, fishing capturing, harassing, deliberate killing, or attempting to engage in any such conduct. ) 75 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article III(5). 76 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article III(5)(a)-(d). 77 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article III(5)(d). 78 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article V. 79 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article IV(3). 80 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), Article V(1). 24 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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in concerted regional efforts to protect sea turtles and that a comprehensive global framework should eventually emerge.81 All species of sea turtle have been placed on both Appendix I and II except for the flatback turtle. In 2002, the CMS identified interaction with fisheries and by-catch as the greatest obstacle to migration for sea turtles.82 The provisions of the CMS have been interpreted to prohibit the capture of sea turtles in shrimp trawlers that do not use turtle excluder devices (TEDs), even if the capture is not deliberate.83 Panam became an official signatory in 1989 and Costa Rica in 2007.84 All signatories are required to submit National Reports to the CMS. These reports describe the efforts being made in each country to advance specific CMS objectives and protect migratory species generally as well as identifying country specific threats to the listed species. In its 2011 National Report, Costa Rica identified the Programa Nacional de Vida Silvestre; Sistema Nacional de reas de Conservacin; Ministerio del Ambiente, Energa y Telecomunicaciones; Instituto Costarricense de Pesca y Acuicultura; Escuela de Biologa de la Universidad de Costa Rica as being the government agencies responsible for acting on behalf of the protection of sea turtles.85 Costa Rica identify several laws relevant to the protection of migratory species86 as well as NGOs specifically involved in protecting sea turtles.87 Costa Rica has identified illegal extraction of marine turtle eggs as a major threat to sea turtles within their jurisdiction.88 Additionally, Costa Rica notes that there has been some success in decreasing the number of eggs being extracted resulting from the increased monitoring of beaches used by sea turtles as well as the formation of marine protected areas and increasing public awareness regarding sea turtle issues.89 The Costa Rica report also identifies a lack of research and training as limiting their ability to manage threats to sea
81

CMS, Resolutions and Recommendations, adopted at the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (1999). 82 CMS, Synthesis of Party Reports, adopted at the Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, (2002). 83 C. Wold, The Status of Sea Turtles under International Environmental Law and International Environmental Agreements, 5 J. of International Wildlife Law and Policy 11, 34 (2002), citing S. Lyster, Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, 29 Natural Resources J. 979, 992, n. 42 (1989); The CMS requests that parties protect migratory species, including sea turtles, against by-catch by fisheries within their territorial waters and exclusive economic zones, and by vessels fishing on the high seas under their flags. (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Resolution 6.2, By-Catch, Adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its Sixth Meeting (Cape Town, 10-16 November 1999). 84 Parties to the CMS and its Agreements, as at current, available at http://www.cms.int/about/Partylist_eng.pdf. 85 CMS, Costa Rica National Report, pg. 8 (2011). 86 Ley Orgnica del Ambiente; Ley de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre y su Reglamento, la Ley de Biodiversidad y su Reglamento, Ley de Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas, Ley del Servicio de Parque Nacionales. 87 CMS, Costa Rica National Report, (2011) (Fundacion Keto.org Cetaceos y Tortugas de Costa Rica; Fundacion Conservacion del Caribe y Conservacion de las Tortugas Marinas; CCC; Centro Cientifico Tropical; Fundacion Mar Viva; Latin American Sea Turtle Conservation Program). 88 CMS, Costa Rica National Report p. 20-24 (2011). 89 CMS, Costa Rica National Report pp. 20-24 (2011). 25 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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turtles.90 Costa Rica asserts that receiving assistance as well as increasing training of employees would help the government better control threats to sea turtles.91 In the 2011 National Report submitted by Panam, Panam identified several organizations (both governmental and non-governmental as being actively involved in protecting migratory species in Panam.92 The Panamanian institutions specifically charged with enforcing actions related to the protection of sea turtles are Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente, Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panama.93 Illegal takes, loss of habitat and hotel developments are the largest threats in Panam according to its report.94 To address these threats Panama has increased environmental education, conservation and protection programs, alliances with NGOs, communities and other governmental institutions.95 Conclusion. The CMS is useful in several ways. First, through a CMS trust fund, larger economies are able to provide financial support to developing countries in carrying out the objectives of the convention.96 Second, the CMS has a scientific body that provides standards and guidance for range states to use when managing a particular species.97 Third, the CMS supports the creation of subagreements and memoranda of understandings under which regional management of the migratory range of a species can occur. To date, there is no CMS agreement or memorandum of understanding aimed at the protection of sea turtles in the Caribbean or Latin America. There are established memoranda of understanding for sea turtles in Africa as well as the Indian Ocean and South-East Asian region, however, nothing in the Caribbean or Latin America. Costa Rica, Panam and Nicaragua could create a CMS memorandum of understanding regarding the conservation of sea turtles within their jurisdictions. This can be
90 91

CMS, Costa Rica National Report, p. 20 (2011). CMS, Costa Rica National Report, p. 20 (2011). 92 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 6 (2011); Government Organizations: La Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam, rige sobre los recursos marino costeros de Panam, exceptuando las reas protegidas con ecosistemas marino costeros, ya que estos estn bajo juridiccin de la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente, pero existe una relacin de trabajo, pues en muchos casos se debe coordinar actividades en donde estn involucradas, especies migratorias con legislacin especial, por ejemplo tortugas marinas y cetceos. Non-Governmental Organizations: Sociedad AUDUBON de Panam, Fondo Peregrino de Panam, Instituto Smithsonian de Investigaciones Tropicales (STRI), AVIFAUNA (Fundacin Eugene Eisemann), Sociedad Mastozoolgica de Panam (SOMASPA), Fundacin Mar Viva de Panam, Fundacin Verde de Panama. 93 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 7 (2011). 94 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 15 (2011). 95 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 15 (2011). 96 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983), at resolution 1.2, annex 3, 1985; see also CMS, Final Act (1979) p. 2. 97 The CMS also recommends certain independent research studies for parties to follow. One such study is Eckert, K.L., Bjorndal, K.A., Abreu-Grobois, F.A. and Donnelly, M. (Eds) (1999). Research and management techniques for the conservation of sea turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4. 26 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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accomplished despite the fact that Nicaragua is not yet a party to the convention. This memorandum of understanding or agreement would provide guidelines and commitments regarding the management and preservation of sea turtles and their habitats located in the territories of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam. THE PROTOCOL CONCERNING SPECIALLY PROTECTED AREAS AND WILDLIFE (SPAW PROTOCOL) The Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol) is part of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention). The Cartagena Convention is a legally binding international treaty created in 1983 for the purpose of committing governments in the Wider Caribbean Region to protect, develop and manage their coastal and marine resources. In 1990, members of the Cartagena Convention adopted the SPAW Protocol with the objective of protecting rare and fragile ecosystems and habitats. This ecosystem based approach to protection understands the intricate connection each species has with its environment and that saving any species requires protecting the environment upon which it relies. The SPAW Protocol also assists with the regional implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The SPAW Protocol is useful for sea turtle conservation and management because it is focused only on coastal and marine species in the Wider Caribbean Region, and it reaches a level of focus and specificity that larger more comprehensive environmental agreements are often unable to reach. As with most other environmental treaties, the SPAW Protocol uses a listing system to differentiate species requiring different levels of protection. For all categories of species, Parties are required to adopt cooperative measures to ensure the protection and recovery.98 All species of sea turtle of concern are listed under Annex II. Annex II prohibits the commercial trade as well as the direct or incidental take or killing of an Annex II species, their eggs, parts or products.99 The section also specifies that, to the extent possible, member states are prohibited from disturbing an Annex II species, particularly during periods of breeding, incubation, estivation or migration, as well as other periods of biological stress.100 Under the final act adopting the SPAW protocol, the member states clarified that when creating conservation plans and regulations member states must consider the

98

Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Jan. 18, 1990 [hereinafter SPAW Protocol], Article 11(1). 99 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Jan. 18, 1990, Article 11(1)(b)(i). 100 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Jan. 18, 1990, Article 11(1)(b)(ii). 27 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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species sensitivity to anthropogenic threats such as climate change and sea level rise.101 Although the SPAW Protocol contains a general exception for subsistence or traditional takes, it includes more detailed language limiting the applicability of this type of take.102 Specifically, a traditional take is prohibited if it would: endanger the maintenance or areas protected under the terms of this Protocol, including the ecological processes contributing to the maintenance of those protected areas; or (b) cause either the extinction of, or a substantial risk to, or substantial reduction in the number of, individuals making up the populations of species of fauna and flora within the protected areas, or any ecologically inter-connected species or population, particularly migratory species and threatened, endangered or endemic species.103 Because the SPAW Protocol is meant to work with other international environmental treaties, this language may help shed light on other subsistence take language. Application. Although all three countries signed the Cartagena convention, only Panam has signed and ratified the SPAW protocol.104 During the Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties in 2010, conservation of sea turtles was of serious concern.105 Specifically, there was an initiative to compile scientific data from tagging done in the region to provide a regional map of sea turtle movements and use of critical habitats throughout the Caribbean.106 Additionally, there was a call to continue the support of Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plans (STRAPs), both by implementing new STRAPs in countries where they do not exist, as well as by supporting existing STRAPs.107 To provide adequate protection for sea turtles, as contemplated by the SPAW Protocol, the United Nations Environmental Programme partnered with the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network (WIDECAST) to develop the STRAPs.108

101

Final Act of the Conference of Plenipotentiaries for the Adoption of the Annexes to the Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in the Wider Caribbean Region, Jun. 10-11, 1991, Paragraph 18(f). 102 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Jan. 18, 1990, Article 14. 103 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Jan. 18, 1990, Articles 14(a), (b). 104 Status of the Cartagena Convention and Protocols, available at http://www.car-spawrac.org/IMG/pdf/pays_ratifies_spaw.pdf. 105 SPAW Protocol, Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties (2010). 106 SPAW Protocol, Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties (2010), p. 13, item 42(e). 107 SPAW Protocol, Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties (2010), p. 13, items 42(a), (b). 108 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Jan. 18, 1990, Article 10; WIDECAST, National Recovery Plans available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/STRAPs.html. 28 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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Panam published its STRAP in 2007.109 In its report, Panam identifies habitat destruction, sickness, over exploitation by local communities for food and medicinal purposes as well as trade in sea turtle parts, incidental captures of sea turtles and inadequate enforcement mechanisms as the primary threats to sea turtles.110 With regard to over exploitation by local populations, Panam claims that large problems with poverty, unemployment, lack of environmental education and weak penalties for breaking relevant laws have lead to an inability to control this issue.111 Panam is focusing on several strategies to reduce these threats, including improved and precise habitat protection, creating a more informed public, initiating and supporting relevant international agreements, and improving the exchange of scientific information relevant to sea turtle conservation. 112 THE INTER-AMERICAN CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION AND CONSERVATION OF SEA TURTLES The Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (the IAC) came into force in May 2001 and has been ratified by Costa Rica and Panama. Nicaragua has signed the IAC, but has not yet ratified it. The purpose of the IAC is to promote the protection, conservation and recovery of sea turtle populations and of the habitats on which they depend.113 This objective is to be carried out taking into account the environmental, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the Parties.114 The IAC explicitly recognizes the highly migratory nature of sea turtles and therefore strongly encourages international cooperation on sea turtle conservation efforts.115 The IAC covers the geographic areas of North, South and Central America as well as the Caribbean and is binding to those states which have consented to be bound, include Costa Rica and Panam.116 The IAC is monitored and operated by a secretariat, a consultative committee and a scientific committee.117 The Secretariat is generally responsible for organizing IAC meetings as well as publishing, disseminating and facilitating the transfer of

109

Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf. 110 Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf, at pp. 11-17. 111 Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf, at p. 14. 112 see generally Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf. 113 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001 [hereinafter IAC], Article II. 114 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article II. 115 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Preamble. 116 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Articles I and III. 117 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Articles VI, VII and VIII.
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information and educational materials related to the conservation of sea turtles.118 The Consultative Committee is made up of representatives from each of the member states as well as a total of nine members who represent the NGOs (3), scientists (3), and the private sector (3).119 In addition to reviewing and analyzing reports on sea turtle conservation, the consultative committee also reviews reports on the socio-economic, cultural and environmental impacts on communities impacted by sea turtle conservation practices.120 This work is very important in managing economic subsistence takes. The consultative committee is also required to present recommendations on the adoption of a dditional conservation and management measures to promote the objective of [the IAC].121 The scientific committee provides scientific data as well as studies on sea turtle biology and population dynamics.122 This work includes the completion of environmental impact studies on anthropogenic activities affecting sea turtles as well as monitoring the impacts of conservation measures taken pursuant to the IAC. Under the IAC, parties are required to prohibit the intentional capture, retention or killing of, and domestic trade in, sea turtles, their eggs, parts or products.123 The member states are specifically required to minimize the impact of human activity (to the extent practicable), as well as take measures to protect sea turtle habitats and nesting areas.124 One of the most significant clauses in the IAC requires the use of TEDs.125 The consultative committee has been actively working with fishing industries to increase the use of TEDs.126 IAC Requirements. The IAC contains strong language regarding the monitoring and compliance of IAC measures. Specifically, member sates are required to establish monitoring programs and ensure effective compliance with measures to protect and conserve sea turtles and their habitats set forth in [the IAC] or adopted pursuant to.127 Also recommended, is the promotion of bi-national and multinational agreements as well as the creation of national laws that guarantee

118

Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article VI. 119 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article VII. 120 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article VII. 121 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article VII(2)(e). 122 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article VIII. 123 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article IV(2)(a). 124 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Articles IV(2)(c), (d). 125 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Annex III. 126 IAC, Third Meeting of the Consultative Committee (2010), pp. 6-7. 127 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Articles X.
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compliance with the IAC.128 The biggest issue with these requirements rests on the interpretation of the word effective. There are no standards within the language of the IAC that provide guidance regarding what actions are considered effective. To date only Panam and Costa Rica have submitted annual reports outlining their management of sea turtle issues. Costa Rica submitted 2006, 2007 and 2010 annual reports.129 These annual reports show an extensive number of domestic laws and conservation efforts in place. Panam submitted one annual report in 2010.130 This report details Panams application for an economic subsistence take, discussed below. Other than this information, and based on this analysis, the Panam report appears to be incomplete and outdated. Economic Subsistence Use. Another significant section in the convention is the economic subsistence take exception for traditional communities.131 Taking into account recommendations made by the Consultative Committee, a party may establish a management program which allows for a limited amount of intentional takes so long as it would not undermine the efforts of the IAC.132 It remains unclear what qualifies as an allowable take under this exception. The term economic subsistence use suggests a take allowance that is broader than that permitted under the more commonly used subsistence use. Traditionally, t he term Subsistence use has been used to described the non-commercial capture and killing of sea turtles for the purposes of providing subsistence or improving family diet.133 The addition of the term economic seems to expand this definition and to allow for some commercial trade by a traditional community. How much commercial activity may be allowable remains a source of ambiguity. Under the terms of the treaty, the amount of financial gain allowable is at least limited by the requirement that subsistence use not undermine efforts to achieve the objective of [the IAC].134 This indicates that the economic subsistence take cannot interfere with the protection, conservation and recovery of sea turtle populations.135 Some non-binding guidance was provided in a presentation by the Working Group on Exceptions (Working Group) to IACs Consultative Committee in 2005.136
128

Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Articles XII, XVIII. 129 IAC, Annual Report, Costa Rica (2006), (2007), (2010). 130 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010). 131 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article IV(3). 132 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article IV(3). 133 A. Brautigam, Turning the Tide: Exploitation, Trade and Management of Marine Turtles in the Lesser Antilles, Central America, Colombia and Venezuela, p. 421 (2006). 134 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article IV(3)(a). 135 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001, Article II. 136 IAC, First Meeting of the Consultative Committee (2010), annex IV, pp. 25-27.
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With regard to the definition of economic subsistence needs the following was described as acceptable: Immediate beneficiaries in condition of accumulation of wealth poverty or extreme poverty, according to levels catalogued by each government, since the use would scarcely provide resources to subsist Uses under analysis are specified under Art.IV, 2a), included uses to satisfy cultural (spiritual) needs, sensu Art. II of the Convention The use is allowed under the national legislation (is legal), and who may carry out the extraction is also defined and allowed Takes that are for the accumulation of wealth are not acceptable and will not qualify as a valid exception.137 What constitutes an accumulation of wealth is not defined and makes the language difficult to follow. The Working Group also provided clarification of the term traditional use and presented the following guidelines:
Implies uses already taking place Unacceptable: new use schemes as they couldnt be considered traditional Native groups or other groups already established at the site where turtles are used Human settlement should be officially acknowledged at the site where use takes place Unacceptable: Diffuse community or one that isnt local, that arrives at the site of use only for the purposes of sea turtle extraction Uses which under biological criteria do not undermine the objectives of the Convention. This criteria needs to include the complete chain of commercialization of the product. DESIRABLE: that the major portion of the benefit derived from use remains for the immediate users, whose social condition or cultural need is what is expected to benefit from the use under evaluation.

In its IAC Annual Reports, Costa Rica explicitly stated that the only human activities permitted in relation to sea turtles are: a) the activity of scientific research as an information generator for biological, ecological, and behavioral knowledge, among others, and to facilitate the decision making process for a better management of and improved conditions for these species, b) tourist activities related to the observation of these species and their nesting process, c) environmental education in local communities as well as for visitors and d) the harvesting and commercialization of olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) eggs within the Ostional National Wildlife Refuge by the Association for the Integral Development of Ostional.138 To date, Costa Rica has only officially allowed exceptions for the harvesting of sea turtles in Ostional. It is unclear whether this exception was formally approved under the IAC.
137 138

IAC, First Meeting of the Consultative Committee (2010), annex IV, p. 25. see IAC, Annual Report, Costa Rica (2007), p. 15.
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In 2010, Panam applied for its first and only exception for the Caa Island community, on the Pacific Coast. The application contained detailed information about the socio-economic and cultural make-up of the Caa Island community as well as describing the management plan, as required by Article IV(3). 139 According to the report, Caas Island community has permitted the harvesting and sale of sea turtle eggs since the 1970s.140 The eggs are primarily sold in Panama City for B/.1.30.141 Every year, the community receives a total income of around B/.30,000.00 over a six month period for the harvest.142 The average per person income for people working on the harvest is between B/.160.00 and B/.170.00 per harvest.143 There has been nothing yet published by the IAC indicating whether or not this exception will be approved. THE CENTRAL AMERICAN CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY Central American Convention on Biodiversity. The Central American Convention on Biodiversity (CCBD) was established by Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panam in June of 1992 with the main objective of conserving marine and terrestrial biodiversity as well as facilitating the sustainable use of natural resources.144 Under the CCBD, the Central American Commission on the Environment and Development is responsible for formulating strategies and plans that put into action decisions regarding the maintenance and care of the environment.145 Under the CCBD member states are directed to cooperate with international and regional agreements and to mutually complete the obligations necessary to comply with the CCBD.146 There is no specific mention of the protection of sea turtles in the CCBD, however, the protection of marine coastal resources in general are clearly a priority under the convention.147 Furthermore, the CCBD does strengthen the protection of certain protected areas, some of which are important for the protection of sea turtles.148 As one of the few regional agreements signed by Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam, the CCBD is a valuable unifying convention and could be useful in the facilitation of future, more specific agreements on the protection of sea turtles.
139 140

IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 141 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 142 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 143 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 144 Convenio para la Conservacin de Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Silvestres Prioritarias en Amrica Central, June 1992, Preamble. 145 Convenio para la Conservacin de Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Silvestres Prioritarias en Amrica Central, June 1992, Preamble. 146 Convenio para la Conservacin de Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Silvestres Prioritarias en Amrica Central, June 1992, Article 12. 147 see Convenio para la Conservacin de Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Silvestres Prioritarias en Amrica Central, June 1992. 148 Convenio para la Conservacin de Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Silvestres Prioritarias en Amrica Central, June 1992, Article 18 (of greatest significance is the Golfo de Fonseca and Cayos Miskitos protected areas).
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BILATERAL AND REGIONAL ISSUES THAT MAY AFFECT SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT AMONG NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA
RIO SAN JUAN WATERSHED (NICARAGUA COSTA RICA) The Rio San Juan serves as the border between Nicaragua and Costa Rica. For over a century, Nicaragua and Costa Rica have disputed control over the Rio San Juan. In 1858, the two states signed the Caas-Jerez treaty that demarcated the Rio San Juan as the official border between Nicaragua and Costa Rica.149 The treaty also outlines the rights of each state to the use of the area. In relevant part, the treaty states: The republic of Nicaragua shall have exclusive dominion and the highest sovereignty over the water of the San Juan River from their issue out of the lake to their discharge into the Atlantic; but the republic of Costa Rica shall have in thus water perpetual rights of free navigation from the said mouth of the river up to a point three English miles below Castillo Viejo (Old Castle), for purpose of commerce, whether with Nicaragua or with the interior of Costa Rica, over the San Carlos or Sarapiqui Rivers or any other course stating from the part which has been established as belonging to that republic on the banks of San Juan.150 This language has been heavily disputed. In 2009, the International Court of Justice (the ICJ or Court) issued a final ruling addressing the navigation rights of the parties. However, more recently the actual river boundary became the subject of dispute between the two countries. This is significant because, under the Law of the Sea Convention, the boundary terminus at the mouth of the river can affect the maritime boundary,151 including territorial waters and the exclusive economic zone (EEZ),152 where countries have rights to natural resources, including sea turtles. In this most recent chapter, Costa Rica brought an action in the ICJ against Nicaragua alleging Costa Ricas right to assert sovereignty over Isla Portillos in the
149

Tratado de Limites entre Nicaragua y Costa Rica, Caas - Jerez, Apr. 15, 1858, available at http://www.manfut.org/cronologia/jerez.html. 150 B. Berrios, San Juan River -- Border dispute between Costa Rica and Nicaragua, p.8 (2004). 151 United Nations Law of the Sea, Dec. 2, 1982, U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 62/122, reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 1261, Article 9, Article 15. 152 The exclusive economic zone is the territory in the sea located 200 nautical miles beyond and adjacent to a states coastal area. Within a states EEZ it has special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources.
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River mouth as well as the right to protect the environment in the areas over which Costa Rica has sovereignty.153 In response, Nicaragua asserts that it has title over the northern part of Isla Portillos. This assertion is based on what Nicaragua alleges to be the historic channel for the purposes of the boundary (and sovereignty) determination.154 The area claimed by Nicaragua is an area of wetland situated between the right bank of the disputed channel, the right bank of the San Juan river up to its mouth at the Caribbean Sea and the Harbor Head lagoon.155 It is also part of two Ramsar sites, Humedal Caribe Noreste, nominated by Costa Rica, and Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan, nominated by Nicaragua.156 Costa Rica also alleges that Nicaragua was acting in violation of international law, causing environmental damage to Isla Portillos (part of the Ramsar site), by dredging the disputed channel and maintaining a military presence on the island.157 The ICJ has submitted an interim order stating that Costa Ricas claims are plausible and enjoining either party from sending any personnel to the disputed area. 158 An exception was granted to Costa Rica, however, allowing it send individuals to the disputed area for purposes of protecting the environment.159 There has been no final decision handed down from the ICJ regarding the dispute. An important consideration in this matter is the application of the Ramsar Convention. In addition to the Humedal Caribe Noreste Ramsar site in Costa Rica, on the Nicaragua side of the Rio San Juan is the Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan (Refugio Ro San Juan), also a Ramsar site. This site includes the coastline on the Nicaragua side of the river mouth, and provides sea turtle nesting habitat.160 Both Costa Rica and Nicaragua are parties to the Ramsar Convention and must comply with its requirements. On December 13, 2010 the Ramsar Secretariat issued a diplomatic note reminding Costa Rica and Nicaragua that pursuant to Article 3.2 of the Convention on Wetlands, Each Contracting Party shall arrange to be informed...if the ecological character of any wetland in its territory and included [as a Ramsar Site] has changed, or is likely to change as the
153

Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), International Court of Justice, Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures Submitted by the Republic of Costa Rica, pp. 4-6 Nov. 18, 2010. 154 Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), International Court of Justice, Request for the indication of provisional measures, Order, p. 3, Mar. 8, 2011. 155 Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), International Court of Justice, Request for the indication of provisional measures, Order, p. 13 Mar. 8, 2011. 156 Id. at 19. 157 http://www.elpais.cr/articulos.php?id=43908 158 Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), International Court of Justice, Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, Order, p. 13-14 Mar. 8, 2011. 159 Certain Activities carried out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), International Court of Justice, Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures, Order, p. 19-20 Mar. 8, 2011. 160 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 35 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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result of...human interference.161 Information on such changes shall be passed without delay to the organization or government responsible for the continuing bureau duties specified in Article 8 [i.e., the [Ramsar] Convention Secretariat]. 162 Both Costa Rica and Nicaragua have submitted notifications to the Secretariat pursuant to Article 3.2 for areas impacting the Refugio Ro San Juan.163 The management plan submitted by Nicaragua for Refugio Ro San Juan expressly notes the importance of the area as a nesting site for sea turtles.164 Accordingly, Nicaragua has set forth the protection of sea turtle nesting sites as an important objective.165 Furthermore, capture or hunting of sea turtles as well as the sale of sea turtle parts are prohibited within the Refuge Ro San Juan.166 The taking of sea turtle eggs is prohibited along the Zona Costera from San Juan del Norte until Haulover.167 Nicaragua also has in place an investigation program that includes the study of sea turtles and the formation of methods to recuperate sea turtle populations within the refuge.168Maritime Disputes and the Exclusive Economic Zone MARITIME BOUNDARY DISPUTE (NICARAGUA COLOMBIA) In 2001, Nicaragua filed a claim with the ICJ against Colombia concerning title to territory and maritime delimitation in the western Caribbean.169 Specifically, Nicaragua asked the ICJ to find that it has sovereignty over the remote islands of Providencia, San Andrs and Santa Catalina (the Islands) located in the western Caribbean.170 Nicaragua also asked the court to determine the maritime boundary
161

Notification 2010 /8: Ramsar Advisory Mission to the Humedal Caribe Noreste Ramsar Site, Costa Rica, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-notes-2010-201008/main/ramsar/1-31-106-438%5E25018_4000_0. 162 Notification 2010 /8: Ramsar Advisory Mission to the Humedal Caribe Noreste Ramsar Site, Costa Rica, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-notes-2010-201008/main/ramsar/1-31-106-438%5E25018_4000_0. 163 Notification 2010 /8: Ramsar Advisory Mission to the Humedal Caribe Noreste Ramsar Site, Costa Rica, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-documents-notes-2010-201008/main/ramsar/1-31-106-438%5E25018_4000_0. 164 Plan de Manejo del Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan (2000), Zona Intagible A4: Haulover - Spanish Creek, Criterios, available at http://www.wetlands.org/Reports/SiteReports/Nicaragua/6NI005/6NI005_ManPlan00sp.pdf. 165 See generally Plan de Manejo del Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan (2000), available at http://www.wetlands.org/Reports/SiteReports/Nicaragua/6NI005/6NI005_ManPlan00sp.pdf. 166 Plan de Manejo del Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan (2000), 3.4 (a) Directrices Generales, available at http://www.wetlands.org/Reports/SiteReports/Nicaragua/6NI005/6NI005_ManPlan00sp.pdf. 167 Plan de Manejo del Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan (2000), Normativas de manejo de la zona de Uso Agroforestal, available at http://www.wetlands.org/Reports/SiteReports/Nicaragua/6NI005/6NI005_ManPlan00sp.pdf. 168 Plan de Manejo del Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan (2000), Programa de Investigacin, available at http://www.wetlands.org/Reports/SiteReports/Nicaragua/6NI005/6NI005_ManPlan00sp.pdf. 169 Territory and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Costa Rica for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, May 4, 2011. 170 Territory and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Costa Rica for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, May 4, 2011. 36 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

course between the continental shelf and the EEZ as it relates to Nicaragua and Colombia. The Court found that it did not have jurisdiction to answer the question regarding the sovereignty of the Islands and, as such, sovereignty remained with Colombia.171 The issue of maritime boundaries, conversely, was found to be within the jurisdiction of the Court. Costa Rica intervened as having an interest in the areas in dispute.172 A similar dispute with similar implications existed between Nicaragua and Honduras and was initiated in 1999.173 In that case, however, the courts have issued a final judgment and set maritime boundary lines for Honduras, Nicaragua and the islands at issue.174 In the Nicaragua - Colombia dispute, the Islands are all located within 140 miles of the coast of Nicaragua and within what would otherwise be Nicaraguas EEZ. Instead, Colombias expansive EEZ resulting from its sovereignty over the Islands in question effectively shrinks the EEZ of Nicaragua. The extent to which Nicaraguas EEZ is diminished is still to be decided by the Court. All of the maritime areas in dispute are used by sea turtles. As such, the clear delimitation of maritime boundaries is essential to set forth the appropriate responsibilities regarding sea turtle management in the western Caribbean Sea, and remains an obstacle to formal cooperation in sea turtle conservation and management. TALAMANCA-RIO SIXAOLA WATERSHED (COSTA RICA PANAMA) The Rio Sixaola Watershed is shared by Costa Rica and Panam. The Rio Sixaola runs between Costa Rica and Panam and its centerline serves as the border between the two countries. Costa Rica and Panam have been working cooperatively to pursue bilateral goals of biodiversity protection, conservation management and land use protection in the watershed since the 1970's. 175 Currently, there is a project funded and managed by the Inter-American Development Bank with the main objective of improving the living conditions of the populations of Costa Ricans living along the Watershed.176 The specific focus points of the project are: (a) preserving the natural resource endowment and reducing vulnerability; (b) introducing a change in the existing natural resource development and production models; (c) steering public investment in infrastructure and basic services to raise coverage levels and improve access for the population; and (d) enhancing management capacity locally and watershedwide, with effective community participation. There is no specific mention of programs or projects for the protection for sea turtles. However, there are
171

Territory and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Summary of the Judgment, p. 13 Dec. 13, 2007. 172 Territory and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Summary of the Judgment, p. 14 Dec. 13, 2007. 173 Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, Oct. 8, 2007. 174 Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, Oct. 8, 2007. 175 O. Jordan, et al,The Talamanca-Sixaola Watershed: Tightening the Ties of Cooperation, Center for Government Responsibility, Apr. 24, 1999. 176 CR0150: Sustainable Development of the Binational Watershed Rio Sixaola, available at http://www.iadb.org/en/projects/project,1303.html?id=cr0150.
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protected areas (and Ramsar sites) on both sides of the River mouth that include important sea turtle habitat such as the San San Pond Sak Wetland in Panam and Gandoca-Manzanillo Mixed Wildlife Refuge in Costa Rica. In 2007, WIDECAST began implementation of the Sea Turtle Conservation Binational Project: Costa Rica and Panam.177 The project joins the efforts of Panamanian and Costa Rican citizens, volunteers, government agencies, and NGOs in a cooperative effort to protect sea turtle nesting sites located along the Panam - Costa Rica border. Specifically, the program trains volunteers to monitor Black Beach, Gandoca, San San and Sixaola beaches during nesting seasons.178 The project also advocates on behalf of sea turtle conservation in general as well as using outreach initiatives to raise awareness about threats to sea turtles.179

THE DOMESTIC LAW OF SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE AS APPLIED TO THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.
Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama share a common legal tradition that reflects their common colonial heritage. However, as with all countries, unique and evolving cultural, economic and political circumstances affect the manner in which legal regimes develop, as well as the way laws are enacted, implemented and enforced. For the tripartite countries, coastal cultural distinctions have an especially pronounced affect on the way the law is created and applied. Nicaragua and Panama each have significant regions on their Caribbean Coast that enjoy relative degrees of political autonomy based on the historical relationship of indigenous groups to the national government. These indigenous groups enjoy aspects of self-governance, especially concerning the use of the natural resources that served and continue to serve as the basis for subsistence and quasi-subsistence economies including the consumptive use of sea turtles. For this reason, it is important to consider not only national law in the three

177

WIDECAST, Sea Turtle Conservation Binational Project: Costa Rica and Panam, Dec. 17, 2007, available at http://www.ptes.org/files/887_costa_rica_and_panama_sea_turtles_final_report.pdf. 178 WIDECAST, Sea Turtle Conservation Binational Project: Costa Rica and Panam, Dec. 17, 2007, available at http://www.ptes.org/files/887_costa_rica_and_panama_sea_turtles_final_report.pdf. 179 WIDECAST, Sea Turtle Conservation Binational Project: Costa Rica and Panam, Dec. 17, 2007, available at http://www.ptes.org/files/887_costa_rica_and_panama_sea_turtles_final_report.pdf.
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countries, but also the law and internal rules that these groups use to govern themselves. LAWS SPECIFIC TO SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT Among the 3 national governments, only Costa Rica has enacted a national law that singularly addresses the protection of sea turtles. However, the Kuna people, who enjoy self-governance over most of coastal Panama east of Colon and the San Blas archipelago, adopted a sea turtle specific law that applies within their Comarca. In 2002, Costa Rica adopted La Ley de Proteccin, Conservacin y Recuperacin de las Poblaciones de Tortugas Marinas.180 Among other things, this concise law authorizes the national fishing agency (INCOPESCA) to require the use of turtle excluder devices on fishing vessels and designates certain coastal areas as areas of ecotourism interest,181 including Tortuguero and Gandoca on the Caribbean Coast. Most importantly, Article 6 of the law prohibits the killing, hunting, capture, butchering, transferring or trading in sea turtles. The article provides a criminal penalty of 1 to 3 years for violation the law, and a lesser penalty of 3 months to two years for those who retain sea turtles for commercial purposes or commercializes the products or subproducts of sea turtles.182 An exception is made for the traditional community egg harvest at Ostional on the Pacific Coast.183 Despite the fact that this law has been in effect for nearly a decade there have apparently been no prosecutions under the law, leading NGOs to question its value. Some concern has been expressed that the term parts and subparts used by the law may not be sufficiently clear in its intent to include sea turtle eggs, and that this has served as the basis for government reluctance to pursue criminal prosecution under the law for egg poaching. In Panama the Kuna people enjoy considerable autonomy over natural resources within the Kuna Yala, the Comarca that encompasses much of eastern coastal Panama and the San Blas archipelago. Essentially, the Kuna of Kuna Yala can legislate and enforce their own law, provided it does not conflict with Panamanian law.184 Panamanian law carves out a special exception that allows the subsistence use of sea turtles by the Kuna.185 However, under their own law, the Kuna have closed that exception through a temporary moratorium on the consumptive use of the four listed species of sea turtles commonly found in their territorial waters.186 The five-year moratorium expires in November of 2011.187
180

La ley N 8325 Ley de Proteccin, Conservacin y Recuperacin de las Poblaciones de Tortugas Marinas (2002). 181 Id. at Art. 4 (article 4 also delegates to the environmental ministry the authority to declare additional sea turtle nesting and hatching beaches to be of ecotourism interest. The implic ations of this declaration in terms of sea turtle conservation and management are not clear.) 182 Id. at Art. 6 183 Id.
184 185 186

Decreto 225 de 27 de noviembre de 1919. See Appendix __ for further discussion. Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna 187 Id.
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LAWS ADDRESSING SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF PROTECTED SPECIES LEGISLATION All three countries have enacted domestic legislation to comply with their requirements under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. All three countries have enacted domestic legislation requiring the use of Turtle Excluder Devices on trawl boats. In addition, all three countries prohibit the domestic harvest of all species of sea turtles, except where authorized for domestic subsistence use. All three countries have at least one exception for the domestic subsistence use of sea turtles, subject to conditions. In Nicaragua, authority to established closed seasons for all protected species is vested in the environment ministry.188 Pursuant to this authority, the Ministry publishes an annual list of indefinite and partial closed seasons.189 All species of sea turtles are included on the indefinitely closed portion of the list.190 However, Article 6 of the same ministerial resolution creates a subsistence use exception for the green turtle on the Atlantic Coast in conformance with Article 106 of the 2005 executive decree implementing the 2004 fisheries law. 191 This exception defers to the environment ministry, in coordination with regional authorities, to establish the terms of the exception through a ministerial resolution.192 There is some indication that relatively recent efforts have been made to establish quotas through this decentralized approach.193 However, the requisite ministerial resolution that would give it legitimacy under national law does not appear to have been enacted. There has bee some suggestion that "management action plans" have been developed and recently approved by the autonomous governments and that these plans call for reduced levels of take of green turtles and regulate trade between regions and communities.194 This information has not been confirmed, however. Protected species regulation in Costa Rica is provided by its 1992 wildlife law. 195 Article 25 prohibits holding, hunting, fishing or extracting wildlife, or products or subproducts derived from wildlife, that is declared in danger of extinction or
188

Article 16, Ley De Reformas Y Adiciones A La Ley No. 217, Ley General Del Medio Ambiente Y Los Recursos Naturales (2008)(reforming Article 81; creating new Article 71). Ley No. 647. Aprobada El 13 De Febrero Del 2008. 189 Resolution Ministerial No. o2.18.2011. 190 Id. 191 Art. 106, Decreto 09 -2005. (En el caso de la pesca de tortuga marina en la Costa Atlntica y an cuando esta sea considerada como pesca de subsistencia en virtud de la Ley, debern aplicarse cuando corresponda, las restricciones naturales derivadas de la necesidad de asegurar la sostenibilidad del recurso, en beneficio de la misma comunidad. Estas disposiciones sern establecidas por el MARENA en coordinacin con las autoridades regionales a travs de Resolucin Ministerial.) 192 Id. 193 See http://archivo.laprensa.com.ni/archivo/2009/julio/17/noticias/regionales/338800.shtml (describing the proposal of the Northern Regional Autonomous Government to impose a quota of 3500 sea turtles for the 2009-2010 sea turtle fishing season). 194 Cynthia Lagueax, Rodolfo Chang & Cathi Campbell, Abstract of an Oral Presentation, Progress Toward a Sustainable Green Turtle Fishery on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua (available at http://iconferences.seaturtle.org/preview.shtml?event_id=16&abstract_id=3214 ) 195 Ley N 7317, Ley de Conservacion de la Vida Silvestre (1992) 40 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

determined to have reduced populations by the wildlife directorate of the environment ministry. Pursuant to this authority all species of sea turtles occurring in Costa Ricas Caribbean waters have been decreed to be in danger of extinction.196 The importance of this legal status is diminished by the fact that Costa Rica has enacted a special law on sea turtles, discussed above. Under the civil law doctrine of implicit derogation, the statutory prohibitions in the special law would likely supersede any ministerial decrees concerning the legal status of sea turtles. Panama also regulates protected species through it general wildlife law, 197 and implementing decrees.198 Under the 1995 wildlife law, species-listing authority is delegated to the National Wildlife Institute (INRENARE) and the National Commission on Wildlife and must be updated every 2 years.199 However, it appears that no lists were created under this authority until recently. In 2008, this authority was exercised by the National Environmental Authority (ANAM) and delegated to the National Wildlife Directorate, the successor to INRENARE.200 The 2008 list includes all species of sea turtles occurring in Panama and describes them as endangered or critically endangered (leatherback, hawksbill) within Panama,201 though the legal significance of this distinction is not clear. There are no explicit references to subsistence use for listed species in the 2008 ANAM resolution. However, the 2004 Executive Decree implementing the 1995 wildlife law generally prohibits subsistence hunting of threatened and endangered species.202 However, the same decree includes a chapter on wildlife in

196

Articulo 60, DECRETO N 26435-MINAE; A subsequent decree also addressing Article 25 of the wildlife law does not list the species of sea turtle by name but does appear to incorporate by reference those species not specifically listed if they were including in the prior decree. Artculo 26, No 32633-MINAE (2005)(Para los efectos del artculo 25 de la LCVS y este Reglamento se consideran especies de fauna con poblaciones reducidas o amenazadas, las incluidas en los taxones indicadas al pie de ste artculo, as como aquellas especies que posteriormente se declaren como tales). 197 Articulo 58, Ley 24 de 7 de junio de 1995 (G.O. 22801 de 09/06/95) modificada y adicionada por la Ley 39 de 24 de noviembre de 2005 (G.O. 25433 de 25/11/05) Ley de Vida Silvestre. (Prohibiting hunting and fishing of species listed as threatened or endangered.). 198 Resolucin AG-0172-2004, de 19 de mayo de 2004. 199 Articulo 7(3), Ley 24 de 7 de junio de 1995 (G.O. 22801 de 09/06/95) 200 ANAM Resolucin No. AG - 0051-2008 (Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente)(Gaceta Oficial Digital, lunes 07 de abril de 2008) 201 Id. The list is an annex to resolution AG-0051-2008 and can be found at: http://www.anam.gob.pa/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=148&Itemid=147&lang= es 202 Articulo 91(c), Decreto Executive N 43 de 7 de Julio, 2005 (No 25, 091) Gaceta Oficial, Lunes 12 de Julio, 2004)(available at: http://azueroearthproject.org/aep/wp-content/themes/greenlove/reference_pdfs/ARC_social_sciences/decreto%20ejecutivo%2043%20q%20regula%20la%20l ey%2024.pdf 41 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

indigenous lands that defers in general to indigenous law on wildlife203, and recognizes indigenous subsistence use rights.204 LAWS ADDRESSING SEA TURTLE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF FISHERIES LEGISLATION Historically, sea turtles were treated under the regulatory framework addressing commercial and subsistence fishing in each of the three countries. Aspects of this remain in each country, due in part to jurisdictional legacy and in part to issues associated with take incidental to regulated target species in the marine environment. Increasingly, this jurisdiction is shared with natural resource and wildlife agencies with protected species authority. Fisheries agencies in all 3 countries retain jurisdiction to enforce illegal turtle fishing. All three countries require the use turtle excluder devices on commercial trawlers. In addition, Panama has apparently prohibited or limited commercial trawling along its Caribbean Coast.205 Costa Rica also prohibits fishing with nets in river mouths and estuaries, which could otherwise result in incidental capture.206 Nicaraguas 2004 fishing law remains its primary vehicle for regulation of all consumptive use of sea turtles. It prohibits the capture, killing, use and commercialization of all marine turtle species,207 while carving out an exception for subsistence fishing.208 As discussed above, the terms of this exception are to be developed through a collaborative process between the environment ministry and regional authorities. Constitutional litigation eliminated the limited commercial sea turtle fishery in Costa Rica that had remained under the authority of its fisheries authority.209 SPATIALLY EXPLICIT LAWS THAT CONSERVE SEA TURTLES AND THEIR HABITAT (E.G. MARINE AND COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS)
203

Id. at Art. 49 (Las reservas indigenas son bajo de la administracion de las autoridades respectivas, de conformidad de las leyes que las crean.) 204 Id. at Art. 51 (En las reservas indigenas se practicara la caza de subsistencia de acuerdo con los usos y practicas de esas regions, sin perjuicio del foment de alternativas sustentadas en actividades agropecuarias.) 205 No existiendo flota de arrastre de camarn en el Mar Caribe, dicha pesca actualmente no constituye una amenaza latente para las tortugas del Caribe ya que a travs del Decreto 10 de 28 de febrero de 1985 (G.O. 20261 de 11/03/85), derogado parcialmente y modificado por el Decreto Ejecutivo 76 de 4 de octubre de 1994 (G.O. 22653 de 27/10/94) se limit la expedicin quedando circunscritas al Pacfico. Igualmente mediante fallo de la Corte Suprema, ha quedado limitada la expedicin de nuevas licencias que puedan afectar a las tortugas marinas del Caribe. Demanda Contencioso Administrativa De Plena Jurisdiccin Interpuesta Por El Licenciado Salvatore Bacile Ladaris En Representacin De B & L Export And Services Inc., Para Que Se Declare Nulo, Por Ilegal, El Resuelto No. 0213 De 11 De Mayo De 1998, Expedido Por El Director General De Recursos Marinos Y Costeros De La Autoridad Martima De Panam, Acto Confirmatorio Y Para Que Se Haga Otras Declaraciones. Magistrada Ponente: Mirtza Anglica Franceschi De Aguilera. Panam, Diecisis (16) De Febrero Del Ao Dos Mil Uno (2001) 206 Articulo 33, Ley N 8436, ley de Pesca y Acuicultura. (See also Articulo 68, Ley de Vida Silvestre, Ley N 7317 (Gaceta No 235. Publicado: 7/12/92) 207 Articulo 77, Ley N 489, Ley de Pesca y Acuicultura (2004) 208 Articulo 99, Ley N 489, Ley de Pesca y Acuicultura (2004) 209 Recurso de Amparo. Resolucin 2001 13295, de las doce horas con seis minutos del veintiuno de diciembre del dos mil uno, Sala Constitucional. 42 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

The highly migratory nature of sea turtles coupled with their dependence on a variety of distinct habitats creates makes spatially explicit conservation and management of the species through all of its life history especially problematic. Nonetheless, like all species, there are essential habitats that sea turtles require, some of which are at greater risk than others. In addition to the marine aquatic medium, all species of sea turtles require sandy beaches for nesting. In addition, the Hawksbill requires coral reefs as foraging habitat and the green turtle relies on sea grass beds for foraging habitat. All three countries have established national protected area systems that encompass sea turtle habitat. The degree of protection afforded depends on the nature of the protected area category, the degree of active management, and the extent to which that management targets the habitat needs of sea turtles. Table 3 below lists the marine and coastal protected areas formally declared by the Governments of Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama that encompass, or could encompass, Caribbean coastal sea turtle habitat. The information regarding each protected area was mostly obtained from the protected areas agencies websites. There are a total of 24 protected areas between the three countries. Of these 24, 11 have management plans that have been developed, and 8 of those have been formally approved. Most protected areas include only nesting habitat. A few also include also foraging and migratory habitat. A brief narrative follows the chart and characterizes the legal status of each protected area and attributes of that status that may be important to sea turtle conservation and management that could be gleaned from the formation documents.

Table 3. Marine and coastal protected areas in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama that encompass sea turtle habitat

Protected Area

Year Authorizing Law Year Mgt Plan Category Created or Decree Approved Nicaragua

Cayos Miskitos y Franja Costera Inmediata Cerro Wawashang Cerro Silva Indio Maiz Ro San Juan Cayos Perlas

BR NR NR BR WR WR

1991 1991 1992 1991 1999 1999 2010

De. 43-91 De. 42-91 De. 38-92 De. 42-91 De.66-99 De. 66-99 Ley 738

No No Yes No Yes No
43

2007 2005

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Costa Rica Corredor Fronterizo CR-NIC Barra del Colorado Archie Carr Tortuguero Parismina-Matina Cariari Limoncito Aviarios del Caribe Cahuita Gandoca-Manzanillo WR WR WR NP FR NW WR PZ NP WR 1994 1985 1994 1970 1973 1994 1994 1997 1970 1985 Panama San San Pond Sak Isla Bastimentos Portobelo Isla Galeta San Lorenzo Escudo de Veraguas Damani-Guariviara W.A. Corregimiento Nargana WIR NP PN PFL PFL PFL WIR WA 1994 1988 1976 1997 1997 2009 2004 1994 JD-020-94 JD-022-88 Ley 91 Ley 21 Ley 21 AG-0095-2009 AG-0346-2004 JD-023-94 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No 2004 2001 1994 2004 2001 De-22962 De-16358 De-23256 De-1235 De-2886 De-23253 De-23121 De-25140 De-1236 De-16614 No Yes No Yes No No No No Dev Yes 2012 1998 2005 2009

BR: Biological Reserve, WR: Wildlife Refuge, NP: National Park, FR: Forest Reserve, NR: Natural Reserve, NW: National Wetland, PZ: Protected Zone, WIR: Wetland of International Relevance, PFL: Protected Forest and Landscape, WA: Wildlife Area

NICARAGUA The important sea turtle habitats requiring protection in Nicaragua are nesting beaches (all species), coral reefs (Hawksbill), sea grass beds (Green), and migration corridors (all species; especially Green). Nicaraguas coastal geography limits nesting beach habitat, but the nesting habitat that exists has become critical for the Hawksbill turtle. Nicaragua has established several protected areas that serve or can serve the interests of sea turtle conservation and management on its Caribbean Coast (See Figure 4). Nicaraguas general environmental law authorizes the establishment of a national protected area system,210 and requires all protected areas to be created by law,211
210

Art. 17, Ley 217, Ley General Del Medio Ambiente Y Los Recursos Naturales (Aprobada el 27 de Marzo de 1996; Publicada en La Gaceta No. 105 del 6 de Junio de 1996). 211 Id. at Art. 20.
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and only according to established categories.212 A subsequent regulation elaborates, for each category, the management objectives, the criteria for designation and the nature of administration.213 Importantly, the regulation specifically requires that for protected areas within the Autonomous Regions of the Atlantic Coast, there must be coordination with the councils and governments within the region.214 This coordination requirement derives from the law that addresses indigenous communal property and regional autonomy on the Atlantic Coast of Nicaragua.215 The established protected areas that currently encompass sea turtle habitat on Nicaraguas Atlantic Coast are the Miskito Keys Biological Reserve, created in 1991; the newly created Pearl Keys Wildlife Refuge and a complex of protected areas in different categories that comprise the Rio San Juan Biosphere Reserve, the most important of which is the Rio San Juan National Wildlife Refuge that borders Costa Rica.

Figure 4. Map showing location of protected areas in Nicaragua (http://cenida.una.edu.ni/relectronicos/RENP01N583in.pdf)


212 213

Id. at Art. 20 (7). Reglamento De reas Protegidas De Nicaragua, Decreto No. 01-2007 (Aprobado El 08 De Enero Del 2007 Publicado En La Gaceta No. 08 Del 11 De Enero Del 2007) (This Decreto derogates the substantially similar Reglamento De reas Protegidas de Nicaragua. Decreto No.1499) 214 Id. At Art. 10. 215 Art. 26-28.Ley 445, Ley del Rgimen de Propiedad comunal de los pueblos indgenas y comunidades de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua y de los Ros Bocay, Coco, Indio y Maz; Reglamento a la Ley Nmero 28 Estatuto de Autonoma de las Regiones Autnomas de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua 45 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES IN NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA.

The Miskito Cays Biological Reserve. Nicaragua designated the Miskito Cays Biological Reserve through a presidential decree in 1991, approved by the legislature in 2000216 The protected area category of Biological Reserve contemplates a strict regime of protection,217 and its administration is described as indelegable by the Ministry.218 The decree creates a provisional boundary described by a 50 kilometer circle surrounding the Cays and a separate 20 kilometer deep coastal fringe. 219 The decree also provides for the creation of a provisional Committee to establish permanent boundaries and develop a management plan.220 A management plan may have been prepared in the early 1990s but it does not appear that one has been formally approved. Importantly, the Decree specifically recognizes the rights of both sustainable use by traditional fisheries, and subsistence use by indigenous groups.221 The Miskito Cays Biological Reserve was designated as internationally important wetland under the RAMSAR Convention in 2001. The Pearl Cays National Wildlife Refuge. The Pearl Cays represent the most important nesting habitat for the Hawksbill Turtle in the Southwestern Caribbean Ecoregion. The reefs surrounding these Cays also provide important foraging habitat for Hawksbill Turtles. The relationship between foraging and nesting habitat for Hawksbills turtles is considered important. After a lengthy discourse concerning the actual conservation status of the Pearl Cays,222 agreement was recently reached to provide protected areas status to these Cays and the surrounding marine environment. In November of 2010 the Pearl Keys System was declared a protected area within the category of Wildlife Refuge.223 Under the general protected areas decree, the conceptual premise for wildlife refuges is the protection of individual species and communities, and their habitats through active intervention.224 The primary vehicle for achieving this protection is the management plan.225 The wildlife refuge category allows a variety of human activities to continue, including consumptive use of species and infrastructure development, but subjects those activities to the management plan.226 The refuge category does prohibit mining, petroleum development, and fisheries but only to the extent these are inconsistent with the objectives of the refuge.227 The

216 217

Decreto Presidencial 43-91 (Assemblea Nacional, Junio, 2000). Art. 8(1). Reglamento De reas Protegidas De Nicaragua, Decreto No. 01-2007 (Aprobado El 08 De Enero Del 2007 Publicado En La Gaceta No. 08 Del 11 De Enero Del 2007) 218 Id. 219 Id. at Art. 1. 220 Id. at Art. 4. 221 Id. at Art. 3. 222 Clarence Gonzalez &Svein Jentoft, MPA in Labor: Securing the Pearl Cays of Nicaragua Environmental Management DOI 10.1007/s00267-010-9587-y. 223 Ley N 738, Ley que Declara El Sistema de Cayos Perlas Como Refugia de la Vida Silvestre. (229 Gaceta Official 2464, 30 Noviembre 2010) 224 Id. at Art. 17. 225 Id. 226 Id. 227 Id.
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environment ministry retains management responsibility, but this can be made subject to co-management.228 The specific reasons for declaring the Pearl Cays System a wildlife refuge include its importance as Hawksbill nesting habitat, the decline of commercially important marine species (lobster, shrimp and shellfish), and the decline of the nearby coral reefs.229 The law creating the wildlife refuge creates a multi-institutional governing body of local, regional and national representatives and charges it with developing a management plan.230 It does not appear that a management plan has been adopted. The Rio San Juan Biosphere Reserve protected area complex. In 1990 the Government of Nicaragua issued a decree entitled the Creation of the Protected Areas of the Southeast of Nicaragua.231 in addition to naming a number of protected areas in different categories a Commission address issues associated with the management of these areas was created. In June of 1994 there followed a Declaration of the Southeast Region of Nicaraguan Sustainable Development Territory.232 In 1999, the Nicaraguan government declared the complex of seven protected areas in the region a Biosphere Reserve,233 an umbrella protected area category under Nicarguan law that can encompass other protected areas.234 Three of the protected areas with in the Rio San Juan Biosphere Reserve include the Caribbean shoreline. In addition, the official protected areas map provided above suggests that the Biosphere Reserve extends some ways into the marine environment, even where the individual protected areas do not appear to. Indio-Maiz Biological Reserve. The Reserve was created in 1990 with the name Great Indio Maiz Biological Reserve. In 1999, it was consolidated into the Southeast Nicaragua Protected Area Biosphere Reserve complex. A management plan was apparently proposed, but it was challenged on constitutional grounds, in part for failure to consult with indigenous inhabitants.235 Cerro Silva Natural Reserve. Cerro Silva was originally declared a Natural Reserve under a 1991 decree.236 Its status and boundaries were confirmed in the
228 229

Id. Ley 738 at III V (Considerandos) 230 Id. at Art. 6-7. 231 Decreto 527 (17 de Abril de 1990) 232 Decreto 28-94 (l 4 de Junio de 1994) . The objective of the decree is to promote in the region "el uso racional de los recursos naturales, la conservacin de su medio ambiente, la biodiversidad y el desarrollo, sobre la base de la capacidad de uso de la tierra y en particular del ecoturismo". 233 Decreto 66-99 234 Las Reservas de Bisfera son territorios terrestres y/o acuticos con altos y diversos valores de biodiversidad natural y cultural de importancia nacional e internacional, que integra diferentes categoras de manejo y administradas integralmente logran un desarrollo sostenible. Las reas propuestas como Reserva de Biosfera podrn incorporar adems de territorios declarados legalmente como reas protegidas en cualquiera de las categoras, otros no protegidos por ley. Su manejo e incorporacin en la zonificacin de la Reserva de Biosfera ser de acuerdo a la categora establecida por ley. 235 Recurso de Amparo, Honorable Sala Civil del Tribunal de Apelaciones del Atlntico Sur (Bluefields)(2006)(avialable at: http://calpi.nativeweb.org/Recurso_de_Amparo.htm 236 Decreto 42-91 (1991) 47 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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1999 decree that essentially zoned the protected area complex of Southeastern Nicaragua.237 Although the Reserve encompasses the coastal zone there is no discussion of Sea Turtles in the executive summary of a 2007 management plan that was found on-line.238 The official status of this management plan is uncertain. The Rio San Juan National Wildlife Refuge. This linear protected area borders the Rio San Juan at its mouth and extends northward along the coast, thereby encompassing sea turtle nesting habitat. A management plan was approved for this reserve in 1999.239 This was updated in 2005 and included on the environment ministrys list of protected areas with management plans, but it is not clear whether the updated plan was approved. The management plan addresses sea turtles. COSTA RICA Costa Rica provides extensive nesting habitat for sea turtles along its entire Caribbean shoreline. Areas offshore from green turtle nesting beaches serve as inter-nesting and migratory habitat. Foraging habitat for Hawksbill turtles can be found on coral reefs south of Limon. Along the Caribbean coast protected areas that include these habitats are represented by 2 National Parks (Tortuguero, Cahuita), 3 National Wildlife Refuges (Barra del Colorado, Archie Carr and Limoncito) and 1 Mixed public/private wildlife refuge (Gandoca Manzanillo), as well as a Forest Reserve (Pacuare Matina). Considered cumulatively, these protected areas account for nearly half of Costa Ricas Caribbean 212 kilometer coastline. Costa Rica protected areas legislation is conformed by a complex and decentralized administrative framework imposed on a largely preexisting system of protected areas. Most of the nations national parks and many of its wildlife refuges were established prior to the passage of the 1986 biodiversity law, which created the national protected areas system known as the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC).240 Overarching regional administrative units known as Conservation Areas, based loosely on biogeography, administer the mixed category system. These units, through appointed regional councils, have the responsibility for implementing a variety of policy-related matters - including defining specific matters concerning protected areas management for approval by the national Conservation Area Council. These units also have the responsibility of enforcing natural resource legislation within their jurisdiction,

237

Decreto N 66- 99 Actualizacin y Precisin de Categoras y Lmites de las reas Protegidas Ubicadas en el territorio del Sureste de Nicaragua, 238 Resumen Ejecutivo del Plan de Manejo de la Reserva Natural Cerro Silva, Proyecto MARENACBA/BRLi/VEGA/WCS, Elaboracin de Planes de Manejo de las reas Protegidas de Cerro Silva, Wawashan y Cayos Mskitos, y Ordenamiento Territorial del Municipio de Waspam. 239 Resolucion Ministerial No. 021-99 ( Available at: http://www.sinia.net.ni/wsinap/documentos/PM/plan_manejo_rio_san_juan_2005_marena_araucari a.pdf) 240 See generally David Rains Wallace, The Quetzal and the Macaw: The Story of Costa Ricas National Parks, (Sierra Club Books 1992) 48 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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regardless whether it is in a protected area.241 The Caribbean Coast is divided into two Conservation Areas, Tortuguero Conservation Area (ACTo) and La Amistad Caribe Conservation Area (ACLAC). An executive decree further elaborates the legal framework for Conservation Areas.242 This decree establishes and defines the categories of protected areas within Costa Rica. It also provides for general management plans for protected areas and requires that these be presented by the Regional Councils for approval by the National Council, pursuant to guidelines developed by the Executive Secretary of SINAC.243 The management plan is intended to serve as the base of other instruments of planning and regulation for protected areas.244 While neither the biodiversity law nor its executive degree explicitly states that management plans are required, they are clearly contemplated. These laws do not appear to provide for the enforceability of management plans. In practice, some the protected areas along the Caribbean Coast have management plans, as noted below. The Biodiversity Law and its executive decree specifically incorporate by reference the prior laws creating the national park service and wildlife refuge system, respectively.245 The National Park Service Law contains a set of specific prohibitions that apply to all national parks.246 Among these is a prohibition on hunting sea turtles or harvesting the eggs, or other product of all sea turtle species within national parks.247 The law also prohibits the extraction of coral and other materials from the sea, and prohibits sand and rock extraction in national parks.248 The law also generally prohibits hunting, as well was all fishing, except sport fishing pursuant to rules developed by the National Park Service. 249 Finally, and importantly, the law prohibits the installation of infrastructure including electricity and telephone lines, roads, railroad lines and aquaducts, as well as any type of commercial, industrial or agricultural activity.250 Tortuguero National Park was created by law in 1975 and has twice been expanded. The protections of sea turtles and their habitat was an expressed reason for its establishment. The Park includes 35.5 kilometers of high energy
241 242

Id. at Art. 28. Reglamento a la Ley de Biodiversidad, Decreto Ejecutivo N 34433-Minae (Gaceta N 68 del 8 de abril del 2008. 243 Id. at Art. 3(p)(defining plan general de manejo). See Artavia G. (ed), 2004. Guia para la formulacin y ejecucin de planes de manejo de areas silvestres protegidas. SiNACT MINAET. San Jos, Costa Rica. Available at: http://intranet.catie.ac.cr/intranet/posgrado/Manejo%20Areas%20Protegidas/Documentos/Guia%2 0de%20Planes%20de%20Manejo-Costa%20Rica.pdf 244 Id. 245 Art. 28, Ley 7788, Ley de Biodiversidad 246 Ley N 6084 de 24 de agosto de 1977, Ley del Servicio de Parques Nacionales (these prohibitions have been specifically incorporated by reference into the Ley de Biodiversidad, Art. 58). 247 Id. at Art. 8(3). 248 Id. at Art. 8(6) 249 Id. at 8(5) 250 Id. at 8 (13-14)
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sandy beach. The maritime boundary of the Park extends to the 12-mile limit of Costa Ricas sovereign territory. The Village of Tortuguero lies outside the Parks boundaries. A management plan was developed for the Park in 2004 that includes an internal zoning scheme. It does not appear that the plan has been updated since 2004. Under the Plan, 90% of the Park is designated for absolute protection. Cahuita National Park was first declared a national monument in 1970.251 In 1978 the process of converting it to a national park was initiated, terminating in 1982.252 In addition nesting beaches the Park protects some of the best coral reef habitat in Costa Rica. The Parks marine protection also extends to Costa Ricas 12 mile territorial maritime boundary, and includes coral reef habitat. Sea turtle conservation was a specific reason for the Parks creation.253 Based in the preexisting wildlife law, Costa Ricas biodiversity decree defines and creates 3 separate categories of wildlife refuge based on the nature of land ownership within the refuge: national, mixed and private.254 These refuges are established primarily to conserve, enhance and study wildlife, especially those that are threatened with extinction. Activities on national wildlife refuges are limited to research, training and ecotourism.255 Costa Ricas Caribbean Coast includes three national wildlife refuges, one mixed refuge and one private wildlife refuge (Aviarios del Caribe). Barro Colorado National Wildlife refuge extends from the southern edge of the Rio San Juan at the Nicaraguan border to the mouth of the Tortuguero River. Established in 1985,256 the Barra del Colorado National Wildlife Refuge includes 50 kilometers of high energy coastline and sandy beaches. Established in 1994, The Archie Carr National Wildlife Refuge extends approximately 2.5 kilometers from the mouth of the Tortuguero River to the Village of Tortuguero,257 It is contiguous with the Barra del Colorado National Wildlife Refuge to the north and, excluding the Village of Tortuguero, Tortuguero National Park to the south. The Archie Carr refuge was established specifically for the protection of sea turtles.258 Immediately south of Limon lies Limoncito National Wildlife Refuge, a small protected area created in 1994. Unlike both Caribbean National Parks, none of these national refuges extend into the marine environment. The GandocaManzanillo Mixed Wildlife Refuge does extend into the marine environment, protecting fringing coral reef habitat. With the exception of Gandoca-Manzanillo Refuge, none of these refuges appear to have approved management plans.

251

N 1236-A del 24 de setiembre de 1970. Creacin. (N8489-A del 24 de mayo de 1978. Cambio de Nombre.) 252 Ley N6794 del 27-Dic-1982. Ratificacin. 253 El artculo 3 del decreto de creacin con sus reformas dice: Dentro de la demarcacin de este Parque Nacional queda prohibido: c) Cazar tortugas marinas de cualquier especie, o recolectar sus huevos o cualquier otro producto o despojo 254 Ley De Conservacion De La Vida Silvestre Ley No 7317 Gaceta No 235. Publicado: 7/12/92 255 Art. 70, Reglamento a la Ley de Biodiversidad, Decreto Ejecutivo N 34433-Minae (Gaceta N 68 del 8 de abril del 2008. 256 Decreto: DE N16358 257 No 23256-MIRENEM (22 de abril de 1994) 258 Id. at Art. 2 3. 50 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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The biodiversity decree defers to the wildlife law for allowable activities within both private and mixed character wildlife refuges.259 The wildlife law in turn provides that both mixed and private refuges must be approved by the wildlife authority based upon the objective of conservation and strict sustainability of natural resources, and after submission of an environmental impact assessment.260 A 2005 regulation provides extensive criteria for development within mixed and private refuges.261 The regulation authorizes a variety of residential, agricultural, commercial and touristic activities, including a catch-all any other activity approved by SINAC.262 These are subject to extensive regulatory criteria set forth in the regulation, and may include submission of a management plan, construction plans and a viability determination by Costa Ricas environmental regulatory agency (SETENA), depending on the nature of the activity. Sand and gravel mining may also be authorized subject to the mining code. Special restrictions are imposed for activities within Costa Ricas maritime zone, including lighting restrictions, and a prohibition on lights directed toward beaches. For wildlife refuges that lie within the jurisdiction of Costa Ricas maritime-terrestrial zone law, the wildlife authority is responsible for implementing that law as well.263 Importantly, the wildlife law by its terms does not apply to ocean fishing, 264 presumably in deference to the fisheries law. Costa Ricas Caribbean Coast also includes one forest reserve that includes sea turtle habitat the Pacuare-Matina Forest Reserve, established in 1973.265 Within Costa Ricas protected area system, the primary purpose of the forest reserve is the protection of forest genetic resources and the production of forest products.266 Though relatively small the reserve protects 6 kilometers of nesting beach and supports a privately managed sea turtle research program. The reserve does not appear to have an approved management plan. PANAMA Panamas authority to establish protected areas derives from its general environmental law.267 The National System of Protected Areas was first established by a ministerial resolution in 1992,268 and subsequently elevated to a law in 1998.269 Administrative authority over protected areas is delegated to the National Environmental Authority, and within that institution to the National Service

259 260

Id. at Art 70 e(2) & (3). Id. at Art. 82. 261 Capitulo XV, Reglamento a Lay de Conservation de Vida Silvestre, No 32633-MINAE 262 Id. at Art. 150. 263 Id. at Art. 83. 264 Id. at Art. 126. 265 Decreto: 2886-A (Marzo de 1973) 266 Article 70 (a), Reglamento a la Ley de Biodiversidad, Decreto Ejecutivo N 34433-Minae (Gaceta N 68 del 8 de abril del 2008. 267 Artculo 66 de la Ley General del Ambiente 268 Resolucin JD-022 de 2 de septiembre de 1992 269 La Ley 41 de 1 de julio de 1998. Gaceta Oficial N 23, 578, 3 de julio de 1998.
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for the Administration of Protected Areas and Wildlife.270 The categories of protected areas are set forth in a 1994 resolution that remains in force.271 An interesting feature of the Panama protected area system list is that it includes as domestic protected area categories, sites that are listed under international treaties such as the World Heritage Convention and RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. In 2006 the ministry approved a technical guidance document to guide the development of protected area management plans.272 As of September of 2007, only 20 plans had been approved out of 81 protected areas nationwide. The diverse protected area categories that have been established on the Caribbean Coast of Panama and encompass sea turtle habitat include a Marine National Park, a National Park, two Wetlands of International Importance, a Wild Area Within Comarcas or Indigenous Reserve, a Protected Landscape, A Multiple Use Area, and a Zone of Hydrologic Protection273 (See Figure 5).

Figure 5. Map showing location of protected areas in Panama (http://mapserver.anam.gob.pa/website/areasprotegidas/viewer.htm)

The Bocas del Toro Protected Area Complex. Bocas del Toro and its complex of coastal wetlands, lagoons, archipelagic islands with offshore reefs, and high energy nesting beaches represents Panamas most important sea turtle habitat
270

Decretos Ejecutivo N 207 de 7 de septiembre de 2000; Decreto Ejecutivo No. 163 del 22 de agosto del 2006 271 Resolucin J.D- 009 -94 de 28 de julio de 1994, Por la cual se establece el Sistema Nacional de reas Protegidas y se define algunas categoras Publicada en la Gaceta Oficial N 22,586 de 25 de julio de 1994. 272 Directrices Tcnicas para la Preparacin de Planes de Manejo (Valarezo y Gmez, 2000); AG01-70-2006 273 A categorical list of all Panama protected areas and their authorizing legislation can be found at: http://burica.wordpress.com/2007/08/08/legislacion-de-creacion-de-las-areas-protegidas-depanama/ 52 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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assemblage. This importance is reflected in the protected areas that encompass these habitats. The San San Pond Sak Wetland of International Importance, created by ministerial resolution in 1994,274 extends west from the mouth of the Rio Sixaola and encompasses important sea turtle nesting habitat. The management category wetland of international importance simply describes these as sites designated under the Ramsar Convention.275 A five year management plan was approved for San San Ponk Sak in 2004, but, having expired, its current approval status is uncertain.276 In 2004 a second Wetland of International Importance was established on the western side of Bahia Almirante and Chiriqui lagoon within the indigenous Ngbe-Bugl Comarca. The protected area was established jointly by resolution of the Panamanian government, 277 and the Ngbe-Bugl.278 The protected area includes Playa Chiriqu, Panamas longest and most important nesting beach, but the resolution makes no specific references to sea turtles. Extractive activities such as mining and hunting are allowed but require authorization. The resolution contemplates sustainable development activities, and tourism and recreation development. A management plan is required, but its status is uncertain. Although designated domestically as a wetland of international importance in 2004, the site was not officially designated and listed with the Ramsar Convention until 2010.279 Bastimentos National Marine Park was established in 1988 as Panamas first under the category of Marine National Park.280 The category of marine national park is designed to protect coastal-marine and island resources, but differs from the category of National Park in that it specifically authorizes sustainable resource use.281 A five-year management plan was approved in 2004,282 but its current status is not clear. Importantly, Bastimentos was excluded from a 2008 cabinet resolution declaring certain islands of Bocas del Toro a Zone of Special Tourism Development 283 under a 2006 law that grants special privileges to such areas.284 The Bocas del Toro protected area complex also includes two small municipal reserves that are included on the national list of protected areas, Reserva Municipal Playa Bluff and Reserva Hidrica Municipal Mimitimbi.285

274 275

JD-020-94 de 2 de agosto de 1994. Gaceta Oficial N 22,617 de 7 de septiembre de 1994 Art. 3 (10), Resolucin No. J D -09-94 276 o Resolucin N A.G.-0300-2004 (De 2 de agosto de 2004) Gaceta Oficial N 22,617 de 7 de septiembre de 1994. 277 ANAM AG-0346-2004 (Gaceta Oficial:25136: 14-09-2004); 278 Resolucion 004 de 20 de Julio 2004 (Ngobe Bugle). 279 See http://burica.wordpress.com/2010/04/14/un-nuevo-sitio-ramsar-en-panama-damaniguariviara/
281 282

Art. 3 (17). Resolucin J.D- 009 -94 de 28 de julio de 1994 No AG-0296-2004 del 02 de agosto del 2004, publicada en la gaceta No 25116 del 16 de agosto 283 RESOLUCIN DE GABINETE No. 95 (de 18 de junio de 2008) Gaceta Oficial Digital, mircoles 25 de junio de 2008 284 Art. 19, Ley 2 de 2006. 285 See http://www.contraloria.gob.pa/dec/Publicaciones/21-01/76.pdf 53 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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In 2009, Panama added yet another category of protected area to the complex mosaic in and around Bocas del Toros, the Protected Landscape of Escudo de Veraguas Dego. Under Panamanian Law Protected Landscapes are landscapes that possess special aesthetic qualities resulting from the harmonious interaction of man and nature, and natural areas managed for recreation and touristic ends.286 Escudo de Veraguas is a small and unique offshore island, isolated from the rest of the Bocas archipelago and surrounded by relatively deep water. The resolution creating the protected area specifically refers to the importance of its nesting beaches.287 In addition to the terrestrial habitat (approx. 500 hectares) the protected area includes the surrounding marine waters, which comprises the vast majority of the protected landscape (approx. 41,000 hectares).288 As with other protected areas in the Bocas del Toro complex, the Escudo de Veraguas contemplates human use of its resources based on principles of sustainable use. The provision of services must be by concession and low impact.289 The resolution limits fishing to subsistence and artisanal forms, and conditions these on permission.290 A management plan must be completed within 2 years,291 but the status of the plan is not clear. Finally, the resolution calls for the inclusion of the site on Ramsar list.292 The Bocas del Toro protected area complex also includes a small municipal reserve that is included on some national protected area lists, Reserva Municipal Playa Bluff.293 However, the there is no corresponding category at the juridical level. Central Panama Protected Area Complex. Portobelo National Park is the only protected area in this category on the Caribbean Coast. The 35,000 Hectare Park lies on the northern side of the Panama Canal, and includes adjacent marine waters, including coral formations. It was originally established in 1976 to protect the historic colonial city, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.294 A management plan was officially approved in 1994.295 In 1999, an executive decree created an elaborate enforceable zoning plan.296 The plan includes provisions for urban coastal development zoning and low density coastal tourism development,297 but there is no explicit reference to the marine environment. Beaches are protected as Dominio Publico.298

286 287

Art. 3 (5) Resolucin J.D- 009 -94 de 28 de julio de 1994 RESOLUCIN AG- 0095-2009 (Gaceta Oficial Digital, viernes 27 de febrero de 2009) 288 Id. at Art. 4. 289 Id. at Art. 10. 290 Id. at Art. 3. 291 Id. at Art. 14. 292 Id. at Art. 11. 293 o o Resolucin N 1 de 17 de febrero de 1997. Acuerdo Municipal N 2 de 24 de febrero de 1999. 294 o Ley 91 de 22 de diciembre de 1976 (Gaceta Oficial N 18,252 de 12 de enero de 1977). 295 o Resolucin JD-011-94 de 29 de junio de 1994 (Gaceta Oficial N 22,585 de 22 de julio de 1994) 296 Decreto Ejecutivo 43 de 16 de junio de 1999 (G.O. 23,823 de 22 de junio de 1999) 297 Id. 298 Id. 54 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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Established in 1997, the Isla Galeta Protected Landscape is a small 688 hectare protected area near the Caribbean entrance to the Panama Canal.299 It is important as a long term coastal and marine research site, as well as environmental education. The Protected Landscape appears to immediately proximate nearshore coral reef and sea grass beds. A management plan was approved in 2002,300 but its current status is uncertain. In conjunction with the proposed widening of the canal a proposal has been put forward to expand the boundaries and create a National Marine Park that would encompass a significantly larger marine and coastal area has been put forward. 301 The Wild Area of Kuna Yala. The indigenous Kuna govern a large swath of Panamas eastern Caribbean Coast, its offshore archipelago and surrounding marine waters with relative autonomy. In 1987, the Kuna established an approximately 100,000 hectare protected area under their own Comarcal law, called Area Silvestre Corregimiento de Nargana No.1 302 In 1994, the Panamanian government added this protected area to its list under the category of as Wild Area within a Comarca or Indigenous Reserve.303 The 1994 resolution appears to limit the protected area to the coastal mainland of the Comarca, the continental political boundaries of the Corregimiento. However, this does include the coastline. At least one unofficial map suggests that the protected area includes a marine and coastal zone,304 but the legal effect of this map is likely non-binding given the apparent terrestrial limits set forth in the authorizing resolution. In 2004-2009, a marine-coastal plan was prepared for that portion of Kuna Yala that corresponds to the Corregimiento,305 but its legal effect is not clear.

CONCLUSIONS
Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama are arguably the 3 most important countries to the life history and survival - of sea turtles in the Western Caribbean. The present international law framework supports regional and sub-regional cooperation in the conservation of shared resources, including sea turtles.
299 300

Ley 21 de 1997, de 2 de julio de 1997 (Gaceta Oficial N 23,323 de 3 de julio de 1997). Resolucin AG-0299-2004, de 2 de agosto de 2004. See Consultores Ecolgicos Panameos, S.A. 2003. Plan de Manejo del Paisaje Protegido Isla Galeta, Coln. ANAM, Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente, Coln. pp. 1-112. 301 See generally, http://www.mcgill.ca/files/pfss/thebasisfortheestablishmentofacoastalmarinepark.pdf (student thesis done under the auspices of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute) 302 Resolucion No. 3, 1987, Congreso General Kuna, en la (comunidad de Achudup) 303 .Resolucin JD-022-94, INRENARE (ANAM) 2 de agosto 1994. Gaceta Oficial No. 25,116 de 7 de septiembre 1999.
304 305

Castillo, G. (ed.)* 2004. Pensando en el maana: Plan Ambiental Marino-Costero 2004 2009, Fuerza Unida de Seis Pueblos (FUSPU), Sector Yandup, Corregimiento de Nargan, Comarca Kuna Yala, Panam. AEK/PEMASKY, FUSPU, CENDA, NFWF, NOAA. Panam. 33 p.; See also, Geodiso Castillo, Protegiendo Sus Valores Culturales, Biodiversidad Y Tierra: rea Protegida De Kuna Yala, Available at: http://www.silene.es/documentos/Protegiendo_valores_culturales.pdf
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Moreover, the domestic laws for sea turtle conservation and management embraced by each country appears to be consistent with that international law framework. However, political and cultural complexities have made reengagement in tri-national cooperative approaches to sea turtle conservation and management problematic. Despite these complexities, both governments and sea turtle dependent communities may be interested in renewed cooperation around this iconic natural and cultural resource. Biogeography. Considered together, the Caribbean beaches, offshore foraging grounds and migratory routes under the sovereign control of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama probably represents the most significant assemblage of habitats for the superfamily of sea turtles in the Western Hemisphere, and perhaps the world. Nicaraguas extensive sea grass beds offer the most important foraging grounds for the Green turtle. Nicaraguas Pearl Cays are one of the most important nesting grounds in the Western Caribbean for the Hawksbill turtle. Costa Ricas Caribbean shoreline provides the sandy beaches for the largest nesting colony of Green turtles in the Hemisphere, and maybe the world. Panama likely has the largest concentration of nesting Leatherback turtles in the Western Caribbean, and second largest in the greater Atlantic Basin. These habitats lie within what has been described as the Western Caribbean Marine Ecoregion, much of which is under the sovereign control of the three countries. However, no systematic ecoregional analysis has been conducted for this ecoregion. International Law. From the standpoint of international law, there is no agreement to which all three countries are party that creates a framework for the shared conservation and management of sea turtles across all of their habitats within the territory of the 3 countries. Four agreements, three treaties and one executive agreement, if ratified or signed (in the case of the executive agreement) by all three countries, would best serve these purposes. These include: o the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), o the Protocol Concerning Specifically Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Cartagena Convention (SPAW), o the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC), and
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o the Tripartite Agreement (an executive agreement). Among these four agreements, the legal framework provided by the IAC offers the greatest potential. This Convention, ratified by Costa Rica and Panama, and signed (but not ratified) by Nicaragua, singularly addresses sea turtle conservation and management. The Convention creates a supportive framework for ecologically based subregional conservation and management. The Convention bans domestic trade in sea turtles, including products and sub-products derived from sea turtles. o However, the Convention creates an exception for the managed human use of sea turtles based upon the economic subsistence needs of traditional communities, an exception Costa Rica currently employs, Panama is seeking, and Nicaragua pursues outside the treaty framework. o Defining the term economic subsistence needs of traditional communities remains a work in progress within the Convention secretariat. Domestic Law. As a matter of domestic law, considerable strides have been made in each country in the conservation and management of sea turtles over the last two decades. Each country prohibits the international trade in sea turtles and products derived from sea turtles in compliance with its CITES obligations. Each country requires the use of Turtle Excluder Devices on shrimp trawls in conformance with trade obligations. Each country prohibits the taking of sea turtles subject only to an exception for subsistence use. Each country has a robust legal framework for the creation of protected areas, and has created protected areas specifically for the conservation and management of sea turtle habitat. o However, management planning for marine and coastal protected areas that provide sea turtle habitat has languished in each country. For most of the protected areas examined, management plans were either lacking or outdated. Significant habitats, especially marine habitats, remain unmanaged and subject to forms of habitat degradation that may ultimately affect sea turtles. CULTURAL NORMS Cultural norms, and their legal effect, profoundly affect sea turtle conservation and management in all three countries, but especially in Nicaragua and Panama. Nicaragua and Panama each have devolved natural resource governance to indigenous or traditional communal management regimes that provides
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substantial local autonomy in matters involving sea turtle conservation and management, within a national legal framework. This devolution framework likely complies with international treaty obligations, and would enable the three countries to enter into cooperative sea turtle conservation and management agreements beneath those treaties, if all three were parties and chose to seek an exception for subsistence and economic-subsistence use. Political Considerations. The political and policy climate between Panama and Costa Rica remains positive for continued cooperation in the conservation and management of sea turtles, and there does not appear to by any major bilateral difficulties that would stand in the way of formalized cooperation between Nicaragua and Panama. However, relations between Nicaragua and Costa Rica have frayed over a variety of issues that spill over into sea turtle habitats. Foremost among these are ongoing disputes in the International Court of Justice over the Rio San Juan, the riverine boundary that discharges into the Caribbean Sea, and its maritime implications. Maritime boundaries may also be affected by proceedings in the ICJ contesting the maritime boundaries of Nicaragua and Colombia, in which Costa Rica has intervened. Internally, Nicaragua continues to grapple with the extent and nature of autonomy afforded to its traditional Caribbean coastal communities and indigenous groups. Despite this uncertainty, significant strides have been made at the governmental as well as the community level to address the nature and extent of subsistence use of sea turtles.

RECOMMENDATIONS
Under these circumstances, and for the foreseeable future, the following approaches may make sense: Non-Governmental Organizations should support regular trinational stakeholder meetings, especially those involving leaders in indigenous and traditional coastal communities in the 3 countries. These meeting should focus on the common threats faced by both consumptive and non-consumptive users of sea turtle resources, especially habitat degradation caused by overfishing, sedimentation and other forms of land-based pollution, shoreline development, port expansion, offshore oil exploration and tourism development. An ecoregional conservation planning study should be conducted for the Southwestern Caribbean Ecoregion using a priority setting methodology similar to the one that was conducted for the Western Caribbean Ecoregion (http://www.summitfdn.org/foundation/pdfs/wwf_mesoamerican.pdf ). Such a
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study would provide policy-relevant conservation science concerning sea turtle habitats for an ecoregion that lies largely within the territorial coasts, waters, and exclusive economic zones of Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama and Columbia. The IAC Secretariat should formally review the current legal framework for subsistence use in Nicaragua to determine whether, and under what further conditions, it would satisfy the Conventions exception for economic subsistence use, and notify Nicaragua through an official communication. Traditional communities with political autonomy over natural resources within sea turtle habitat, and the traditional political authority to self-regulate the consumptive and non-consumptive use of sea turtles by local law or through cultural norms, should be invited to participate in the IAC on a regular basis as non-voting parties or observers at the conference of the parties and the deliberations of its Committees and be provided the resources to do so. Costa Rica and Panama should consider entering into a regional ministerial agreement or memorandum of understanding under the CMS to address sea turtle conservation. Nicaragua should be invited to participate as a non-party, as the Convention expressly permits. Traditional communities, as defined above, should also be invited to participate. Consideration should be given to using the convening power of the Ramsar Convention to address cooperation between protected areas of importance to sea turtles in the three countries, and to improve the value and quality of protected area management planning. All 3 countries are parties to the convention and there are 2 or more Ramsar sites on the Caribbean Coast of each country that encompass sea turtle habitat. Moreover, Ramsar sites define the borders of Nicaragua and Costa Rica and of Panama and Costa Rica. Synergies between the CMS, Ramsar and the SPAW protocol should be pursued to create a focus on the Western Caribbean Ecoregion, which encompasses the marine environment of all 3 countries (and also includes Colombia). Ramsar and the CMS have a longstanding Memorandum of Understanding to cooperate on projects that implicate both treaties. This could be invoked here. Costa Rica and Panama should continue to pursue bilateral approaches to sea turtle conservation and management under the auspices of the ongoing cooperative framework for the Rio Sixaola transboundary watershed. NGOs should remain vigilant to unilateral and bilateral development plans and proposals within the Sixaola Watershed that may affect sea turtles and their habitats.

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ANNEXES
In order to create this synthetic analysis of the law of sea turtles students from Panama, Costa Rica and the United States associated with the University of Florida University of Costa Rica Joint Program in Environmental Law reviewed the status of sea turtles under the relevant law of each jurisdiction, including the international legal regime. These individual reviews are included as annexes to this report. It is important to note that no Nicaraguans participated in the Program, and the authors of this report and its annex were unable to travel to Nicaragua to gather information. Nonetheless, Nicaraguan law was reviewed to the greatest extent possible, and a Nicaragua annex is included.

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ANNEX 1. INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION REGARDING THE CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA, COSTA RICA AND PANAMA

Legislacin Internacional sobre Conservacin, Manejo y Uso de las Tortugas Marinas para La Costa Caribe de Costa Rica.
Sekita Grant, J.D., LL.M. Candidate, E.E.U.U.

Universidad de Florida/Universidad de Costa Rica Programa Conjunto en Derecho Ambiental Thomas T. Ankersen, Director Lic. Franklin Paniagua, Ph.D. Candidate, Professor Gabriela Stocks, Ph.D Candidate, Professor Lic. Nikolas Snchez Espino, Panama Paulino Madrigal Rodriquez, Candidato de Lic. September, 2011

Due to the highly migratory nature of sea turtles, it is essential that conservation efforts include international and regional approaches. The international arena has no shortage of instruments promoting the protection and conservation of sea turtles. Below is a matrix of the most significant of those laws followed by a detailed analysis of each. Despite this
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extensive legal presence, the status of sea turtles remains endangered. The purpose of this section is to provide a thorough understanding of relevant international laws as well as their application to sea turtles. I. International and Regional Instruments Nicaragua
Protocol Concerning Specifically Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW)

Costa Rica N

Panama R

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna(CITES) Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species and Wild Animals (CMS)

Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC) Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar)

Dominican Republic and Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA)

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

S = Signed; R = Ratified; N = Not a party II. Analysis of International Instruments

(1) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

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The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) entered into force in 1975 for the purpose of preventing the loss of species resulting from commercial trade. CITES regulates the international trade in endangered and other species. Based on a combination of biological and trade data, parties to CITES agree to which species are vulnerable. The parties then list the species on one or more of three appendices, each appendix representing a different level of protection based on the vulnerability of the species. Species listed under Appendix I are those species threatened with extinction which are or may be affected by trade.306 For Appendix I species, CITES requires both an export and import permit for any trade and trade for primarily commercial purposes is prohibited.307 Any trade species listed under Appendix II are those species which may become threatened.308 Trade in Appendix II species is permitted to the extent the trade will not be detrimental to the survival of the species and such trade will require an export permit.309 Species can be listed unilaterally on Appendix III by the country of origin and requires a certificate of origin or similar documentation showing that the species was caught legally and will be shipped humanely.310 All import permit requirements apply to adults, hatchlings and eggs collected on beaches. Before granting an export permit for an Appendix I or II species, the country of export must determine that (1) the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species; (2) the specimen was not obtained in contravention of the laws of that state; and (3) any living specimen will be so prepared and shipped as to minimize the risk of injury, damage to health or cruel treatment.311 For an Appendix I species, there must be an additional showing that an import permit has been granted.312 Before granting an import permit, the country of import must determine: (1) the import is for purposes which are not detrimental to the survival of the species for which the permit is sought; (2) the proposed recipient of a living specimen is suitably equipped to house and care for it; and (3) the specimen is not to be used for primarily commercial purposes.313 Application. Costa Rica, Nicaragua and Panama are all parties to CITES.314 In addition, all seven species of sea turtles have been listed as Appendix I species.315 As such, the international commercial trade in sea turtles, as well as specimens316 of sea turtles is

306

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild FLora and Fauna, Mar. 3, 1973, art. III, 27 U.S.T. 1087, 993 U.N.T.S. 243 [hereinafter CITES]. 307 CITES, supra note 1, at art. III. 308 CITES, supra note 1, at art. II(2). 309 CITES, supra note 1, at art. IV. 310 CITES, supra note 1, at art. II(3). 311 CITES, supra note 1, at arts. III(2) & IV(2). 312 CITES, supra note 1, at art. III(2). 313 CITES, supra note 1, at art. III(1). 314 CITES List of Parties, available at http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/alphabet.php. 315 CITES supra note 1, at Appendix I. 316 Specimens include live or dead animals as well as any readily recognizable parts and derivatives of species.
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explicitly prohibited under CITES. This does not restrict the domestic trade of sea turtles within a countrys boundaries. As with most of the international agreements discussed in this paper, CITES recommends the Secretariat to collaborate with other conventions and states317 to explore a cooperative approach to international management of the sea turtles.318 CITES does not, however, explicitly encourage or provide means for the creation of cooperative regional agreements for the conservation of sea turtles. (2) Convention of the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals The Convention of the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (the CMS) focuses on the protection of migratory species by imposing conservation obligations to protect endangered migratory species listed in Appendix I of the CMS. The CMS also establishes a process for creating specific agreements for the conservation of species listed on Appendix II of the CMS.319 The duties imposed upon a party depends on whether or not they are a Range State. A Range State is any State with jurisdiction over the areas of land or water where a particular species migrates through or inhabits.320 Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam have been identified by the Conference of Parties (COP) of the CMS as Range States for all four species of marine turtles addressed in this paper.321 The COP is a decision-making body of the CMS charged with monitoring the status of migratory species, making recommendations to Parties as well as supporting the work of the Scientific Council322 and the Secretariat.323 For Appendix I species, Range State Parties must endeavour to conserve and, where feasible restore the essential habitat of the Appendix I species.324 In addition, Parties must endeavor to prevent or mitigate obstacles to the migration of the species,325 and to the extent feasible, reduce factors leading to endangerment.326 Furthermore, Parties are directed to prohibit the taking,327 of any Appendix I species.328 An exception to this take
317

Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (IAC), the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean region (Cartagena Convention) and its Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol), and range States in the wider Caribbean and the Western Atlantic. 318 CITES, Decisions of the Conference of the Parties to CITES, 15.84. 319 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, June 3, 1979, reprinted in 19 I.L.M. 15 (Bonn, 1979, in force 1983) [hereinafter CMS], Article IV. 320 CMS, Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (2002). 321 CMS, Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (2002). 322 The Scientific Council is charged with providing advice on scientific matters and is created by Article VIII of the CMS. 323 CMS, supra note 14, at art VII. 324 CMS, supra note 14 at art II. 325 CMS, supra note 14 at art III(4)(b). 326 CMS, supra note 14 at art III(4)(c). 327 CMS, supra note 14 at art I(1)(i) (the term taking means taking, hunting, fishing capturing, harassing, deliberate killing, or attempting to engage in any such conduct.) 64 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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prohibition is allowed for scientific purpose, enhancing the survival of the species in the wild, traditional subsistence needs, and extraordinary circumstances.329 Any exceptions made for extraordinary circumstances must be precise as to content and limited in space and time.330 For Appendix II species, the CMS provides a process by which Parties may enter into international conservation agreements.331 Specifically, Parties must endeavor to develop agreements for the conservation of Appendix II migratory species.332 The purpose of the agreement is to restore the migratory species concerned to a favorable conservation status or to maintain it in such a status.333 Application. Panam and Costa Rica are parties to the CMS; however, Nicaragua is not. Under the CMS guidelines Parties can enter into CMS sub-agreements or memoranda of understanding with any non-member. It is therefore not necessary for Nicaragua to become a party to the CMS for the three parties to form an effective CMS agreement. The CMS is more concerned with effectively protecting the entire migratory range of a species, regardless of if the Range State is a Party or not. With relation to sea turtles, the CMS encourages Range States to engage in concerted regional efforts to protect sea turtles and that a comprehensive global framework should eventually emerge.334 All species of sea turtle have been placed on both Appendix I and II except for the flatback turtle. In 2002, the CMS identified interaction with fisheries and by-catch as the greatest obstacle to migration for sea turtles.335 The provisions of the CMS have been interpreted to prohibit the capture of sea turtles in shrimp trawlers that do not use turtle excluder devices (TEDs), even if the capture is not deliberate.336 Panam became an official signatory in 1989 and Costa Rica in 2007.337 All signatories are required to submit National Reports to the CMS. These reports describe the efforts being made in each country to advance specific CMS objectives and protect migratory species generally as well as identifying country specific threats to the listed species. In its 2011 National Report, Costa Rica identified the Programa Nacional de Vida Silvestre;
328 329

CMS, supra note 14 at art III(5). CMS, supra note 14 at art III(5)(a)-(d). 330 CMS, supra note 14 at art III(5)(d). 331 CMS, supra note 14 at art V. 332 CMS, supra note 14 at art IV(3). 333 CMS, supra note 14 at art V(1). 334 CMS, Resolutions and Recommendations, adopted at the Sixth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (1999). 335 CMS, Synthesis of Party Reports, adopted at the Seventh Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, (2002). 336 C. Wold, The Status of Sea Turtles under International Environmental Law and International Environmental Agreements, 5 J. of International Wildlife Law and Policy 11, 34 (2002), citing S. Lyster, Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals , 29 Natural Resources J. 979, 992, n. 42 (1989); The CMS requests that parties protect migratory species, including sea turtles, against by-catch by fisheries within their territorial waters and exclusive economic zones, and by vessels fishing on the high seas under their flags. (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Resolution 6.2, By-Catch, Adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its Sixth Meeting (Cape Town, 10-16 November 1999). 337 Parties to the CMS and its Agreements, as at July 1, 2011, available at http://www.cms.int/about/Partylist_eng.pdf.
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Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservacion; Ministerio del Ambiente, Energia y Telecomunicaciones; Instituto Costarricense de Pesca y Acuicultura; Escuela de Biologia de la Universidad de Costa Rica as being the government agencies responsible for acting on behalf of the protection of sea turtles.338 Costa Rica identified several laws relevant to the protection of migratory species339 as well as NGOs specifically involved in protecting sea turtles.340 Costa Rica has identified illegal extraction of marine turtle eggs as a major threat to sea turtles within their jurisdiction.341 Additionally, Costa Rica notes that there has been some success in decreasing the number of eggs being extracted resulting from the increased monitoring of beaches used by sea turtles as well as the formation of marine protected areas and increasing public awareness regarding sea turtle issues.342 The Costa Rica report also identifies a lack of research and training as limiting their ability to manage threats to sea turtles.343 Costa Rica asserts that receiving assistance as well as increasing training of employees would help the government better control threats to sea turtles.344 In the 2011 National Report submitted by Panam, Panam identified several organizations (both governmental and non-governmental as being actively involved in protecting migratory species in Panam.345 The Panamanian institutions specifically charged with addressing actions related to the protection of sea turtles are STRI, Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente, Autoridad de los Recursos and Acuticos de Panama.346 Illegal takes, loss of habitat and hotel developments are the largest threats in Panam according to its report.347 To address these threats Panama has increased environmental education, conservation and protection programs, alliances with NGOs, communities and other governmental institutions.348

338 339

CMS, Costa Rica National Report, pg. 8 (2011). Ley Organica del Ambiente; Ley de Conservacion de Vida Silvestre y su Reglamento, la Ley de Biodeversidad y su Reglamento, Ley de Conservacion de Tortugas Marinas, Ley del Servicio de Parque Nacionales. 340 CMS, Costa Rica National Report, (2011) (Fundacion Keto.org Cetaceos y Tortugas de Costa Rica; Fundacion Conservacion del Caribe y Conservacion de las Tortugas Marinas; CCC; Centro Cientifico Tropical; Fundacion Mar Viva; Latin American Sea Turtle Conservation Program). 341 CMS, Costa Rica National Report p. 20-24 (2011). 342 CMS, Costa Rica National Report pp. 20-24 (2011). 343 CMS, Costa Rica National Report, p. 20 (2011). 344 CMS, Costa Rica National Report, p. 20 (2011). 345 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 6 (2011); Government Organizations: La Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam, rige sobre los recursos marino costeros de Panam, exceptuando las reas protegidas con ecosistemas marino costeros, ya que estos estn bajo juridiccin de la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente, pero existe una relacin de trabajo, pues en muchos casos se debe coordinar actividades en donde estn involucradas, especies migratorias con legislacin especial, por ejemplo tortugas marinas y cetceos. Non-Governmental Organizations: Sociedad AUDUBON de Panam, Fondo Peregrino de Panam, Instituto Smithsonian de Investigaciones Tropicales (STRI), AVIFAUNA (Fundacin Eugene Eisemann), Sociedad Mastozoolgica de Panam (SOMASPA), Fundacin Mar Viva de Panam, Fundacin Verde de Panama. 346 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 7 (2011). 347 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 15 (2011). 348 CMS, Panama National Report, p. 15 (2011).
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Conclusion. The CMS is useful in several ways. First, through a CMS trust fund, larger economies are able to provide financial support to developing countries in carrying out the objectives of the convention.349 Second, the CMS has a scientific body that provides standards and guidance for range states to use when managing a particular species.350 Third, the CMS supports the creation of sub-agreements and memoranda of understandings under which regional management of the migratory range of a species can occur. To date, there is no CMS agreement or memorandum of understanding aimed at the protection of sea turtles in the Caribbean or Latin America. There are established memoranda of understanding for sea turtles in Africa as well as the Indian Ocean and South-East Asian region, however, nothing in the Caribbean or Latin America. Under the CMS, Costa Rica, Panam and Nicaragua can create a ministerial-level memorandum of understanding regarding the conservation of sea turtles within their jurisdictions. This can be accomplished despite the fact that Nicaragua is not yet a party to the convention. This memorandum of understanding or agreement could provide guidelines and commitments regarding the management and preservation of sea turtles and their habitats located in the territories of Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam, while allowing subsistence uses to continue under management. (3) Convention on Biological Diversity The objective of the Convention on Biological Diversity (the Convention) is conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.351 Biological diversity is defined by the Convention as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.352 Although there is no language in the Convention that directly addresses sea turtle protection, it encourages generally the conservation and management of biodiversity which include sea turtles. To achieve its objectives, the Convention requires that member parties establish plans and monitor obligations for the protection of biological diversity.353 For projects likely to have a significant impact on the environments, the Convention requires that Parties prepare an environmental impact assessment.354 The Convention also imposes an affirmative duty to protect species and their habitats. Specifically, the Convention requires that parties, as far as possible and as appropriate...promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and
349 350

CMS, supra note 14, at resolution 1.2, annex 3, 1985; see also CMS, Final Act (1979) p. 2. The CMS also recommends certain independent research studies for parties to follow. One such study is Eckert, K.L., Bjorndal, K.A., Abreu-Grobois, F.A. and Donnelly, M. (Eds) (1999). Research and management techniques for the conservation of sea turtles. IUCN/SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4. 351 Convention on Biological Diversity, June 5, 1992, 31 I.L.M. 818 (1992) [hereinafter Convention] at art. I. 352 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 2. 353 Convention, supra note 46, at arts. 6(a), 6(b), and 7. 354 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 14.
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the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings.355 Parties are also asked to establish protected areas to conserve biological diversity and management guidelines.356 Additionally, Parties are directed to rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystems,357 promote the recovery of threatened species,358 and work with its national legislation to promote the protection of threatened species359 while respecting the traditional lifestyles of indigenous communities.360 As with CITES and the CMS, the Convention also protects the customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices that are compatible with conservation or sustainable use requirements.361 Recognizing the need for trans-boundary cooperation, the Convention requires that Parties cooperate on matters that are beyond their national jurisdiction as well as matters that are of mutual interest.362 Furthermore the use of bilateral, regional, or multilateral agreements to achieve conservation objectives are also encouraged.363 Sea turtles are considered a matter of mutual interest due to their migratory nature, thus cooperation among parties is required under the Convention.364 Furthermore, if a Partys activities might significantly affect the health of sea turtles outside of their own jurisdiction, then that Party must initiate negotiations and resolve any issues with affected Parties.365 Application. The Convention contains no provisions specific to sea turtles, however, its articles do provide planning and habitat protection mechanisms to protect biological diversity on both a national and regional level. Parties must recognize these rights when developing measures to protect sea turtles. Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam are all parties to the Convention. In 2006, the Convention published a decision encouraging Parties to take appropriate steps toward enhancing the implementation of integrated marine and coastal area management.366 Suggestions in its published decision include (1) encouraging participation and receiving input from stakeholders, local and indigenous community groups;367 (2) raising awareness among law enforcers about marine and coastal management to encourage appropriate enforcement of relevant laws;368 and (3) participating in international initiatives in order to improve trans-boundary cooperation.369
355 356

Convention, supra note 46, at art. 8(d). Convention, supra note 46, at art. 8(a). 357 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 8(f). 358 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 8(f) 359 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 8(k). 360 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 8(j). 361 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 10(c). 362 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 5. 363 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 14(c). 364 Wold, supra note 31, at p. 32. 365 Wold, supra note 31, at p. 32. 366 see Convention, Conference of the Parties 8, Decision VIII/22 (2006). 367 Convention, Conference of the Parties 8, Decision VIII/22 (2006), section 3(a). 368 Convention, Conference of the Parties 8, Decision VIII/22 (2006), section 3(f). 369 Convention, Conference of the Parties 8, Decision VIII/22 (2006), section 3(g).
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As related to sea turtle management in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panam, these suggestions articulate three key issues that must be addressed if the management of sea turtles is to improve in that region. The Convention also requires that Parties publish a National Biodiversity Strategic Plan as well as a National Report. These requirements as they relate to Nicaragua, Cost Rica and Panam are discussed in more detail below. National Biodiversity Strategy Plans. Under Article 6 of the Convention, each country must create a National Biodiversity Strategy Plan (NBSP). Each NBSP contains a longterm vision for the countrys management of its biodiversity. In its year 2000 NBSP, Costa Rica notes several deficiencies in its ability to manage sea turtle populations.370 First, it lacks critical knowledge regarding marine biodiversity and resources.371 To remedy this deficiency, it has included an action plan to direct more resources towards efforts aimed at improving its understanding of marine life.372 Second, it lacks sufficient human capacity and equipment which has lead to ineffective management of coastal resources.373 For this they have included in their action plan a program to increase management of marine coastal resources and improve the legal framework aimed at protecting those areas.374 Third, there is a disconnect between science and policy which has limited their ability to effectively introduce sustainable coastal practices.375 These strategies and issues are relevant to marine and coastal resources generally. There is no mention, however, of work being done relating specifically to sea turtles. In its year 2000 NBSP, Panam provides some analysis relevant to sea turtle conservation issues.376 It cites habitat destruction as the biggest threat to sea turtle populations in Panam.377 Sea turtle populations in Panam are also under pressure from threats of capture for consumption and the sale of sea turtle parts.378 In 2000, Panam proposed a plan to improve the management and protection of sea turtles in the provinces of Los Santos, Chiriqu, Bocas del Toro, and Coln.379 The project included a five year plan to improve the status of sea turtles in Panam by collaborating existing knowledge about sea turtles and their threats, discovering new scientific data and using the data to develop an effective management plan.380 The NBSAP encouraged participation from local communities as well as NGOs.381

370 371

Costa Rica, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte 2.2. Costa Rica, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte 2.2. 372 Costa Rica, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte IV, asunto estratgico 4, proyecto 1. 373 Costa Rica, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte 2.4. 374 Costa Rica, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte IV, asunto estratgico 12. 375 Costa Rica, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte 2.4. 376 Panam, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte 1.3, p. 20. 377 Panam, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte 1.3, p. 20. 378 Panam, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), parte 1.3, p. 20. 379 Panam, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), pp. 81-84. 380 Panam, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), pp. 82-83. 381 Panam, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), pp. 82-83.
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In its National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan, Nicaragua mentions the migratory nature of sea turtles and the important role Nicaragua plays in protecting this shared resource.382 One of the most significant challenges Nicaragua cites to the application of a meaningful conservation strategy is to comply with sustainable development initiatives while meeting the development needs of an impoverished nation.383 Another challenge cited is the lack of support from high level government agencies that have the power to implement critical policies.384 National Reports. Article 26 of the Convention requires Parties to submit National Reports.385 The purpose of which is to provide information regarding the recent measures taken toward the implementation of Convention requirements, as well as some insight as to the effectiveness of these measures. It is unclear the extent to which Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panams involvement in the Convention has impacted the health of sea turtle populations in the wider Caribbean. In its National Report to the Convention submitted in 2008, Panam does mention a positive impact to sea turtle populations resulting from its conservation plans.386 As an example, Panam mentioned its program for conserving and monitoring sea turtles in the San San Pond Sak Wetland Reserve, noting the importance of community involvement and a binational agreement.387 This program includes night patrolling of beach areas between February and August of every year, collecting data regarding females and hatchlings, and relocating nests to safe areas if necessary. 388 In general, however, Panam reported a lack of resources and knowledge as well as a lack of participation from the scientific community as reasons why conservation efforts have not been more successful.389 According to Nicaragua, conservation of marine and coastal resources is of high priority and the country lists several laws in place to protect sea turtles.390 (II National Report (2002), Nicaragua , p. 9; III National Report (2006), Nicaragua, section 39, 126, 188, 189) (4) The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands In 1971, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) was adopted with the purpose of providing a framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.391 The Ramsar Convention operates by supporting and encouraging cooperation between member nations in which they commit themselves to implementing the three pillars of the Convention.
382 383

Nicaragua, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), p. 10. Nicaragua, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), p. 18. 384 Nicaragua, Estrategia Nacional de Biodiversidad (2000), p. 18. 385 Convention, supra note 46, at art. 26. 386 Convention, Panam National Report IV, p. 58. 387 Convention, Panam National Report IV, p. 76. 388 Convention, Panam National Report IV, p. 76. 389 Convention, Panam National Report IV, p. 58. 390 Convention, Nicaragua National Report II, p. 9; Convention, Nicaragua National Report III, sections 39, 126, 188, 189. 391 The Ramsar Convention and its mission, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsarabout-mission/main/ramsar/1-36-53_4000_0__.
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The three pillars are designed to facilitate this cooperation and commitment to sustainable use of wetlands. The three pillars are (1) to designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar List) and ensure their effective management; (2) to work towards the wise use of all their wetlands through national landuse planning, appropriate policies and legislation, management actions, and public education; and (3) to cooperate internationally concerning transboundary wetlands, shared wetland systems, shared species, and development projects that may affect wetlands.392 The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources. It was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975. It is the only global environmental treaty that deals with a particular ecosystem. Application. Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam are all Ramsar Convention member states. Nicaragua has declared eight areas covering over 400,000 hectares as Ramsar Sites, two of which are of significance for sea turtle conservation.393 These sites are Cayos Miskitos y Franja Costera Immediata (Cayos) and Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ro San Juan (San Juan).394 Both are located along the Caribbean coast.395 Cayos is a marine biological reserve that covers an offshore Caribbean island as well as the shoals and adjacent mainland coastal areas twelve kilometers to the west.396 Cayos is home to one of the largest extensions of sea grass in the Caribbean, intermingled with coral reefs, areas which support several rare and endangered species, including the Green Turtle and Hawksbill Turtle.397 San Juan is a wildlife refuge within a larger biosphere reserve and it supports several species of turtles.398 It follows the course of the Ro San Juan and includes the coastline to the north of Nicaragua as well as part of the Biosphere Reserve Indio Maiz.399 Costa Rica has twelve Ramsar Sites, covering almost 570,000 hectares.400 The majority of Ramsar wetlands in Costa Rica are located within domestically protected wildlife areas. 401
392

The Ramsar Convention and its mission, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsarabout-mission/main/ramsar/1-36-53_4000_0__. 393 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 394 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 395 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 396 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 397 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 398 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 399 The Annotated Ramsar List: Nicaragua, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16106/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16106_4000_0__. 400 The Annotated Ramsar List: Costa Rica, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsarpubs-annolist-anno-costarica/main/ramsar/1-30-168^16460_4000_0__. 71 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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Three of Costa Ricas Ramsar sites can be found on the Caribbean coast.402 These include Humedal de Caribe Noreste on the Nicaraguan border, Tortuguero National Park and Gandoca-Manzanillo Mixta National Wildlife Refuge on the border with Panama. Panam has declared five areas as Ramsar sites, two of which are of significance to Caribbean sea turtle conservation.403 The San San Pond Sak Wetland of International Importance borders Costa Ricas Gandoca-Manazanillo Ramsar site, effectively creating a binational Ramsar complex. The other Panamanian Ramsar site significant to sea turtles is Humedal de Importancia Internacional Damani-Guariviara (Damani-Guariviara), also in Bocas del Toro.404 International and Regional Cooperation Under Ramsar. Increasingly, Ramsar Contracting Parties are designating their new and existing Ramsar Sites as Transboundary Ramsar Sites, meaning that an ecologically coherent wetland extends across national borders and the Ramsar Site authorities on both or all sides of the border have formally agreed to collaborate in its management, and have notified the Secretariat of this intent."405 Additionally, the third goal of Ramsars most recent strategic plan is to enhance the conservation and wise use of wetlands using effective international cooperation.406 This type of regional conservation approach to coastal wetlands would seem to be useful for Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panam. National Reports. Ramsar recommends that parties submit National Reports, updating the bureau on what steps the State has taken pursuant to the requirements of the convention.407 In its 2008 National Report, Panam states that with cases of wetlands such as the Refugio Vida Silvestre, Isla Caas and Damani in Playa Chiriqu, which are important to sea turtle nesting sites, the government is working with local communities to encourage conservation and rational use of those areas.408 To ensure proper use of those wetlands, Panam has established projects aimed at increasing rural environmental business so that local communities can have other sources of income and can implement better uses of the land.409 These projects are made possible through the support of the
401

Instrumento de Planificacin Nacional-Modelo de Informe Nacional para la COP9 de Ramsar, p. 33. 402 Instrumento de Planificacin Nacional-Modelo de Informe Nacional para la COP9 de Ramsar, p. 84 (Palo Verde, Cao Negro, Gandoca-Manzanillo, Caribe Noreste: sector PN Tortuguero, and Isla del Coco). 403 The Annotated Ramsar List: Panam, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16127/main/ramsar/1-30-168^16127_4000_0__. 404 The Annotated Ramsar List: Panam, available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubsannolist-annotated-ramsar-16127/main/ramsar/1-30-168^16127_4000_0__. 405 The Ramsar Convention Manual, 4th edition (2006), available at http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubs-manual/main/ramsar/1-30-35_4000_0__. 406 Ramsar Strategic Plan 2009-2015, p. 5. 407 Recommendation 2.1, adopted at the Second Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties (1984). 408 Informe Nacional sobre la Aplicacin de la Convencin de Ramsar sobre los Humedales (2008), p. 13. 409 Informe Nacional sobre la Aplicacin de la Convencin de Ramsar sobre los Humedales (2008), p. 13. 72 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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Corredor Biologico del Atlantico Panameo.410 In between the Eight and Ninth Conference of the Parties, Costa Rica reported to have engaged in sea turtle monitoring in the Humedal Caribe Noreste and Tamarindo on the Pacific coast.411 Nicaragua has apparently not cited anything in their National Reports relevant to sea turtles. (5) SPAW Protocol The Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW Protocol) is part of the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention). The Cartagena Convention is a legally binding international treaty created in 1983 for the purpose of committing governments in the Wider Caribbean Region to protect, develop and manage their coastal and marine resources. In 1990, members of the Cartagena Convention adopted the SPAW Protocol with the objective of protecting rare and fragile ecosystems and habitats. The SPAW Protocol also assists with the regional implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The SPAW Protocol is useful for sea turtle protection because it is focused only on coastal and marine species in the Wider Caribbean Region, and it reaches a level of focus and specificity that larger more comprehensive environmental agreements are often unable to reach. Despite this specificity, however, it is large enough that it covers the most critical habitat where sea turtles forage and nest. As with many biodiversity based environmental treaties, the SPAW Protocol uses a listing system to differentiate species requiring different levels of protection. For all categories of species, Parties are required to adopt cooperative measures to ensure the protection and recovery.412 All species of sea turtle of concern are listed under Annex II. Annex II prohibits the commercial trade as well as the direct or incidental take or killing of an Annex II species, their eggs, parts or products.413 The section also specifies that, to the extent possible, member states are prohibited from disturbing an Annex II species, particularly during periods of breeding, incubation, estivation or migration, as well as other periods of biological stress.414 This language is of great importance to sea turtles because of how sensitive the species becomes during mating and nesting seasons. Although this part is not mandatory, it clearly supports a more sensitive approach to protection and would operate in favor of cooperative measures limiting activities near or on sea turtle nesting beaches. Under the final act adopting the SPAW protocol, the member states clarified that when creating conservation plans and regulations member
410

Informe Nacional sobre la Aplicacin de la Convencin de Ramsar sobre los Humedales (2008), p. 13. 411 Instrumento de Planificacin Nacional-Modelo de Informe Nacional para la COP9 de Ramsar, p. 91. 412 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Jan. 18, 1990 [hereinafter SPAW Protocol] at art. 11(1). 413 SPAW Protocol supra note 107, at art. 11(1)(b)(i). 414 SPAW Protocol supra note 107, at art. 11(1)(b)(ii). 73 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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states must consider the species sensitivity to anthropogenic threats such as climate change and sea level rise.415 Although the SPAW Protocol contains a general exception for subsistence or traditional takes, it includes more detailed language limiting the applicability of this type of take.416 Specifically, a traditional take is prohibited if it would: endanger the maintenance or areas protected under the terms of this Protocol, including the ecological processes contributing to the maintenance of those protected areas; or (b) cause either the extinction of, or a substantial risk to, or substantial reduction in the number of, individuals making up the populations of species of fauna and flora within the protected areas, or any ecologically inter-connected species or population, particularly migratory species and threatened, endangered or endemic species.417 Because the SPAW Protocol is meant to work with other international environmental treaties, this language may help shed light on other subsistence take language. Application. Although all three countries signed the Cartagena convention, only Panam has signed and ratified the SPAW protocol.418 During the Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties in 2010, conservation of sea turtles was of serious concern.419 Specifically, there was an initiative to compile scientific data from tagging done in the region to provide a regional map of sea turtle movements and use of critical habitats throughout the Caribbean.420 Additionally, there was a call to continue the support of Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plans (STRAPs), both by implementing new STRAPs in countries where they do not exist, as well as by supporting existing STRAPs.421 To provide adequate protection for sea turtles, the United Nations Environmental Programme partnered with the Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation Network (WIDECAST) to develop a series of national sea turtle recovery plans, referred to as STRAPs.422 Panam published its STRAP in 2007.423 In its report, Panam identifies habitat destruction, sickness, over exploitation by local communities for food and medicinal purposes as well as trade in sea turtle parts, incidental captures of sea turtles and inadequate enforcement mechanisms as the primary threats to sea turtles.424 With regard to over exploitation by local populations, Panam claims that large problems with poverty, unemployment, lack of environmental education and weak penalties for breaking relevant
415 416

SPAW Protocol supra note 107, at para. 18(f). SPAW Protocol supra note 107, at art. 14. 417 SPAW Protocol supra note 107, at arts. 14(a), (b). 418 Status of the Cartagena Convention and Protocols, available at http://www.car-spawrac.org/IMG/pdf/pays_ratifies_spaw.pdf. 419 SPAW Protocol, Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties (2010). 420 SPAW Protocol, Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties (2010), p. 13, item 42(e). 421 SPAW Protocol, Sixth Meeting of the Contracting Parties (2010), p. 13, items 42(a), (b). 422 SPAW Protocol, supra note 107, at art. 10; WIDECAST, National Recovery Plans available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/STRAPs.html. 423 Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf. 424 Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf, at pp. 11-17.
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laws have lead to an inability to control this issue.425 Panam is focusing on several strategies to reduce these threats, including improved and precise habitat protection, creating a more informed public, initiating and supporting relevant international agreements, and improving the exchange of scientific information relevant to sea turtle conservation.426 (6) The Dominican Republic - Central America - United States Free Trade Agreement The Dominican Republic - Central America - United States Free Trade Agreement, known as DR-CAFTA, is a free trade agreement between the U.S., Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic entered into in 2004. Panam is not part of the agreement. DR-CAFTAs purpose is to lower trade barriers amongst member states. Of greatest significance to sea turtle conservation is Chapter 17 of DR-CAFTA, which creates a forum through which citizens427 can lodge formal complaints (submissions) against a member country for failing to enforce their domestic environmental laws.428 Essential to this submission is a presentation of facts sufficient for the Secretariat to review the matter. Additionally the facts must provide a statement that the issue has been perviously communicated to the member state challenged. Additionally, DR-CAFTA encourages and facilitates multi-national agreements promoting the development of environmental laws and policies. DR-CAFTA expressly prohibits any member state from lowering environmental standards and protection as a way to increase trade or investments with another member state.429 DR-CAFTA Weaknesses. DR-CAFTA has pushed the envelope of environmental protection under free trade agreements by incorporating a chapter solely for the purposes of strengthening domestic environmental laws of member states. The language of Chapter 17, however, is inherently lacking in two significant ways. First, the formal submission process through which citizens may file complaints only allows claims against states for failing to impose existing environmental laws.430 DR-CAFTA does not, therefore, provide an opportunity to require a member state to improve upon or add new environmental laws. Panam, however, is not a member state; therefore, these restrictions have no application against it. A second weakness under the Chapter 17 provisions of DR-CAFTA is its inability to force a member state to comply with its own domestic laws. If a member state is found to be in
425

Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf, at p. 14. 426 see generally Plan de Accin para la Recuperacin de las Tortugas Marinas del Caribe de Panam, available at http://www.widecast.org/Resources/Docs/STRAP_Panama_2007.pdf. 427 The Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement (2006) [hereinafter DR-CAFTA), at sections17.3.3, 17.7. (Citizen refers to any person of a member state with a legally recognizable interest.). 428 id. 429 DR-CAFTA, supra note 122, at 17.2.2. 430 DR-CAFTA, supra note 122, at 17.7.
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violation of 17.2 the secretariat will publicize such failures in a factual record. The factual record will suggest ways the member state can improve upon its current enforcement mechanisms. The factual record also provides information and advice to the member state as well as serving as public punishment for those governments failing to enforce laws.431 DR-CAFTA does not, however, have any jurisdiction to force the compliance with environmental law. Accepted Submissions. In its six years of existence, two submissions relating to sea turtles conservation has been accepted under Chapter 17. In 2007, the Humane Society International made a submission to the Secretariat for environmental matters for DRCAFTA claiming a failure by the government of the Dominican Republic to enforce domestic laws intended to protect endangered sea turtles.432 More recently, a submission was accepted that alleges the Government of Costa Rica is failing to enforce laws relating to the use of Turtle Excluder Devices on shrimp trawls, a problem largely found on the Pacific Coast.433 The Domincan Republic submission pointed to two Dominican laws that are intended to protect endangered sea turtles. Under Law No. 64-00, it is prohibited to hunt, fish, capture, mistreat, kill, traffic, import, export, sell, manufacture or produce traditional handicrafts, as well as exhibit and illegally possess [any endangered] species.434 Law No. 64-00 is elaborated upon by Decree No. 752-01 passed by the government of the Dominican Republic to prohibit the capture, killing, collection of eggs and sale of products derived from green, hawksbill, loggerhead and leatherback turtles occurring after July 31, 2001.435 Under Article 3 of Decree No. 752-01, the government is responsible for compiling inventories of products derived from sea turtles killed or captured prior to 2001.436 The government, however, has failed to compile this information and as a result there is no way to distinguish legally sold turtle products and illegal products.437 As a result there has been no effective effort by the government to monitor Dominican stores and there is reported evidence that people are freely selling illegal sea turtle products to tourists in local markets.438 The Dominican Republic responded by admitting to the findings in the submission but claimed that they were making efforts to improve enforcement of sea turtle laws and needed additional support to be able to successfully manage the issue.439 The Secretariat recommended the development of a factual record because the Dominican Republics
431 432

DR-CAFTA, supra note 122, at 17.8.8. Submission to the Secretariat for Environmental Matters for the DR-CAFTA, May 8, 2007, Submission On behalf of: Human Society International, May 8, 2007 [hereinaft er Sea Turtle Submission]. 433 http://www.pretoma.org/cafta-will-investigate-costa-rica-for-failing-to-protect-sea-turtles/ 434 Sea Turtle Submission, supra note 127, at p. 2. 435 Sea Turtle Submission, supra note 127, at p. 2. 436 Sea Turtle Submission, supra note 127, at p. 2. 437 Sea Turtle Submission, supra note 127, at p. 2. 438 Sea Turtle Submission, supra note 127, at pp. 3-4. 439 Factual Record CAALA 07-001 Sea Turtles DR, Jan. 2011 [hereinafter Sea Turtle Factual Record], at pp. 27-28.
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response lacked convincing evidence supporting a conclusion that financial, human and logistical resources have been assigned to the task of monitoring illegal sea turtle use.440 In the factual record, the secretariat provided a detailed account of what actions the Dominican Republic was taking to prevent the sale of hawksbill shell products. This factual record allowed the Dominican Republic as well as third parties to better understand where the governments efforts are successful and where they are lacking. This case helps understand the procedure and scope of DR-CAFTAs Chapter 17 process. By engaging the Dominican Republic in this fact finding process, the implementation of a cooperative strategy appears more realistic. Engaging member states in implementing more cooperative strategies is essential to successful sea turtle conservation. DR-CAFTA may, therefore, operate as a better enforcement mechanism than a more punitive approach that may result in a hostile noncooperative environment. Environmental Cooperation. Perhaps of greater importance for the protection of sea turtles is DR-CAFTAs encouragement of environmental cooperation among member states. Article 17.4 encourages voluntary mechanisms to enhance environmental performance such as forming partnerships, information sharing and creating market-based incentives. This is reiterated in Article 17.9 which prioritizes the facilitation of effective cooperation by fostering partnerships and sharing technologies and conservation information.441 (7) Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles The Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles (the IAC) came into force in May 2001 and has been ratified by Costa Rica and Panama. Nicaragua has signed the IAC, but has not yet ratified it. The purpose of the IAC is to promote the protection, conservation and recovery of sea turtle populations and of the habitats on which they depend.442 This objective is to be carried out taking into account the environmental, socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of the Parties.443 The IAC explicitly recognizes the highly migratory nature of sea turtles and therefore strongly encourages international cooperation on sea turtle conservation efforts.444 The IAC covers the geographic areas of North, South and Central America as well as the Caribbean and is binding to those states which have consented to be bound, include Costa Rica and Panam.445 The IAC is monitored and operated by a secretariat, a consultative committee and a scientific committee.446 The Secretariat is generally responsible for organizing IAC
440 441

Sea Turtle Factual Record, supra note 133, at p. 32. DR-CAFTA, supra note 122, at 17.9.3. 442 Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, May 2, 2001 [hereinafter IAC], art. II. 443 IAC, supra note 136, at art II. 444 IAC, supra note 136, at Preamble. 445 IAC, supra note 136, at arts. I and III. 446 IAC, supra note 136, at arts. VI, VII and VIII.
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meetings as well as publishing, disseminating and facilitating the transfer of information and educational materials related to the conservation of sea turtles.447 The Consultative Committee is made up of representatives from each of the member states as well as a total of nine members who represent the NGOs (3), scientists (3), and the private sector (3).448 In addition to reviewing and analyzing reports on sea turtle conservation, the consultative committee also reviews reports on the socio-economic, cultural and environmental impacts on communities impacted by sea turtle conservation practices.449 The consultative committee is also required to present recommendations on the adoption of additional conservation and management measures to promote the objective of [the IAC].450 The scientific committee provides scientific data as well as studies on sea turtle biology and population dynamics.451 This work includes the completion of environmental impact studies on anthropogenic activities affecting sea turtles as well as monitoring the impacts of conservation measures taken pursuant to the IAC. Under the IAC, parties are required to prohibit the intentional capture, retention or killing of, and domestic trade in, sea turtles, their eggs, parts or products.452 The member states are specifically required to minimize the impact of human activity (to the extent practicable), as well as take measures to protect sea turtle habitats and nesting areas.453 One of the most significant clauses in the IAC requires the use of TEDs.454 The consultative committee has been actively working with fishing industries to increase the use of TEDs.455 IAC Requirements. The IAC contains language regarding the monitoring and compliance of IAC measures. Specifically, member sates are required to establish monitoring programs and ensure effective compliance with measures to protect and conserve sea turtles and their habitats set forth in [the IAC] or adopted pursuant to.456 Also recommended, is the promotion of bi-national and multi-national agreements as well as the creation of national laws that guarantee compliance with the IAC.457 To date only Panam and Costa Rica have submitted annual reports outlining their management of sea turtle issues. Costa Rica submitted 2006, 2007 and 2010 annual reports.458 These annual reports show an extensive number of domestic laws and conservation efforts in place. Panam submitted one annual report in 2010.459 This report

447 448

IAC, supra note 136, at art. VI. IAC, supra note 136, at art. VII. 449 IAC, supra note 136, at art. VII. 450 IAC, supra note 136, at art. VII(2)(e). 451 IAC, supra note 136, at art. VIII. 452 IAC, supra note 136, at art. IV(2)(a). 453 IAC, supra note 136, at arts. IV(2)(c), (d). 454 IAC, supra note 136, at annex III. 455 IAC, Third Meeting of the Consultative Committee (2010), pp. 6-7. 456 IAC, supra note 136, at arts. X. 457 IAC, supra note 136, at arts. XII, XVIII. 458 IAC, Annual Report, Costa Rica (2006), (2007), (2010). 459 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010).
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details Panams application for an economic subsistence take, discussed below. Other than this information, the Panam report is incomplete and outdated. Economic Subsistence Take. Another significant section in the convention is the economic subsistence use exception for traditional communities.460 Taking into account recommendations made by the Consultative Committee, a party may establish a management program which allows for a limited amount of intentional takes so long as it would not undermine the efforts of the IAC.461 It is unclear what qualifies as an allowable take under this exception. The term economic subsistence take suggests a take allowance that is broader than that permitted under the more commonly used subsistence take. Subsistence takes limit capture and killing of sea turtles to noncommercial acts done for the purposes of providing subsistence or improving family diet.462 The addition of the term economic seems to expand the definition to allow taking for the purposes of financial gain along with more traditional subsistence takes. How much financial gain is allowable is another source of ambiguity. Although there is no clear definition on record of how much financial gain is possible, it is certainly not infinite. The amount of financial gain allowable is at least limited by the requirement that a subsistence take not undermine efforts to achieve the objective of [the IAC].463 This indicates that the economic subsistence take cannot interfere with the protection, conservation and recovery of sea turtle populations.464 Some guidance was provided in a presentation by the Working Group on Exceptions (Working Group) to IACs Consultative Committee in 2005.465 With regard to the definition of economic subsistence needs the following will be accepted as valid: Immediate beneficiaries in condition of accumulation of wealth poverty or extreme poverty, according to levels catalogued by each government, since the use would scarcely provide resources to subsist Uses under analysis are specified under Art.IV, 2a), included uses to satisfy cultural (spiritual) needs, sensu Art. II of the Convention The use is allowed under the national legislation (is legal), and who may carry out the extraction is also defined and allowed Takes that are for the accumulation of wealth are not acceptable and will not qualify as a valid exception.466 What constitutes an accumulation of wealth is not defined and makes the language difficult to follow.

460 461

IAC, supra note 136, at art. IV(3). IAC, supra note 136, at art. IV(3). 462 A. Brautigam, Turning the Tide: Exploitation, Trade and Management of Marine Turtles in the Lesser Antilles, Central America, Colombia and Venezuela, p. 421 (2006). 463 IAC, supra note 136, at art. IV(3)(a). 464 IAC, supra note 136, at art. II. 465 IAC, First Meeting of the Consultative Committee (2010), annex IV, pp. 25-27. 466 IAC, First Meeting of the Consultative Committee (2010), annex IV, p. 25.
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The Working Group also provided clarification of the term traditional use and presented the following guidelines: Implies uses already taking place Unacceptable: new use schemes as they couldnt be considered traditional Native groups or other groups already established at the site where turtles are used Human settlement should be officially acknowledged at the site where use takes place Unacceptable: Diffuse community or one that isnt local, that arrives at the site of use only for the purposes of sea turtle extraction Uses which under biological criteria do not undermine the objectives of the Convention. This criteria needs to include the complete chain of commercialization of the product. DESIRABLE: that the major portion of the benefit derived from use remains for the immediate users, whose social condition or cultural need is what is expected to benefit from the use under evaluation. In its IAC Annual Reports, Costa Rica explicitly stated that the only human activities permitted in relation to sea turtles are: a) the activity of scientific research as an information generator for biological, ecological, and behavioral knowledge, among others, and to facilitate the decision making process for a better management of and improved conditions for these species, b) tourist activities related to the observation of these species and their nesting process, c) environmental education in local communities as well as for visitors and d) the harvesting and commercialization of olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) eggs within the Ostional National Wildlife Refuge by the Association for the Integral Development of Ostional.467 To date, Costa Rica has only officially allowed exceptions for the harvesting of sea turtles in Ostional. It is unclear whether this exception was formally approved under the IAC. In 2010, Panam applied for its first and only exception for the Caa Island community on the Pacific coast. The application contained detailed information about the socio-economic and cultural make-up of the Caa Island community as well as describing the management plan, as required by Article IV(3).468 According to the report, Caas Island community has permitted the harvesting and sale of sea turtle eggs since the 1970s.469 The eggs are primarily sold in Panama City for B/.1.30.470 Every year, the community receives a total income of around B/.30,000.00 over a six month period for the harvest.471 The average per person income for people working on the harvest is between B/.160.00 and B/.170.00 per harvest.472 There has been nothing published by the IAC indicating whether or not this exception will be approved. (8) United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) entered into force in 1994. Its 320 articles and nine annexes provide a comprehensive set of rules governing all aspects of ocean space, including technology transfer, marine scientific research,
467 468

see IAC, Annual Report, Costa Rica (2007), p. 15. IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 469 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 470 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 471 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20. 472 IAC, Annual Report, Panam (2010), p. 20.
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environmental control, commercial activities, and the settlement of disputes relating to ocean matters. The convention was created with the mutual understanding amongst over 150 countries that the issues impacting the marine environment transcend political boundaries and require global cooperation. UNCLOS introduced the concept of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), which extends 200 nautical miles from each states coastline. Within the EEZ, each state has the responsibility of ensuring proper conservation and management measures of living resources.473 Beyond the EEZ exists the high seas, an area defined by UNCLOS as being free for use by all states.474 Within the high seas, states must take a cooperative approach to ensuring the protection and conservation of living resources.475 States are liable for the requirements imposed by UNCLOS and are liable under international law for any failure to operate accordingly.476 UNCLOS directly addresses the living resources of the sea, with an implicit emphasis on fisheries. Within its provisions, however, UNCLOS requires that parties take into consideration the effects on species associated with or dependent upon harvested species with a view to maintaining, or restoring populations of such associated or dependent species above levels at which their reproduction may become seriously threatened.477 It is unclear how these provisions would operate for the protection of species that have already been classified as threatened. At the very least, however, the language can be useful in requiring that the commercial fishing industry consider its impacts on sea turtle populations. UNCLOS also contains provisions requiring that states take all measures necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from landbased sources, seabed activities, dumping, marine vessels and the atmosphere.478 It is further required that states enforce any international or domestic rules, laws, agreements and regulations intended to regulate these sources of pollution.479

473

Convention on the Law of the Sea. United Nations Law of the Sea, Dec. 2, 1982, art. 56, U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 62/122, reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 1261 [hereinafter UNCLOS], art. 61. 474 UNCLOS, supra note 167, at art. 87. 475 UNCLOS, supra note 167, at art. 117. 476 UNCLOS, supra note 167, at art. 235. 477 UNCLOS, supra note 167, at arts. 61(4), 119(1)(b). 478 UNCLOS, supra note 167, at arts. 207-212. 479 UNCLOS, supra note 167, at arts. 213-222.
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ANNEX 2. LEGISLATION REGARDING THE CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF NICARAGUA

Legislacin sobre Conservacin, Manejo y Uso de las Tortugas Marinas para La Costa Caribe de Nicaragua.
Lic. Nikolas Snchez Espino, Panama Paulino Madrigal Rodriquez, Candidato de Lic., Facultad de Derecho, UCR, Abogado Estudiantil, UF/UCR Programa Conjunto

Universidad de Florida/Universidad de Costa Rica Programa Conjunto en Derecho Ambiental Thomas T. Ankersen, Director Lic. Franklin Paniagua, Ph.D. Candidate, Professor Gabriela Stocks, Ph.D Candidate, Professor Sekita Grant, J.D., LLM Candidate, E.E.U.U. Lic. Nikolas Snchez Espino, Panama September, 2011

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Indice
Marco Legal e Institucional ................................................................ 85
Instituciones Relevantes.................................................................................... 85
Comisin Nacional del Ambiente (CNA) .................................................................. 85 Procuradura para la Defensa del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales .................... 85 Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales (MARENA) ................................. 86 Ministerio de Fomento, Industria y Comercio (MIFIC) .............................................. 86 Ministerio de Defensa Ejrcito Fuerza Naval...................................................... 87 Ministerio de Gobernacin (MINGOB) ..................................................................... 88

Legislacin Nacional ......................................................................................... 88


Constitucin Poltica de Nicaragua .......................................................................... 88 Leyes ....................................................................................................................... 89 Legislacin Indgena y Regional .............................................................................. 90

reas Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies Relevantes para la Costa Caribe. ...................................................... 93
Programas de Proteccin de Tortugas en la Costa Caribe ............................... 93
Programa de Apoyo Institucional a las Regiones Autnomas de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua (RAAN-ASDI-RAAS) ............................................................................... 93 CAMP-LAB .............................................................................................................. 95 CEDJUDHCAN ........................................................................................................ 96

Marco Legal e Institucional ................................................................ 99


Legislacin Nacional ....................................................................................... 100
Leyes: .................................................................................................................... 100 Decretos y reglamentos importantes...................................................................... 104 Jurisprudencia ....................................................................................................... 105

reas Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies Relevantes para la Costa Caribe..................................................... 107
Proteccin Espacial de Tortugas Marinas en la Costa Caribe de Costa Rica . 107
reas de proteccin ............................................................................................... 108 Proteccin legal en el resto de zonas costeras y marinas ...................................... 115 Conservacin de Base Comunitaria ....................................................................... 116

Bibliografa ...................................................................................... 119 Marco Legal e Institucional .............................................................. 123


Instituciones Relevantes.................................................................................. 123
rgano Legislativo ................................................................................................. 123 rgano Ejecutivo ................................................................................................... 124 Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA) ....................................................... 124 Ministerio de Economa y Finanzas (MEF) ............................................................. 125 Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam.................................................. 125
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INRENARE ............................................................................................................ 128

Legislacion Nacional ....................................................................................... 129


Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam de 1972 .................................... 129 Leyes ..................................................................................................................... 130 Decretos de Gabinete / Decretos Ejecutivos / Decretos ......................................... 134 Resoluciones ......................................................................................................... 136 Legislacin Indigena .............................................................................................. 139

Jurisprudencia Relacionada a La Proteccin De Las Tortugas Marinas ......... 141

reas Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies Relevantes para el Caribe de Panam ............................................ 145
Kuna Yala: ....................................................................................................... 145 Bocas del Toro y Comarca Ngbe-Bugl: ....................................................... 146 Coln: .............................................................................................................. 147 Proyectos de Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas ........................................... 154 Arreglos de Comanejo de reas Protegidas ................................................... 156

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I.Marco

Legal e Institucional

A.Instituciones Relevantes 1.Comisin Nacional del Ambiente (CNA) La Ley No. 217, en el Artculo 152, establece la creacin por parte del Poder Ejecutivo de la Comisin Nacional del Ambiente (CNA) como un ente asesor en el desarrollo de la poltica ambiental del pas. Se crea directamente por los Artculos 6 a 8 de la Ley No. 217 y los Artculos 7 a 11 del Decreto No. 9-96. Entre sus funciones estn la organizacin y creacin de la Procuradura Ambiental (Artculo 135 de la Ley No. 217) y la revisin de toda la legislacin ambiental del pas para que concuerde con la Ley No. 217 (Artculo 153). 2.Procuradura para la Defensa del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales La Procuradura para la Defensa del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales (Procuradura Ambiental) es una rama especializada de la Procuradura General de Justicia. Dentro de la Procuradura General de la Repblica hay ramas especficas para cada rea de la Ley en Nicaragua y la Procuradura Ambiental es la rama ms joven del grupo. Fue establecida en el ao 1996 por la Ley No. 217, la Ley General del Medio Ambiente, por sus Artculos 9 y 10. Segn la Ley 290, la Ley de Organizacin, Competencia y Procedimientos del Poder Ejecutivo, las funciones de la Procuradura de Justicia son la representacin legal del Estado y el control y cumplimiento de las leyes de la nacin. El rol principal de la Procuradura Ambiental establecido por la Ley 217 es proteger los intereses del Estado respecto al ambiente y los recursos naturales. Tiene competencia jurdica en todas las reas ambientales. Sus funciones fundamentales se establecen en el Artculo 13 del Decreto 9-96, el Reglamento de la Ley 217. Bsicamente, su papel es procesar en juicios por infracciones de las leyes ambientales. En la conservacin de los recursos naturales no hay cooperacin entre la Procuradura Ambiental y otras instituciones. Como una institucin administrativa descentralizada del Poder Ejecutivo, la funcin de la Procuradura es dictar demandas para juicio y no coordinar.

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3.Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales (MARENA) El Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales (MARENA) tiene como funciones las de formular y dirigir las polticas ambientales para el uso de los recursos naturales, administrar el sistema de evaluacin de impactos ambientales y administrar la creacin y el manejo de las reas protegidas. Como ente rector en materia de regulacin de la calidad ambiental y manejo sostenible de los recursos naturales, MARENA tiene la responsabilidad de supervisar todas las actividades en las reas protegidas y sancionar administrativamente a quienes incumplan con las disposiciones establecidas en materia de conservacin del ambiente y recursos naturales (Ley 217, Ley General del Ambiente, Artculo 61, y Reglamento). Para la regulacin del uso de los recursos naturales en Nicaragua, MARENA mantiene un sistema de 17 delegaciones en el pas. Hay tres delegaciones en la Costa Atlntica: una en la Regin Autnoma del Atlntico Norte (RAAN), una en la Regin Autnoma del Atlntico Sur (RAAS) y una en el Departamento de Ro San Juan. En las delegaciones de la RAAN y la RAAS hay un total de once tcnicos empleados. MARENA no trabaja con programas para cada rea, as que no tienen ningn programa dirigido propiamente a las tortugas marinas. Atiende casos de denuncias por parte de los ciudadanos y sus acciones son limitadas. 4.Ministerio de Fomento, Industria y Comercio (MIFIC)

Apartir de la promulgacin en 1998 de la Ley 290, las funciones de los Ministerios que se relacionan con el sector pesquero fueron re-establecidas. Ahora, adems de MARENA, hay otro principal responsable, el Ministerio de Fomento, Industria y Comercio (MIFIC, o el ex-MEDE, Ministerio de Economa y Desarrollo). En materia de aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales del Estado, las funciones del MIFIC son coordinar la planificacin del uso y explotacin de los recursos naturales con MARENA, incluso la administracin de los recursos pesqueros y las zonas martimas. El propsito del MIFIC es ms el manejo de la explotacin de los recursos naturales que la conservacin de los mismos, mediante la aplicacin del sistema de concesiones y licencias vigentes, debidamente conforme a las normas de sostenibilidad establecidas por MARENA. Mientras MARENA establece las regulaciones y investiga la base de los recursos naturales estatales, MIFIC tramite, otorga, suspenda y cancela las concesiones y licencias para el aprovechamiento de los recursos. MARENA y MIFIC coordinan en la planificacin de las polticas de uso sostenible de los recursos naturales del Estado. Con respecto a las tortugas marinas, MARENA rige sobre toda actividad de explotacin,

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mientras MIFIC controla las licencias y concesiones de las personas que ejerce la actividad. La sub-entidad de MIFIC responsable para la administracin del sector pesquero es la Administracin Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura (AdPESCA), mientras la Direccin General de Recursos Naturales (DGRN) se responsabiliza para la administracin del marco regulatorio de las concesiones de aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales de Nicaragua por lo general. AdPESCA administra el sector pesquero en todo el pas, pero la relacin de sus funciones al aprovechamiento de las tortugas marinas se limita a inspecciones de los Dispositivos Excluidores de Tortugas (DET) en las redes de las embarcaciones camaroneras. Hace inspecciones obligatorias en los barcos camaroneros antes de su salida y despus de su vuelta de la pesca. En la Costa Atlntica, AdPESCA mantiene dos Inspectores de Pesca. En Bluefields, el presupuesto de MIFIC para la oficina de AdPesca paga para una Inspectora de Pesca, quien hace las inspecciones en dos muelles municipales. La oficina de AdPESCA en Bluefields coordina esfuerzos con un Inspector de Pesca Artesanal empleado por la municipalidad. Nunca ha sido decomisado un barco camaronero por falta del uso del DET. Han recibido quejas de las tripulaciones de embarcaciones nacionales de que las embarcaciones coreanas, despus de salir del puerto inspeccionadas, quitan de las redes los DETs y pescan libre del equipamiento, volviendo a ponerlo de vuelta al puerto. Las fuerzas navales han sido informadas de la situacin, pero todava no los han hallados a los barcos extranjeros en la prctica de pescar sin DET. Las sanciones que les seran aplicados en este caso seran una multa para el capitn de la embarcacin y la suspensin de la licencia de pesca para la empresa pesquera. 5.Ministerio de Defensa Ejrcito Fuerza Naval La Fuerza Naval es una de las tres ramas del Ejrcito de Nicaragua. Mantiene una presencia en la Costa Atlntica de ms de 250 soldados, con bases en Bluefields, Bilwi, Corn Island, Sandy Bay, los Cayos Miskitos y el Ro San Juan. Bajo el convenio entre el Ministerio de Defensa y MARENA, juega un rol importante en la proteccin de los recursos naturales y el medio ambiente en la Costa Atlntica. Con este acuerdo, MARENA puede pedir la ayuda de la Fuerza Naval para actuar en beneficio de las reas protegidas, la madera, la langosta y las tortugas marinas. La Fuerza Naval apoya al MARENA decomisando tortugas marinas capturadas en perodos de veda. Los pescadores tienden a obedecer las vedas cuando la Fuerza Naval est presente porque tienen mucho respeto de sus acciones. En las operaciones con MARENA los gastos del ejrcito son pagados por MARENA.
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Adems de eso, la Fuerza Naval lleva a cabo una vigilancia rutinaria en el mar Caribe. Registra todas las embarcaciones, con ms rigidez en periodo de veda. Hacen revisiones de las embarcaciones en el mar, complementarias a las revisiones de AdPESCA en los puertos. Durante el ao 2004 fueron decomisadas 30 tortugas marinas capturadas en periodo de veda por embarcaciones pesqueras en la RAAN. Normalmente, la Fuerza Naval intenta mantener una presencia en Cayos Perlas. MARENA no tiene recursos con que movilizarse y el patrullaje de la Fuerza Naval ayuda. El principal obstculo para las operaciones de las fuerzas navales es la limitacin presupuestaria. 6.Ministerio de Gobernacin (MINGOB) El Artculo 3, numeral 6, de la Ley 228, la Ley de la Polica Nacional, establece el deber de la Polica Nacional de Coadyuvar en coordinacin con el Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales, las Alcaldas y Gobiernos Regionales en la Vigilancia y proteccin del ambiente y el aprovechamiento racional de los recursos naturales. Adems, la Polica renueva cada ao un convenio ministerial en el que se compromete institucionalmente a desarrollar planes operativos para el decomiso de especies vegetales y animales en extincin que se trafiquen sin autorizacin, y a apoyar la vigilancia en los perodos de veda. a. La Direccin de Investigaciones Econmicas La Direccin de Investigaciones Econmicas opera bajo mandato constitucional. Es la nica direccin de la Polica Nacional que vela por el medio ambiente y los recursos naturales. La oficina central de Managua, cuenta con un solo oficial encargado de la investigacin de delitos contra el medio ambiente y los recursos naturales que suceden en todo el pas. l coordina con MARENA en la investigacin del trfico ilegal de fauna silvestre, de los animales en peligro de extincin y la contaminacin de los suelos. Hay otros 7 policas en las otras provincias. La Direccin de Investigaciones Econmicas no tiene presencia en la Costa Atlntica. Son conscientes de los problemas grandes que existen en las Regiones, porque han viajado all para apoyar a las delegaciones de MARENA.

B.Legislacin Nacional 1.Constitucin Poltica de Nicaragua


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El derecho constitucional de los nicaragenses a un ambiente saludable se garantiza en el Artculo 60, le impone al Estado la obligacin de preservar y conservar el medio ambiente y los recursos naturales. Tambin, en el Artculo 102, se ven denominados como patrimonio nacional los recursos naturales, con el deber al Estado de preservarlos y el derecho de explotarlos racionalmente. Sin embargo, la Constitucin Poltica tambin reconoce los derechos de las comunidades indgenas sobre sus territorios en el Artculo 5, y en el Artculo 181 dispone que las concesiones vendidas por el Estado en las regiones autnomas deban contar con la aprobacin del Consejo Regional de esa regin. De esta responsabilidad compartida sobre el medio ambiente y los recursos naturales surgen fricciones entre la autoridad del gobierno central y los derechos de los rganos de gobierno y las comunidades de la Costa Atlntica. 2.Leyes Ley 489 de 26 de noviembre de 2004 Ley de Pesca A travs de la Ley de Pesca 489 de 26 de diciembre del 2004, Nicaragua cuenta con una nueva ley que prohbe la captura, matanza y comercio de todas las especies de tortugas marinas. La entrada en vigencia de esta herramienta legal brind la condicin necesaria para que el pas pueda adherirse a los convenios internacionales en pro de la conservacin de la tortuga marina, pero an quedan dudas relacionadas con la implementacin de esta ley. Adems, aunque la proteccin nacional de la tortuga marina dentro de los pases centroamericanos ha avanzado en los ltimos aos, los convenios regionales sobre la tortuga marina no han sido implementados completamente. Existen as mismo varias leyes ambientales que tratan del medio ambiente y el uso de los recursos naturales y la tierra nicaragense. El sistema de derecho ambiental de Nicaragua es fragmentado y no hay un cdigo comprensivo sobre el tema. Aqu estn listadas las principales leyes en relacin con las tortugas marinas, el medio ambiente y los recursos naturales, listadas por fecha de ratificacin. Ley 217 Ley General del Medio Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales (1996) A travs de sta ley se protege a la tortuga carey, estableciendo una veda indefinida para la misma desde el ao 1999 cada ao. Decreto 9-96 Reglamento de la Ley General del Medio Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales (1996) Ley 290 Ley de Organizacin, Competencia y Procedimientos del Poder Ejecutivo (1998)

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Decreto 14-99 Reglamento de los reas Protegidas de Nicaragua (1999) Resolucin Ministerial 02.18 de 2011 que establece una veda nacional indefinida para las especies de tortugas marinas Caretta caretta ( tortuga caguama), Chelonia mydas agassizzi (tortuga negra del pacfico), Chelonia mydas (tortuga verde del atlntico), Derochelys coriacea (tortuga tora), eretmochelis imbricata (tortuga carey) y Lepidochelis olivacea (tortuga paslama) A su vez, la resolucin recalca el consumo con fines de subsistencia de la tortuga verde para las comunidades de la costa atlntica de conformidad con la Ley 489 de 2004 y el artculo 106 del Reglamento bajo el Decreto 09-2005. Ley 40 Ley de Municipios (1988) Decreto 52-97 Reglamento de la Ley de Municipios (1997) 3.Legislacin Indgena y Regional Ley 28 Estatuto de la Autonoma de las Regiones de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua (1987) Ley 445 Ley del Rgimen de Propiedad Comunal de las comunidades Indgenas y comunidades tnicas de las Regiones Autnomas de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua y de los Ros Boca, Coco, Indio y Maz (2003) Reglamento al Estatuto de Autonoma, el Decreto A.N. No. 3584 (2003) Las comunidades indgenas y tnicas de la Costa Atlntica son grupos autnomos con el derecho de controlar sus propias formas de gobierno interno dentro del marco jurdico del Estado nicaragense. El respaldo jurdico para esta independencia es el Rgimen de Autonoma, que se fundamenta en la Constitucin Poltica, el Estatuto de Autonoma y la Ley de Propiedad Comunal. Las comunidades tienen pleno reconocimiento por parte del Estado en el Artculo 5 de la Constitucin Poltica, a travs del cual establece el Rgimen de Autonoma. El Artculo 5 reconoce los derechos de las comunidades sobre su identidad, cultura y sus formas de organizacin social. Su base jurdica se establece en el Estatuto de Autonoma (Ley No. 28), que garantiza los derechos de las comunidades de la Costa Atlntica a establecer sus propios sistemas de gobierno, educacin, uso de sus lenguas y control de su tierra comunal y recursos naturales.
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El Estatuto de Autonoma entr en vigencia en Nicaragua en el ao 1987. Se fundamenta el rgimen en el establecimiento de las Regiones Autnomas del Atlntico Sur y Norte (Artculo 6). El Rgimen de Autonoma es el fundamento jurdico para las formas de gobierno que existen en las regiones, independientes del Estado nicaragense pero en armona con la Constitucin Poltica y las leyes del pas. Lo que se dispone es una autonoma regional orgnica que abarca los aspectos jurdico, poltico, normativo, econmico financiero, organizativo, cultural y administrativo (Artculo 3 del Reglamento al Estatuto de Autonoma, el Decreto A.N. No. 3584). La Ley de Propiedad Comunal (Ley No. 445) establece una estructura poltica que reconoce las formas de gobierno tradicionales de las comunidades. El objetivo de esta ley es facultar a los habitantes de las comunidades para ejercer control sobre sus tierras y recursos naturales. Leerla es fundamental para cualquier persona que quiera entender cmo deben funcionar los gobiernos comunales. La base del gobierno comunal es la Asamblea Comunal. Esta es la mxima autoridad legal y consiste en la reunin de sus miembros, congregados para tomar decisiones sobre asuntos que son de inters comunitario. La Asamblea Comunal tambin se convoca para elegir, segn sus propias costumbres, las autoridades tradicionales de la comunidad. Estas autoridades sirven como representacin legal de la Asamblea Comunal y la comunidad, y adems son responsables de la gobernacin y la administracin de justicia segn las costumbres tradicionales (Artculo 4 de la Ley de Propiedad Comunal y Artculos 31 a 33 del Reglamento al Estatuto de Autonoma). Las Asambleas Comunales y sus respectivas autoridades comunales tradicionales toman diferentes formas dentro de las varias comunidades indgenas y tnicas de las Regiones Autnomas, segn la costumbre y la tradicin. Algunas de las que existen son el Consejo de Ancianos, el Wihta, o juez comunal, el sndico, y el Coordinador. En su Artculo 8, el Estatuto de Autonoma concede a las Regiones Autnomas el carcter de personas jurdicas con las funciones de promover y defender el uso racional de sus tierras, recursos naturales y sistema ecolgico. Tambin establece la funcin del gobierno regional de trabajar para armonizar los programas de desarrollo del gobierno central con los intereses de las comunidades. El Artculo 9 especficamente establece el hecho de que todo aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales dentro de las comunidades debe beneficiar en justa proporcin a sus habitantes mediante acuerdos entre el Gobierno Regional y el Gobierno Central.

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As el Estatuto de Autonoma pretende proteger los derechos comunales sobre la tierra y los recursos. Dispone que en la explotacin de los recursos naturales de las Regiones Autnomas, ya sean recursos mineros, forestales, pesqueros u otros, los derechos de propiedad comunal sobre las tierras sern reconocidos (Artculo 9). Para cumplir con este requisito de manera concreta, el Estatuto de Autonoma seala que una de las atribuciones de los Consejos Regionales es la de elaborar un anteproyecto de Ley relativo al uso racional y conservacin de los recursos naturales en la Regiones Autnomas. Segn el Artculo 35 del Estatuto, las regiones tienen la autoridad de controlar los bienes que integran su patrimonio. En este contexto, el Estatuto de Autonoma otorga al Consejo Regional la facultad de emitir resoluciones y ordenanzas para la conservacin y el uso racional de sus recursos naturales (Artculo 23.10), siempre que estn en armona con la Constitucin Poltica y las leyes nacionales del pas (Artculo 24). Todo esto est diseado de acuerdo con la idea de que las Regiones Autnomas existen para proteger los derechos de las comunidades; la funcin de los gobiernos regionales es trabajar por el inters de las comunidades. Ley de Propiedad Comunal, la Ley No. 445, establece las disposiciones de control sobre los recursos naturales y las formas de tenencia de tierra. Est diseada respetando la estructura de Gobierno Central que est por encima de las Regiones Autnomas, y cada una de estas Regiones est conformada por comunidades tnicas e indgenas. Todas las autoridades polticas tienen el deber de respetar los derechos legales de los otros niveles de gobierno. La Ley de Propiedad Comunal reconoce sobre todo el derecho de las comunidades indgenas sobre el manejo de sus tierras y recursos naturales (Artculo 15). En el control de los recursos, la Ley de Propiedad Comunal dispone que el gobierno central, los Consejos Regionales y los municipios deben respetar los derechos de las comunidades sobre las tierras comunales que tradicionalmente han ocupado, as como sobre los recursos naturales que tradicionalmente han aprovechado (Artculo 31). Las comunidades tienen su propia personalidad jurdica con el derecho correspondiente a la autodeterminacin poltica (Artculo 23), y sus derechos sobre su tierra son inalienables (Artculo 24). Los derechos de las comunidades a su propiedad son claramente definidos por la Ley de Propiedad Comunal. En su Artculo 33, la Ley dispone que las comunidades tienen derecho exclusivo a los recursos marinos hasta una distancia de tres millas de la Costa y 25 millas de los Cayos. Dentro del marco jurdico establecido por la Ley de Propiedad Comunal, el Estado tiene competencia compartida con los gobiernos regionales, municipales y comunales de otorgar concesiones para el uso de los recursos naturales. En los contratos de aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales en tierras indgenas y tnicas, el Estado debe reconocer el derecho de propiedad de la comunidad o territorio donde se encuentre el recurso (Artculo 25). Con la
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aprobacin explcita de la Asamblea Comunal, las autoridades comunales tradicionales pueden otorgar concesiones para el aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales de las tierras comunales a favor de personas o entidades ajenas a la comunidad (Artculo 10). Si se trata de recursos ubicados en tierra comn entre varias comunidades, la Ley requiere la autorizacin de la Asamblea Territorial pertinente. La Ley aclara que para las actividades de subsistencia, esta autorizacin no se requiere. En cuanto a los recursos naturales, la autoridad comunal se coordina con el Municipio La Ley de Propiedad Comunal manda a las autoridades municipales a respetar los derechos de propiedad que tienen las comunidades sobre sus tierras y recursos naturales (Artculo 11). Dentro de este marco, corresponde tambin a los municipios comunicar su aprobacin respecto a las concesiones de explotacin de recursos naturales ubicados en su territorio antes de que sean aprobados por la autoridad nacional o regional competente. Una funcin de los municipios es la de coordinar con las autoridades comunales para hacer estudios sobre los recursos de los que la comunidad depende directamente. Para las comunidades de la Costa Atlntica, la pesca es normalmente el principal medio de subsistencia.

II.reas

Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies Relevantes para la Costa Caribe.


A.Programas de Proteccin de Tortugas en la Costa Caribe 1.Programa de Apoyo Institucional a las Regiones Autnomas de la Costa

Atlntica de Nicaragua (RAAN-ASDI-RAAS)


El Programa de Apoyo Institucional a las Regiones Autnomas de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua (RAAN-ASDI-RAAS) es una agencia sueca de cooperacin para el desarrollo internacional adscrita a la embajada de Suecia. El RAAN-ASDI-RAAS cuenta con una oficina de medio ambiente y recursos naturales que coordina con las unidades de gestin ambiental de las municipalidades. Su rol es facilitar escenarios para que las alcaldas y la poblacin establezcan cooperacin y la gestin de planes de accin para el manejo integral de la zona costera. El Programa trabaja para promover la concertacin entre las alcaldas y MARENA. Hasta ahora, RAAN-ASDI-RAAS ha ayudado a las municipalidades de Bluefields, Corn Island y Bilwi a desarrollar sus propios planes de accin para el medio ambiente, y el plan de Laguna de Perla est siendo desarrollado. Otros municipios ya estn solicitando ayuda a RAAN-ASDI-RAAS con sus planes de manejo. Especficamente, RAAN-ASDI-RAAS da seguimiento en la coordinacin de los esfuerzos de las alcaldas, la procuradura y MARENA. El programa ambiental se enfoca en la
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descentralizacin de la regulacin del medio ambiente. Ayudan con financiamiento, administracin y la obtencin de convenios de colaboracin entre el Ministro de MARENA y las unidades ambientales municipales. Han apoyado la fundacin de las direcciones de medio ambiente en nueve municipios. En la RAAN, RAAN-ASDI-RAAS ha logrado ayudar ms en la coordinacin de los proyectos de planificacin entre el gobierno regional y las alcaldas. Las relaciones con el Consejo Regional de la RAAN son positivas. Sin embargo, en la RAAS, debido a la fraccionamiento poltico en el Consejo Regional, RAAN-ASDI-RAAS solamente trabaja con las alcaldas. Lleva tres aos de no tener relaciones polticas con el Consejo Regional de la RAAS. Esta situacin tiene la posibilidad de cambiar en los aos futuros, si hay ms cooperacin en el Consejo de la RAAS y la re-organizacin de este ao de la SERENA en el sur lleva el efecto querido. La Fundacin para la Autonoma y Desarrollo de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua (FADCANIC): La Fundacin para la Autonoma y Desarrollo de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua (FADCANIC) es una organizacin no gubernamental que realiza proyectos sociales y educativos en las Regiones Autnomas desde hace once aos. Todo el financiamiento viene de pases donantes y el Banco Mundial. FADCANIC se especializa en la promocin de sistemas agroforestales sostenibles, la reforestacin de cuencas, el manejo de recursos naturales, la implementacin de agendas ambientales, un programa de crdito para pequeos productores y la educacin pre-escolar y de adultos. FADCANIC funciona con el reto de detener la perdida de la cultura de las Comunidades de la Costa Atlntica y el deterioro del medio ambiente y los recursos naturales. Cuenta con oficinas y centros educativos en cinco Pueblos Indgenas y comunidades tnicas. Mantiene relaciones con MARENA y las alcaldas. Centro de Derecho Ambiental y Promocin para el Desarrollo (CEDAPRODE): El Centro de Derecho Ambiental y Promocin para el Desarrollo (CEDAPRODE) es una institucin no gubernamental especializada en derecho y poltica ambiental. CEDAPRODE trabaja con muchas comunidades de la Costa Atlntica en proyectos de desarrollo sostenible y capacitacin sistmica. A travs de sus programas de asesora, CEDAPRODE busca la integracin y participacin de las comunidades en los sistemas jurdicas, polticas y sociales de la Costa Atlntica. Trabaja con las autoridades locales y la poblacin civil para generar impactos positivos en la gestin ambiental, el movimiento ecolgico social, y la participacin ciudadana en la defensa de sus derechos ambientales. La filosofa de CEDAPRODE es la creencia en la necesidad de combatir la crisis socioambiental que sufre Nicaragua, y particularmente la Costa Atlntica. Su trabajo tiene como propsito el aumento de la participacin ciudadana en la toma de decisiones
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importantes para el ambiente y la explotacin local de los recursos naturales y el fortalecimiento del marco legal ambiental. Busca maneras de motivar a las poblaciones de las comunidades de la Costa para resolver sus dilemas ambientales y econmicos. Maneja programas en las siguientes reas: el ordenamiento y conservacin de recursos naturales, el desarrollo econmico, el derecho y polticas ambientales, la educacin ambiental y la comunicacin. CEDAPRODE cuenta con una oficina en Managua y vnculos estrechos con grupos comunitarios y no gubernamentales en varias comunidades de la Costa Atlntica. 2.CAMP-LAB El Coastal Area Monitoring Project (CAMP-LAB) fue iniciado en 1993 exclusivamente para la realizacin de investigaciones pesqueras en el rea de Laguna de Perlas, luego comenz a monitorear la calidad del agua potable, pero se convirti en un proyecto de investigacin sobre la participacin comunitaria en el manejo de los recursos naturales. La tesis de un estudiante de biologa, el proyecto fue montar una investigacin para evaluar la voluntad de la comunidad de trabajar con el problema del agotamiento de los recursos naturales en el rea. El plan fue financiado en tres fases por una organizacin no gubernamental noruega y el gobierno canadiense. En las primeras fases del programa, comits de Camp Lab fueron formados en cinco comunidades de la municipalidad de Laguna de Perlas para velar por la proteccin de los recursos naturales por medio de la gestin de un plan de manejo no tradicional, desarrollado por la propia comunidad, con nfasis en el conocimiento y necesidades de la comunidad. El plan de manejo recibi el visto bueno de la Alcalda, y llego a ser presentado al Consejo Regional y a los diputados nacionales. Aunque el plan de manejo no se enfoca en las tortugas marinas, estn presentes con una nfasis en el peligro para las especies y su importancia para la comunidad. La mayora de los comunitarios captan la idea de la conservacin, en que el reto es que la gente misma tome conciencia por que viven directamente de los recursos naturales. El punto de vista del plan de manejo es de los conocimientos tradicionales del pueblo, sobre la gente indgena y su capacidad, desarrollado por siglos, de convivir con el medio ambiente. Destaca la necesidad de proteger los recursos naturales contra los intereses que vienen de afuera para aprovecharse de los recursos naturales de una manera insostenible. Adems, CAMP-LAB ha montado un programa de comunicacin popular fue implementada por medio de una radio emisora local, basado en la participacin comunitaria. Tambin publicaron un boletn bilinge sobre temas del medio ambiente y

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recursos naturales en que los mismos comunitarios escriban los artculos para ser publicados sobre la conservacin de la tierra comunal y el bosque primario. 3.CEDJUDHCAN El Centro por la Justicia y Derechos Humanos de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua (CEJUDHCAN) es una organizacin no gubernamental, apoltica, sin fines de lucro y de carcter humanitario dedicada a la promocin y defensa de los Derechos Humanos con enfoque sobre los Derechos Territoriales de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua. La Visin de CEJUDHCAN es que los Pueblos Indgenas y Comunidades tnicas de la Costa Atlntica de Nicaragua tengan acceso a la Justicia para la defensa de sus derechos territoriales de acuerdo a sus derechos consuetudinarios para tener una justicia social y ambiental. Su Misin es facilitar y contribuir al desarrollo de las capacidades de los Pueblos Indgenas y Comunidades tnicas de la Costa Atlntica en la defensa de sus derechos territoriales as como crear espacios a actores locales para una mayor incidencia en la toma de decisiones a nivel local, regional, nacional e internacional.

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ANNEX 3. LEGISLATION REGARDING THE CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF COSTA RICA

Legislacin sobre Conservacin, Manejo y Uso de las Tortugas Marinas para La Costa Caribe de Costa Rica.
Paulino Madrigal Rodriquez, Candidato de Lic., Facultad de Derecho, UCR, Abogado Estudiantil, UF/UCR Programa Conjunto

Universidad de Florida/Universidad de Costa Rica Programa Conjunto en Derecho Ambiental Thomas T. Ankersen, Director Lic. Franklin Paniagua, Ph.D. Candidate, Professor Gabriela Stocks, Ph.D Candidate, Professor Sekita Grant, J.D., LLM Candidate, E.E.U.U. Lic. Nikolas Snchez Espino, Panama September, 2011

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Indice
I. Marco Legal e Institucional ......................................................... 100
A. Legislacin Nacional ................................................................................... 99
1. 2. 3. Leyes...............................................................................................................................991 Decretos y reglamentos importantes ...............................................................................103 Jurisprudencia .................................................................................................................104

II. reas Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies relevantes para la Costa Caribe ...................................................... 106
A. Proteccin Espacial de Tortugas Marinas en la Costa Atlntica de Costa Rica ................................................................................................................. 106
1. 2. 3. reas de proteccin ........................................................................................................107 Proteccin legal en el resto de zonas costeras y marinas. ...............................................114 Conservacin basado en la communidad ..................................................................114

III. Bibliografa ................................................................................ 120

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III.Marco

Legal e Institucional

Esquemticamente el marco legal en Costa Rica en el tema de Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas cuenta con una serie de leyes, reglamentos y decretos que coadyuvan directa o indirectamente en esta tarea. Como el anlisis de la legislacin internacional aplicable en CR ya se realiz en captulos anteriores, aqu solamente nos ocuparemos de las leyes nacionales, entre las que tenemos: 1- Constitucin Poltica 2- Ley Orgnica del Ambiente No 7554 3- Ley de Proteccin de Parques Nacionales No 6084 4- Le de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre ley No 7317 5- Ley de Pesca y Acuicultura Ley No 8436 6- Ley de Proteccin, Conservacin y Recuperacin de las Poblaciones de Tortugas Marinas. Ley No 8325 Cabe hacer notar que el artculo 7 de la constitucin, parrafo primero, establece que los tratados internacionales, una vez ratificados por la Asamblea Legislativa, tiene preeminencia sobre la legislacin nacional. La Sala Constitucional de la Corte Suprema de Justicia ha manifestado en varias decisiones, que los tratados internacionales sobre derechos humanos asignados por Costa Rica que no solo tienen un rango similar a la Constitucin, sino que en la medida en que provean mayores derechos y garantas a las personas estan por encima de la Constitucin. El artculo dos de la Ley de la Jursdiccin Constitucional, que establece la Sala Constitucional, establece que lo anterior, se aplica no solo a los derechos garantizados en la Constitucin sino tambien a los tratados internacionales aplicables en Costa Rica. En cuanto al marco institucional podemos decir que son muchos los rganos e instituciones encargadas de velar por el cumplimiento de todas y cada una de las normativas, sinembargo para efectos de ilustracin vamos a enlistar los mas relevantes y generales: 1- Ministerio de Ambiente, Energa y Telecomunicaciones 2- Ministerios de Seguridad Pblica 3- Ministerio de Salud 4- Instituto Costarricense de Pesca y Acuicultura 5- La Junta de Administracin Portuaria y de Desarrollo Econmico de la Vertiente Atlntica. 6- Consejos Ambientales Regionales 7- Servicio de Parques Nacionales
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Ambos, tanto las instituciones encargadas as como cada una de las leyes, decretos y reglamentos pertinentes sern estudiadas con mayor detalle en el siguiente aparte. A.Legislacin Nacional A continuacin anlisis de la legislacin costarricense pertinente en la proteccin y conservacin de tortugas marinas. Constitucin Poltica Nuestra carta magna en su artculo 50 plasma el deber del Estado de velar por la proteccin, conservacin y manejo del medio ambiente, podemos citar del mismo los prrafos segundo e in fine que rezan lo siguiente: Toda persona tiene derecho a un ambiente sano y ecolgicamente equilibrado. Por ello esta legitimada para denunciar los actos que infrinjan ese derecho y para reclamar la reparacin del dao causado. El Estado garantizar, defender y preservar ese derecho. La ley determinar las responsabilidades y las sanciones correspondientes. 1.Leyes: ii.2.a Ley Orgnica del Ambiente No 7554 Esta ley data de 1995 y establece que el Estado mediante la aplicacin de esta ley, defender y preservar el derecho de un ambiente sano y ecolgicamente equilibrado. En su articulo 7 la ley crea los Consejos Ambientales Regionales con el objeto de que estos atiendan las denuncias sobre asuntos ambientales, gestionen ante los rganos pertinentes las acciones respectivas, adems desarrollar y poner en practica actividades, programas y proyectos de educacin. En el artculo 32 la Ley otorga al poder Ejecutivo, la capacidad de crear reas Silvestres Protegidas en cualquiera de las categoras de manejo siguientes: a- Reservas Forestales b- Zonas Protectoras c- Parques Nacionales d- Reservas Biolgicas e- Refugios Nacionales de Vida Silvestre f- Humedales g- Monumentos Naturales
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En su artculo 35 establece como objetivos entre otros: conservar los ambientes naturales, salvaguardar la diversidad gentica de las especies, especialmente las amenazadas, asegurar el uso sostenible, etc. Ley de Proteccin de Parques Nacionales N6084 de 1977 Le encarga al Servicio de Parques Nacionales la conservacin de los Parques Nacionales. En su artculo 8 establece la prohibicin dentro de los parques nacionales de cazar o capturar animales silvestres, recolectar o sustraer cualquiera de sus productos o subproductos. Adems la Ley expresa de manera especial la prohibicin de cazar tortugas marinas de cualquier especie, recolectar o extraer sus huevos o cualquier otro producto o subproducto. Ley de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre ley N 7317 Esta ley busca establecer medidas de regulacin de la vida silvestre conformada por la fauna continental e insular que vive en condiciones naturales, temporales y permanentes en el territorio nacional y la flora que vive en condiciones naturales en el pas. En el articulo 4 de esta ley se declara el inters pblico de que el Estado regula adecuadamente la produccin, el manejo, la extraccin, la comercializacin, la industrializacin y el uso de material gentico de la flora y la fauna silvestres, sus partes, productos y subproductos. Establece que la direccin General de Vida Silvestre del Ministerio de Ambiente y Energa es el rgano competente en materia de planificacin, desarrollo y control de la flora y fauna silvestre y que tiene entre otras funciones las siguientes: a- Establecer las medidas tcnicaspara el buen manejo, conservacin y administracin de la flora y fauna silvestre. b- Solicitar a la respectiva autoridad competente la detencin de las personas que invadan los inmuebles sometidos al rgimen de refugios nacionales de fauna y vida silvestre y refugios privados El articulo 14 prohbe la cazala extraccin de faunacontinental e insular de especies en va de extincin, con excepcin de la reproduccin efectuada en criaderos o viveros de manera sostenible y que estn, previo el estudio correspondiente, registrados en la direccin de Vida Silvestre del Ministerio de Ambiente y Energa.

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El artculo 18 prohbe480 el comercio y el trasiego de las especies de la flora y fauna silvestre, continental e insulares, sus productos y subproductos en todo el territorio nacional. En todos los casos se prohbe481 la exportacin, importacin y trasiego de cualquier especie de vida silvestre declarada en vas de extincin482 por el Poder Ejecutivo. La ley tambin establece que las autoridades competentes de hacer cumplir esta ley y su reglamento, podran ser juzgadas de cmplices y sancionadas con las mismas penas, cuando se les compruebe que aun con conocimiento de una violacin, por negligencia o complacencia no procure el castigo de los culpables y permitan la infraccin a esta ley y su reglamento. Ley de Pesca y Acuicultura Ley N 8436, ley de Pesca y Acuicultura, En su articulo 1 presenta el objetivo de fomentar y regular la actividad pesquera y acucola en las diferentes etapas, correspondientes a la captura, extraccin, procesamiento, transporte, comercializacin y aprovechamiento sostenible de las especies acuticas. En el articulo N 2 la ley nos muestra definiciones o conceptos importantes como: actividad pesquera, aguas continentales o insulares, aguas jurisdiccionales o patrimoniales, aguas marinas interiores. En el articulo N9 se prohbe la pesca con fines comerciales y pesca deportiva en Parques Nacionales, Monumentos Naturales y Reservas Biolgicas, mientras el ejercicio de la actividad pesquera en la parte continental e insular en las Reservas Forestales, Las zonas Protectoras y en los Refugios Nacionales de Vida silvestre y humedales, estar restringido de conformidad con los Planes de Manejo que determine para cada zona el Ministerio de Ambiente, energa y Telecomunicaciones. Los artculos N12 y N13 establecen que el INCOPESCA ser la autoridad ejecutora de la ley y del Plan de Desarrollo Pesquero y Acucola que dicte el Poder Ejecutivo, esta ejercer el control de la actividad pesquera y acucola que se realice en aguas marinas e interiores.

480

Se excepta lo que disponga tcnicamente la Direccin General de Vida Silvestre del Ministerio de Ambiente y Energia, con base en los estudios cientificos previos, segn se contempla en el reglamento de esta ley. 481 Cuando se trate de especies cuyas poblaciones han sido declaradas como reducidas o en peligro de extincin, as como de las especies incluidas en los apendices de la Convencion de comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y flora Silvestres (CITIES). 482 El articulo 29 del Reglamento a la Ley de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre, Decreto Ejecutivo N 32633MINAE del 20 de setiembre del 2005 establece a las siete especies de tortugas marinas que se pueden encontrar en CR como en peligro de extincin. 102 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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La ley establece con detalle las responsabilidades y atribuciones del INCOPESCA. El articulo N32 dispone que el acto de pescar deber realizarse en forma responsable para asegurar la conservacin y gestin efectiva de los recursos acuticos vivos, con el fin de evitar la explotacin excesiva y de prevenir efectos dainos sobre el entorno y el sistema ecolgico. El articulo N33 prohbe la pesca comercial con cualquier tipo de arte de pesca, en las desembocaduras de los ros y esteros del pas. Ley de Proteccin, Conservacin y Recuperacin de las Poblaciones de Tortugas Marinas. La ley N 8325 Ley de Proteccin, Conservacin y Recuperacin de las Poblaciones de Tortugas Marinas, propsito de adoptar las medidas y compromisos adquiridos por el pas en los instrumentos internacionales ratificados sobre la materia, tambin declara de inters pblico la investigacin cientfica relacionada con las tortugas marinas y su hbitat. En su articulo N2 esta ley exige a las embarcaciones camaroneras de arrastre nacionales o extranjeras el uso de Dispositivos Excluidores de Tortugas (DET) en las zonas o reas establecidas por el Instituto Costarricense de Pesca y Acuicultura (INCOPESCA) El articulo N4 declara inters ecoturstico los siguientes ecosistemas de anidamiento y desove de tortugas marinas: Ostional, Nancite, Playa Grande, Tivives, Gandoca y Tortuguero, y todos los que en el futuro determine el MINAE. El articulo N5 promueve la educacin ambiental con especial nfasis en la proteccin de tortugas marinas. No obstante todo lo anterior el artculo que pesa ms en la conservacin de tortugas marinas es el N6 que reza lo siguiente: Articulo N6 Quien mate, cace, capture, destace, trasiegue o comercie tortugas marinas, ser penado con prisin de uno a tres aos, La pena ser de tres mese a dos aos de prisin para quien retenga con fines comerciales tortugas marinas, o comercialice productos o subproductos de estas especies. No ser punible la recoleccin de huevos de tortuga lora en el Refugio de Vida Silvestre Ostional, siempre que se realice con apego a las disposiciones reglamentarias que emita el MINAE. Este artculo presenta el problema de no mencionar de manera explicita el saqueo de nidos como elemento factico para la comisin del delito. Por esta razn persiste una controvesia respecto a la identificacin de los huevos como subproducto de la tortuga. Algunos asesores legales del SINAC manifiestan que los huevos de las tortugas no son
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subproductos y por lo tanto este artculo no se puede aplicar a aquellos individuos que se encuentren en esta actividad, particularmente fuera de reas protegidas483. Esta interpretacin se suma a otras dificultades de carcter socio-cultural que dificultan la aplicacin de este artculo en las comunidades costaras484. El resultado es que an no se conoce de condenatorias por la comisin de este delito, a pesar de que la prctica del saqueo y comercializacin de huevos ocurre regularmente. El tema de si se considera o no el huevo de la tortuga como su subproducto y por lo tanto si se puede aplicar este artculo a quienes se les detenga en la comisin de esta actividad debe resolverse en va judicial, mediante la presentacin de un caso ejemplificante o mediante la consulta directa de funcionarios de SINAC a la Procuradura General de la Repblica. Esta es de las recomendaciones importantes del presente estudio. Si bien este asunto se ha discutido a nivel de los funcionarios del SINAC y las ONGs, no existe una resolucin judicial o de la Procuradura General de la Repblica que lo aclare. En su articulo N8 dispone quines sern los rganos pblicos que sern responsables de velar por el cumplimiento de las disposiciones de esta ley, estos rganos sern: MINAE, en coordinacin con los Ministerios de Seguridad Pblica y de Salud, el Instituto Costarricense de Pesca y Acuicultura y la Junta de Administracin Portuaria y de Desarrollo Econmico de la Vertiente Atlntica. 2.Decretos y reglamentos importantes AJDIP/151-2009 del 18 de mayo del 2009 El 18 de mayo del 2009, se publica por parte de INCOPESCA el Reglamento sobre regulaciones tcnicas del uso correcto del dispositivo excluidor de tortugas (DET), por parte de la flota camaronera de arrastre de orilla (AJDIP/151-2009). El objetivo de este reglamento es garantizar el uso adecuado de los dispositivos excluidores de tortugas, ya que se definen las caractersticas que stos deben de tener para asegurarse el escape de tortugas marinas durante las faenas de pesca de la flota camaronera de arrastre de orilla, y cumplir as con las obligaciones internacionales adquiridas. A.J.D.I.P N 238 del 7 de octubre del 2002 Establece los requisitos para otorgara licencias, permisos y carn de pesca, sustitucin,
483

Comunicacin personal con Rolando Castro, Director Ejecutivo de CEDARENA y Emma Harrison , Directora Cientfica de la STC. 484 Botifoll S., Castillo S., Coleman S. y Suarz C 2010 Aplicacin de la Legislacin Costarricense relacionada con las Tortugas Marinas. Convenio Universidad de Costa Rica - Universidad de Florida San Pedro. En http://www.law.ufl.edu/conservation/costarica/spotlight/pdf/sea_turtle_report.pdf
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inactividad y traspaso de embarcaciones, exportacin e importacin de productos pesqueros e insumos para la pesca y la acuicultura y descarga de productos pesqueros. El articulo 9 expone los requisitos para obtener un permiso de transporte de huevos de tortuga Lora por primera vez Decreto Ejecutivo N 32633-MINAE El Reglamento a la Ley de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre, estipulado mediante Decreto Ejecutivo N 32633 del 20 de setiembre del 2005. en este reglamento podemos encontrar la definicin de especies en peligro de extincin, o amenazadas y los nombres de especies de tortugas a proteger. Reglamento 0-1-ICE del 17 de abril del 2009 Por su parte el Reglamento 0-1-ICE del 17 de abril del 2009 Manual para redes de distribucin elctrica subterrnea, indica en el artculo 6.2.2 las especificaciones de luminarias para zonas servidas por ICE en proyectos cercanos a zonas protegidas en donde se produzca el desove de tortugas marinas (quelonios), el diseo del alumbrado pblico deber contemplar el efecto de la iluminacin sobre las tortugas, con el fin de minimizar su impacto en su orientacin. Se deber contactar al funcionario responsable del rea de redes subterrneas de la regin, para que defina lo que corresponda. 3.Jurisprudencia Se entiende por jurisprudencia las reiteradas interpretaciones que hacen los tribunales de justicia en sus resoluciones de las normas jurdicas, siendo adems fuente del Derecho. En cuanto al tema que nos atae, es muy poca la jurisprudencia que se puede encontrar. Voto N 2008-08713 de las nueve horas y seis minutos del veintitrs de mayo del dos mil ocho. Sala Constitucional. El Parque Nacional Las Baulas de Guanacaste tiene una finalidad muy clara: la proteccin del rea de desove de la Tortuga Baula, que conforme al Decreto Ejecutivo No. 20518-MIRENEM se hace necesario para asegurar la perpetuidad de la colonia de la tortuga Baula (Dermochelys coriacea) y otros recursos naturales, de la actividad turstica y ecolgica, respecto de la nidificacin que se da durante todo el ao. Recurso de Amparo. Resolucin 2003 01766 de las quince horas con doce minutos del cuatro de marzo del dos mil tres, Sala Constitucional.
Recurso interpuesto por Asociacin Programa de Restauracin de tortugas Marinas (PRETOMA)" y la Red Nacional de Conservacin de las Tortugas Marinas, contra, contra el Ministerio de Salud.
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El objeto de este recurso fu el reclamo a la omisin por parte del Ministerio de Salud, frente a gestiones incoadas por los recurrentes, a fin de que retire del mercado productos cosmticos fabricados con derivados de tortuga marina o aceite sinttico de tortuga, cancele el registro de esos productos y no se permita su futuro registro. Adems, los recurrentes reclamaron la falta de respuesta de un oficio enviado a la Ministra de Salud el 12 de setiembre de 2002, en el cual le informan de sus gestiones y de la falta de respuesta por parte del Ministerio y solicitan su intervencin Se declar parcialmente con lugar el recurso, nicamente por violacin del derecho reconocido en el artculo 27 constitucional. Se conden al Estado al pago de las costas, daos y perjuicios por el hecho que di lugar a esta declaratoria, los cuales se liquidarn en ejecucin de sentencia de lo contencioso administrativo. En lo dems, se declar sin lugar el recurso. Recurso de Amparo. Resolucin 2001 13295, de las doce horas con seis minutos del veintiuno de diciembre del dos mil uno, Sala Constitucional. Interpuesto por Marco MacHore Levy a favor de la Asociacin Ecologista Limonense Ser y Conservar, Limn contra el Ministerio de Ambiente y Energa. Este recurso es muy importante ya que se estaba en reclamo por el dao que hubiese podido causar la construccin de unas plataformas marinas para la exploracin petrolera en el Mar Caribe, como hecho probado mediante estudio ambiental se indic que el impacto a la fauna marina y a la pesca por la reflexin ssmica es muy alto y perjudicial (ver folio 36 y 37); j) que en reporte de gira de campo a las reas marinas ubicadas en el norte de Mon, se indic que el rea alberga una fauna marina muy amplia, incluyendo tortugas marinas, y que la exploracin ssmica puede afectar la fauna marina y la pesquera local (ver informe de Sebastin Troeng, Coordinador de Investigacin de Caribbean Conservation Corporation de folios 312 a 316) Se declar con lugar el recurso en cuanto a que el recurrido omiti su deber de garantizar el derecho a un ambiente sano y ecolgicamente equilibrado, contenido en el artculo 50 de la Constitucin Poltica
ii.4.d Resolucin N01250. San Jos, de las once horas con veinticuatro minutos del diecinueve de febrero de mil novecientos noventa y nueve. Sala Constitucional. Esta fue una accin de Inconstitucionalidad interpuesta por Caribean Conservation Corporation, Asociacin de Restauracin de Tortugas Marinas, Asociacin Centro de Derecho Ambiental y los Recursos Naturales
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(CEDARENA), Fundacin Neotropica contra el Decreto N14524-A del 26 de mayo de 1983 Objeto de la impugnacin. El decreto que se impugna es el No. 14524-A del 26 de mayo de 1983, donde se otorga permiso con fines comerciales la captura de la tortuga verde en el mar Caribe.

Se declar con lugar la accin, en consecuencia, se declar inconstitucional el Decreto Ejecutivo No. 14524-A del veintisis de mayo de mil novecientos ochenta y tres por ser contrario a los artculos 7, 50 y 89 de la Constitucin Poltica, 5.1 y 8 de la Convencin de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escnicas naturales de los pases de Amrica, artculos 1, 2, 13 y 27 del Convenio para la Conservacin de la Biodiversidad y Proteccin de Areas Silvestres Prioritarias en Amrica Central, los artculos II, III y IV del Convenio sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora y el principio 15 del Convenio sobre la Diversidad Biolgica. IV.reas

Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies Relevantes para la Costa Caribe


A.Proteccin Espacial de Tortugas Marinas en la Costa Caribe

de Costa Rica
En el presente capitulo, se har un anlisis territorial de proteccin legal que podra beneficiar a las tortugas marinas de la costa atlntica de Costa Rica. Es importante aclarar que a lo largo de esta costa podemos encontrar con distintas zonas protectoras como Parques Nacionales, Refugios de Vida Silvestre, Areas Marinas Protegidas entre otras, as como tambin zonas no protegidas como ciudades o pueblos, pero en donde de alguna u otra manera podemos utilizar ciertos instrumentos legales que nos ayuden a la proteccin y conservacin de esta especie de reptiles. Para la realizacin de este anlisis legal, a falta de un grafico o mapa que nos ayude a entender la posicin geogrfica de estas zonas, vamos a utilizar el mtodo de exclusin, es decir: primero vamos a mencionar todas y cada una de las zonas protegidas que hay en la costa caribea iniciando desde la que se encuentra mas al norte hasta terminar con la que est mas al sur, vamos a analizar el nivel de proteccin legal de cada zona y al terminar, por exclusin de stas zonas con algn nivel de proteccin, haremos un anlisis general del resto de territorio que al fin tiene el mismo nivel legal.

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1.reas de proteccin

485

a)Area de Conservacin Tortuguero Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre Barra del Colorado La filosofa de los refugios nacionales de fauna silvestre, adems de proteger hbitats y poblaciones de vida silvestre, proyecta adems al manejo racional de los recursos con beneficios de las comunidades aledaas y y fomenta el incremento de turismo con el consiguiente ingreso de divisas al pas, Rgimen de Refugios Nacionales de Fauna Silvestre no obliga al Estado a expropiar a los propietarios legales de tierras incluidas en ellos sino por el contrario estimula a las personas que han conservado reas inalteradas con la exoneracin del impuesto territorial adems de beneficiarlos con asistencia tcnica en el campo forestal, agrcola y ganadero Antecedentes Fecha de creacin: 26 de julio de 1985 Decreto: DE N16358 Extensin: 81.211 Hectreas Categora de manejo: refugio nacional de vida silvestre Creada el 26 julio de 1985 esta rea silvestre se localiza en el Caribe norte, en la frontera con la Repblica de Nicaragua. Abarca 50 Km de costas y 78.977 hectreas de canales, lagunas, ros, islas fluviales, bosques, pantanos, yolillares y colinas (antiguos conos volcnicos); todos estos parajes con altitudes inferiores a los 230 metros En cuanto a la ubicacin exacta solo nos interesa la distancia en la costa por lo que en el decreto de proteccin nos da la siguiente ubicacin: Ro San Juan, limite internacional entre Costa Rica y Nicaragua, hasta la desembocadura de ste en el Mar Caribe en un punto de coordenadas 323640 N, 572920 E, de este punto contina por la lnea de costa hasta encontrar el punto de inicio en la Boca de las Lagunas del Tortuguero en el punto de coordenadas 285000 N y 588620 E o inicio de la presente descripcin. En cuanto a la proteccin de la fauna silvestre y en especial las tortugas marinas el decreto dice: Articulo 3.- En los terrenos comprendidos en este Refugio queda prohibido:
485

Esta investigacin se realizo con la ayuda de informacin del SINAC, especficamente reas de conservacin Tortuguero y rea de Conservacin la Amistad Caribe, las cuales son las que corresponden a los territorios de la Costa Atlntica de Costa Rica, adems de la ayuda de la Doctora. Emma Harrison, Directora cientfica de Sea Turtle Conservancy.
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a) Talar rboles y extraer productos forestales as como cazar o capturar animales silvestres sin la previa autorizacin del Departamento de Vida Silvestre de acuerdo con las polticas de esta Unidad. c) La recoleccin de productos animales silvestres como huevos de tortuga marina y otros. Esta area protegida cuenta con un plan de manejo vigente, aprobado en 2009486 Refugio de Vida Silvestre Archie Carr Fecha de creacin: 22 de abril de 1994 Decreto de creacin: No 23256-MIRENEM Aunque el decreto no es directo en prohibiciones o sanciones, se sobreentiende que al nombrrsele Refugio de Vida Silvestre, contiene este un nivel alto de proteccin legal para la conservacin de los recursos naturales del lugar, adems que en sus considerandos mencionan: 2- Que las Playas de Tortuguero es el sitio de mayor importancia en el Hemisferio Occidental para el anidamiento de la tortuga verde (Chelonya mydas), una especie fuertemente amenazada de extincin. 3- Que dicha Playa es importante tambin para el desove de otras especies de tortugas como Dermochelys coriacea, Eretmochelys imricata, y Caretta caretta. Adems se le permite al representante estatal en el lugar celebrar convenios de cooperacin con la Caribean Conservacin Corporation para el manejo y proteccin de los recursos en el rea. Parque Nacional Tortuguero Fecha de creacin: 13 de noviembre de 1975 Leyes y decretos: N 1235-A del 24-set-1970 Ley N 5680 del 13 de nov.-1975. Creacin N 11148-A del 15 de feb.-1980. Ampliacin. N 20226-MIRENEM del 08-feb.-1991. Reglamento. N 27223-MINAE del 21-Set-1998. Ampliacin. Extensin: 31.187 hectreas Categora de Manejo: Parque Nacional

Historia.
486

ACTo-SINAC 2011. Resolucin ACTo 2-2011 del 1ero de Abril del 2011. Guapiles, Costa Rica, en: http://www.acto.go.cr/descargas/Resolucin%20II-2011%20Cerro%20Tortuguero.pdf
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Esta rea silvestre fue creada en 1975. Se encuentra ubicada en la regin del Caribe costarricense, 80 Kilmetros al norte de la cuidad de Limn. Uno de los motivos de su creacin, promovida por el herpetlogo Archie Carrll, ya que esta es el rea de desove ms importante en el Caribe occidental. Adems, Tortuguero es una zona de gran importancia por sus remanentes de Bosque Muy Hmedo, que hace apenas 50 aos cubra prcticamente la totalidad del noreste de Costa Rica. Se localiza en el noreste del territorio nacional y se estableci como parque nacional para conservar especies de flora y fauna que se encuentran en vas de extincin en el trpico americano; muestras de las principales asociaciones vegetales de la vertiente caribe; un sistema de ros, caos y lagunas naturales considerados como de extraordinario valor escnico, recreativo y turstico; y especialmente, para conservar la colonia de tortugas verdes (Chelonia mydas) que desova en esas playas (Ley de creacin del PNT, 1975) Su declaratoria se remonta al 24 de setiembre de 1970 cuando, mediante Decreto Ejecutivo N 1235-A se sealan sus lmites territoriales y las normas generales que regirn su manejo. Posteriormente, el da 3 de noviembre de 1975, su declaratoria es reafirmada mediante Ley de la Repblica N 5680. Desde el establecimiento de este parque nacional, los lmites han sido modificados tres veces mediante Decretos Ejecutivos (1980, 1995 y 1998), y el rea ha pasado de 64.701,45 Ha. (18.946 hectreas terrestres y 45.755,45 marinas) que tena en 1975 (Bermdez y Mena, 1992), a 72.359 Ha. en la actualidad, 45.755 Ha. marinas y 26.604 Ha. Terrestres (Ballestero, 2003). El lmite sureste del parque se localiza en lnea recta a 50 Km. del Puerto de Mon, y el lmite suroeste a 30 Km. de la ciudad de Gupiles (Ballestero, 2003). Dadas las caractersticas sobresalientes de la flora y fauna presente en sus humedales, este parque nacional en conjunto con otras zonas de la regin, fue designada en 1996 como Sitio Ramsar.

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Figura 1.487 Ley de creacin:


Artculo 8.- Dentro del rea que constituye este parque nacional queda prohibido: b) Cazar o capturar animales silvestres, o recolectar cualquiera de sus productos o despojos, con la excepcin que se establece en el artculo 9 de esta ley; c) Pescar o cazar tortugas marinas de cualquier especie o recolectar o recoger sus huevos o despojos. Esta prohibicin se extiende desde la desembocadura del Ro Matina a la desembocadura del Ro Colorado y hasta el lmite de las aguas territoriales de Costa Rica dentro del Mar Caribe;

En total se protegen 22 millas de playas de anidacin de las tortugas en Tortuguero.488 En las que esta prohibido cualquier tipo de desarrollo al tratarse de un parque nacional cuyo objetivo principal es la conservacion. Esta area protegida cuenta con un plan de manejo vigente, aprobado desde el ao 2005489 Reserva Forestal Pacuare-Matina Fecha de creacin Marzo de 1973 Decreto: 2886-A
487

Tomada del Plan de Manejo del Parque Nacional Tortuguero disponible en lnea en la pagina web de el Sistema Nacional de reas de Conservacin, en la direccin: http://www.sinac.go.cr/planesmanejo.php 488 -Condicin global de las tortugas marinas, un anlisis por Peter C.H pritchardDisponible en lnea: http://www.asvocr.org/pdfs/condicionglobaltortugasmarinas.pdf fecha: 20 de julio 2011 489 ACTo-SINAC 2005 Plan de Manejo Parque Nacional Tortuguero. SINAC-MINAET en: http://www.sinac.go.cr/libreria/pm_tortu.pdf
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Categora de Manejo: Reserva Forestal Ubicacin: El articulo N1 dice: cuatro kilmetros al Sureste de la Boca de Pacuare, cantn de Matina, provincia de Limn. El rea de Reserva Forestal que aqu se decreta forma un rectngulo orientado en direccin Noroeste a Sureste, con una superficie de 400 hectreas y limita : por el Norte, con la propiedad de Amalia Segura en una distancia de 1800 m.; por el Noreste, con el Ocano Atlntico en una distancia de 3200 metros hasta encontrar el Cao Mondonguillo; por el Sureste, con el Cao Mondonguillo en una distancia de 1000 metros y por el Suroeste, con la Laguna Madre de Dios en una distancia de 4700 metros, frente a la desembocadura del Cao Negro. Lo nico que dice el decreto para nuestro inters es en su articulo N2: Se declaran inalienables los terrenos nacionales que se encuentren dentro de la anterior delimitacin. b)rea de Conservacin Amistad Caribe Creada por Decreto Ejecutivo No.54 del 17 de marzo de 1994, en conjunto con diez reas de conservacin mas, mediante el Sistema Nacional de reas de Conservacin (SINAC), el cual esta orientado a ir delegando la autoridad y la competencia hacia las regiones, mediante la participacin de la sociedad civil en la toma de decisiones. En forma integrada y planificada con las diferentes dependencias del Ministerio del Ambiente y Energa (MINAE). Parque Nacional Cahuita Fecha de creacin: 24 de setiembre de 1970 Decretos: N 1236-A del 24 de setiembre de 1970. Creacin. N8489-A del 24 de mayo de 1978. Cambio de Nombre. Ley N6794 del 27-Dic-1982. Ratificacin. Extensin: 1106 hectreas Categora de manejo: Parque Nacional

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Figura 2. Imagen con fines ilustrativos tomada de un documento no oficial. Historia Su creacin se dio el 24 de setiembre de 1970, como monumento Nacional Cahuita, segn Decreto de Creacin N.1236-A, publicado en la Gaceta No. 213 del 24 de setiembre de 1970. Fue reformado el 24 de mayo de 1978, como Parque Nacional Cahuita, segn Decreto Ejecutivo No. 8986-A. Este Parque Nacional cuenta con 1106 hectreas en el rea terrestre, 600 hectreas en el arrecife y 22,400 hectreas en la parte marina. Esta rea silvestre protege uno de los Arrecifes Coralinos mejor desarrollados de la costa caribea y uno de los mas importantes de Costa Rica. Protege tambin playas de arena Blanca de gran belleza escnica. Este Parque obtuvo el premio Bandera Azul Ecolgica en 1996 en los sectores: Puerto Vargas y Playa Blanca.490 El artculo 3 del decreto de creacin con sus reformas dice: Dentro de la demarcacin de este Parque Nacional queda prohibido: c) Cazar tortugas marinas de cualquier especie, o recolectar sus huevos o cualquier otro producto o despojo Debemos comprender que este ltimo artculo aplica para todo el parque nacional, incluyendo la parte marina. Reserva de Vida Silvestre Gandoca Manzanillo
490

Disponible en lnea en la pagina oficial del Sistema de reas de conservacin SINAC disponible en la direccin: http://www.sinac.go.cr/aclac.php
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Fecha de creacin: 29 de octubre de 1985 Decreto de creacin: D.E. #16614-MAG 29-Oct-1985 Extensin: 3833 hectreas Categora de manejo: Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre

Figura 3. Figura con fines ilustrativos, tomada de un documento no oficial. (http://cabinasfayalobi.com/es/location) Historia Gandoca Manzanillo es un Refugio de Vida Silvestre tipo mixto. Los ecosistemas ms importantes son los humedales: pantanos, lagunas, bosques anegados, arrecifes, lechos de plantas fanergamas marinas y algas. Se protege el hbitat de especies amenazadas como el manat y las tortugas marinas Baula, caguama, verde y carey, las cuales anidan en las costas del Refugio. Alberga adems poblaciones de mamferos y aves. Al sur de Punta Mona existe el nico remanente de bosque cativo en el Caribe sur del pas. La conservacin y manejo sostenible de estos ecosistemas, con la participacin de las comunidades, es el eje central de las acciones de manejo en este refugio.
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El Refugio Nacional de Vida silvestre Gandoca Manzanillo es una zona poco poblada. Su poblacin se centra principalmente en los pueblos de Punta Uva, Manzanillo, Punta Cocles y Gandoca. Tiene plan de manejo del 1996 elaborado no oficializado En su decreto de creacin no existen prohibiciones o regulaciones especificas, por lo que lo nico que nos puede interesar es: rea aproximada: 9 449 Ha. Seccin continental..5.013 Ha Seccin marina.4.436 Ha rea Total..9.449 Ha En su articulo 3 dice: Toda actividad que se realice dentro de los lmites establecidos en este Decreto deber ser autorizada por el Departamento de Vida Silvestre de la Direccin General Forestal. 2.Proteccin legal en el resto de zonas costeras y marinas Estas anteriores son las zonas protegidas que podemos encontrar a lo largo de la Costa Atlntica, sin embargo no cubren su totalidad, la pregunta sera: Qu sucede con el resto de kilmetros de costa y el resto de rea Marina Caribe que no se encuentran bajo ninguna categora de manejo? Pues en un estudio realizado con anterioridad491 La aplicacin de cada ley depender del lugar en donde ocurren los hechos. Cuando la tortuga se encuentra en la costa (parte continental y un kilmetro de la desembocadura de un ro), se aplica la Ley de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre, pero si el ilcito ocurre en la zona de la playa, se aplica la ley de la Zona Martimo Terrestres que en su artculo 12 prohbe explotar la flora y fauna existentes sin la correspondiente autorizacin legal. Por otro lado, cuando se trate de caza ilegal de tortugas desde un barco la ley aplicable y quien tendr jurisdiccin si se encuentra dentro de las 12 millas de la costa, INCOPESCA tiene la jurisdiccin. La Ley de la Zona Martimo-Terrestre (ZMT), N.6043, regula lo referente al desarrollo en la franja costera de 200 metros que constituye la as llamada ZMT. En ella, los primeros 50 metros desde la pleamar ordinaria, son para uso pblico y en ellos no se permite ningn desarrollo. En los siguientes 150 metros la municipalidad puede otorgar concesiones a
491

-Aplicacin de la Legislacin Costarricense relacionada con las Tortugas Marinas- Convenio Universidad de costa Rica- Universidad de Florida, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio. 2010.
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particulares. Para las concesiones se debe contar con un plan regulador elaborado por la municipalidad y aprobado por el Instituto Costarricense de Turismo (ICT). An que esta ley es de aplicacin general para todas las costas del pas existe, una serie de excepciones. En el litoral Caribe, coexisten muchos de estos regmenes especiales. As por ejemplo las areas protegidas litorales (Barra del Colorado, Tortuguero, RF Parismina-Matina, RF Gandoca Manzanillo)492 estan excluidas de esta ley, as como las ciudades (Limn, Cahuita)493. Adems la Ley Forestal N. 7575 establece en su artculo 13 que todo terreno con bosque que sea propiedad o este bajo administracin de una institucin pblica constituye Patrimonio Natural del Estado . Por lo tanto las reas de la ZMT que se consideren boscosas, pasan de la administracin de las municipalidades a la administracin del MINAET a travs del SINAC. En estas reas, de acuerdo a la ley forestal, solo se pueden realizar actividades de ecoturismo, investigacin y conservacin por lo tanto queda excluido todo tipo de desarrollo494. Si bien se puede considerar que muchas de las playas del litoral Caribe se encuentra bajo cobertura boscosa, para que un rea se constituya en Patrimonio Natural del Estado, la misma debe ser declarada como tal por el MINAET. Para esto el Ministerio debe realizar un catastro de todas las reas que constituyan el Patrimonio Natural del Estado. Este inventario no se ha realizado para la costa Caribe. Los particulares que cuente con propiedades que limitan con la ZMT en aquellas reas donde la misma puede ser concesionable o se trate de Patrimonio Natural del Estado, puede solicitar la creacin de un refugio de vida silvestre mixto que podra reforzar la proteccin de la playa, reduciendo o eliminando el desarrollo en el frente de playa. Un refugio mixto debe incluir una parte de su rea bajo propiedad privada y otra bajo rea pblica. La exclusin del desarrollo en el frente de la playa va a depender del plan de manejo aprobado para dicha rea protegida mixta, la cual la realiza el Area de Conservacin respectiva. 3.Conservacin de Base Comunitaria ONGs con Programas de Conservacin de Tortugas Si bien es sabido, en nuestro pas existe muchos organizaciones No gubernamentales dedicadas directa o indirectamente a la proteccin y conservacin de tortugas Marinas, sin
492 493

Art. 73 Ley de la Zona Martimo-Terrestre N. 6043 Art. 6 Ley de la Zona Martimo-Terrestre N. 6043 494 Art. 18 Ley Forestal: En el patrimonio natural, el Estado podr Realizar o autorizar labores de investigacin, capacitacin y ecoturismo, una vez aprobadas por el Ministro del Ambiente y Energa, quien definir, cuando corresponda, la Realizacin de evaluaciones del impacto ambiental, segn lo establezca el Reglamento de esta ley.
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embargo es necesario y sincero aclarar que el tiempo para este trabajo no fue suficiente para hacer un estudio detallado del laborioso trabajo de todas estas nobles organizaciones, ya que para un buen desarrollo del mismo se necesitara mas tiempo para coordinar entrevistas con las personas o entes encargados. Por tanto ste anlisis se fundamentar en dos estudios realizados con anterioridad a este trabajo y dos entrevistas realizadas a dos profesionales con experiencia en el tema. En cuanto la participacin de las ONGs u organizaciones No gubernamentales por sus siglas en ingles, podemos citar que: en la dcada de los noventas se dio la proliferacin de Organizaciones No Gubernamentales (ONGs) que se dieron a la tarea de proteger y conservar, los hbitats y las especies de tortugas marinas, tales como WideCast (encargada de desarrollar proyectos en el Caribe), Caribben Conservation Corporation (actualmente denominada Sea Turtle Conservation, que trabaja en el rea del Caribe), Asociacin Programa de Restauracin de Tortugas Marinas (PRETOMA, desarrollando labores de conservacin en el rea del Pacifico), entre otras, las cuales conforman en la actualidad la Red Nacional para la Conservacin de Tortugas. 495 La participacin de las ONGs en la conservacin de las tortugas marinas, ha sido determinante, gracias a activismo poltico ha sido posible la modificacin de la legislacin costarricense, as como introduccin de normativa explcita en la proteccin y conservacin de las mencionadas especies. Ejemplo de esto, es la prohibicin de la caza de tortuga verde en el rea del Caribe a partir de mil novecientos noventa y nueve, luego de la interposicin de un recurso de inconstitucionalidad al Decreto Ejecutivo nmero: 1452 del 26 de mayo de 1983. Eliminndose as la posibilidad de cazar esta especie, ante la evidente insostenibilidad de dicha prctica (En el capitulo de legislacin domestica, en la parte de Jurisprudencia se puede leer mas al respecto). As mismo al momento de la creacin de la Ley de Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas (Ley No.8325) en 2002, las ONGs estuvieron muy presentes en el proceso de construccin de dicho instrumento.496 El Trabajo que realizan las ONGs en las zonas costeras es determinante en la ley 8325, ya que compensa la falte de personal de las entidades gubernamentales en la vigilancia de las reas Protegidas, como por ejemplo en los sitios de desove. Estas organizaciones han jugado un papel preponderante en mantener la presencia humana en la playa, desarrollando programas en los cuales voluntarios se encargan de patrullar las reas, de manera que hacen respetar normativa en las zonas de desove e incluso es una
495

-Aplicacin de la Legislacin Costarricense relacionada con las Tortugas Marinas- Convenio Universidad de costa Rica- Universidad de Florida, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio. 2010. 496 Idem
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forma para estas organizaciones de generar ganancias y a partir de estos recursos ser capaces de mantener esta actividad conservacionista.497 Sin embargo el tema del voluntariado se ha convertido en un problema entre las ONGs y algunas comunidades e incluso Universidades. En el Foro Nacional de Sectores Involucrados en la conservacin de tortugas, realizado el 8 de julio de 2011 en la Escuela de Biologa de la Universidad de Costa Rica y organizado por Coopesolidar con financiamiento de la UCR, distintos representantes tanto de ONGs como de Universidades y comunidades interesadas, se hicieron presentes. Algunas de las quejas que presentaban fue que para algunos lderes comunales, en esta situacin influye el hecho de que el voluntariado se ha convertido en un negocio para ciertas organizaciones y personas, lo que ha causado divisiones en las mismas poblaciones, situaciones de corrupcin y hasta de violencia.
No obstante, en el foro tambin se hizo ver que el voluntariado tiene un costo econmico, debido a que los proyectos todava no son sostenibles, por lo que deben de existir acuerdos y normas para un mejor funcionamiento de los programas.498 El Vicerrector de Vida Estudiantil de la UCR, Dr. Carlos Villalobos Villalobos aadi que la UCR ha tenido que pelear para lograr un espacio en las playas de anidacin de tortugas, con el fin de que sus estudiantes y de otras universidades pblicas se puedan vincular a labores de voluntariado, ya que en muchos casos se da preferencia al voluntariado extranjero.499

Programas Basados en la Comunidad


Aunque por falta de tiempo no se logro el objetivo de identificar y detallar acuerdos de co-manejo entre comunidades y otros entes sean pblicos o ONGs, si se determin en la investigacin la realidad que viven algunas de las comunidades costeras en zonas de desove de tortugas marinas. Las comunidades mas pioneras son los casos de las comunidades de Gandoca, en Limn, y de Ostional, en Guanacaste, ambas con programas activos de conservacin de tortugas y con una amplia experiencia en el tema, de hecho la Comunidad de Ostional, segn mandato de la ley La ley N 8325 Ley de Proteccin, Conservacin y Recuperacin de las Poblaciones de Tortugas Marinas es la nico caso en donde es permitido legalmente la extraccin de huevos de tortuga (con el debido permiso) para el comercio; o el caso del Comit de Mujeres de Gandoca que tienen permiso para investigacin cientfica.. 500

497 498

Ibidem Foro Nacional de Sectores Involucrados en la conservacin de tortugas, realizado el 8 de julio del presente ao, informacin disponible en la pagina web de la Universidad de Costa Rica el dia 12 de julio del 2011, disponible en lnea en la direccin: http://www.ucr.ac.cr/noticias/2011/07/11/foronacional-sobre-conservacion-de-tortugas.html 499 Idem. 500 Ibidem. 118 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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V.Bibliografa Referencias citadas:


Leyes, decretos y jurisprudencia nacional: 1- Constitucin Poltica 2- Ley Orgnica del Ambiente No 7554 3- Ley de Proteccin de Parques Nacionales No 6084 4- Le de Conservacin de Vida Silvestre ley No 7317 5- Ley de Pesca y Acuicultura Ley No 8436 6- Ley de Proteccin, Conservacin y Recuperacin de las Poblaciones de Tortugas Marinas. Ley No 8325 7-AJDIP/151-2009 del 18 de mayo del 2009 INCOPESCA 8- A.J.D.I.P N 238 del 7 de octubre del 2002 INCOPESCA 9- Decreto Ejecutivo N 32633-MINAE 10- Reglamento 0-1-ICE del 17 de abril del 2009 11- Resolucin 1999-01250. De la Sala Constitucional de la corte suprema de Justicia. 12- Resolucin 2001 13295, De la Sala Constitucional de la corte suprema de Justicia. 13- Resolucin 2003 01766 De la Sala Constitucional de la corte suprema de Justicia. 14- Voto N 2008-08713 De la Sala Constitucional de la corte suprema de Justicia. 15- Dictamen N 105-97 del 20 de mayo de 1997 de la Procuradura General de la Repblica Documentos: 1 - Plan de Manejo del Parque Nacional Tortuguero disponible en lnea en la pagina web de el Sistema Nacional de reas de Conservacin, en la direccin: http://www.sinac.go.cr/planesmanejo.php 2 - Aplicacin de la Legislacin Costarricense relacionada con las Tortugas Marinas Convenio Universidad de costa Rica- Universidad de Florida, Ciudad Universitaria Rodrigo Facio. 2010. 3 - Condicin global de las tortugas marinas, un anlisis por Peter C.H pritchard Disponible en lnea: http://www.asvocr.org/pdfs/condicionglobaltortugasmarinas.pdf fecha: 20 de julio 2011 4 - Pagina oficial del Sistema de reas de conservacin SINAC disponible en la direccin: http://www.sinac.go.cr/aclac.php 5 - Foro Nacional de Sectores Involucrados en la conservacin de tortugas, realizado el 8 de julio del presente ao, informacin disponible en la pagina web de la Universidad de Costa Rica el dia 12 de julio del 2011, disponible en lnea en la direccin: http://www.ucr.ac.cr/noticias/2011/07/11/foro-nacional-sobre-conservacion-de-tortugas.html
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6 - Entrevista telefnica, viernes 22 de julio del 2011, 3:30pm, con la doctora Emma Harrison, Directora Cientfica de Sea Trutle Conservacy Documentos consultados no citados: 1 - Esfuerzos de conservacin de largo plazo contribuyen a una tendencia positiva de anidacin de tortuga verde Chelonia mydas en Tortuguero, Costa Rica Sebastian Trong, Eddy Rankin Caribbean Conservation Corporation, Apdo. Postal 246-2050, San Pedro, Costa Rica Traduccin por Roxana Silman Trong y Rankin (2005) Biological Conservation 121: 111-116 2 - Conservacin, Investigacin, voluntariado y turismo de tortugas Marinas En Costa Rica- Una responsabilidad del pas con el desarrollo local y el futuro- documento preparado por Copesolidar R.L elaborado por Marvin Fonseca Borrs y otro, disponible en la pagina web de la escuela de biologa de la Universidad de Costa Rica en la direccin: http://biologia.ucr.ac.cr/cont.php?id=13 (12 de julio del 2011) 3 - Plan General de usos de la Tierra y Desarrollo Turstico para las Unidades de Planeamiento Turstico del Caribe de Costa Rica Caribe Norte y Caribe Sur, Provincia de Limn Elaborado por: Direccin de Planemiento y Desarrollo del Instituto Costarricense de Turismo 4 - Plan de manejo del Refugio Nacional de vida silvestre Gandoca/Manzanillo, financiado por la Agencia Internacional de Desarrollo. No oficializado 5 - An Atlas of Sea Turtle Nesting Habitat for the Wider Caribbean Region. Wendy Dow, Karen Eckert, Michael Palmer and Philip Kramer WIDECAST Technical Report No. 6 - 2007, disponible en la pagina web de WIDECAST en la direccin: http://www.widecast.org/What/Country/CostaRica/costarica.html

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ANNEX 4. LEGISLATION REGARDING THE CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF SEA TURTLES ON THE CARIBBEAN COAST OF PANAMA

Legislacin sobre Conservacin, Manejo y Uso de las Tortugas Marinas para La Costa Caribe de Panam
Lic. Nikolas Snchez Espino, Panam

Universidad de Florida/Universidad de Costa Rica Programa Conjunto en Derecho Ambiental Thomas T. Ankersen, Director Lic. Franklin Paniagua, Ph.D. Candidate, Professor Gabriela Stocks, Ph.D Candidate, Professor Sekita Grant, J.D., LLM Candidate, E.E.U.U. Paulino Madrigal Rodriquez, Candidato de Lic., Facultad de Derecho, UCR

September, 2011

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Indice
I. Marco Legal e Institucional ......................................................... 122
A. Instituciones Relevantes ........................................................................... 122
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. rgano Legislativo .........................................................................................................122 rgano Ejecutivo ............................................................................................................123 Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA) ............................................................123 Ministerio de Economa y Finanzas (MEF)....................................................................124 Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam ...........................................................124 INRENARE ....................................................................................................................127 Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam de 1972 .............................................128 Leyes...............................................................................................................................129 Decretos de Gabinete / Decretos Ejecutivos / Decretos .................................................133 Resoluciones ...................................................................................................................135 Legislacin Indigena.......................................................................................................138

B. Legislacion Nacional ................................................................................. 128

C. Jurisprudencia Relacionada a La Proteccin De Las Tortugas Marinas ... 140

II. reas Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies Relevantes para el Caribe de Panam ............................................ 145
A. B. C. D. E. Kuna Yala ................................................................................................. 145 Bocas del Toro y Comarca Ngbe-Bugl .................................................. 145 Coln ........................................................................................................ 146 Proyectos de Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas .................................... 153 Arreglos de Comanejo de reas Protegidas ............................................ 154

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VI.Marco

Legal e Institucional

A.Instituciones Relevantes La Nacin panamea est organizada en Estado soberano e independiente, cuya denominacin es Repblica de Panam. Su Gobierno es unitario, republicano, democrtico y representativo. El Poder Pblico lo ejerce el Estado conforme en la Constitucin, por medio de los rganos Legislativo, Ejecutivo y Judicial, los cuales actan limitada y separadamente, pero en armnica colaboracin. 1.rgano Legislativo El rgano Legislativo est constituido por una corporacin denominada Asamblea Nacional, cuyos miembros son elegidos mediante postulacin partidista o por libre postulacin, mediante votacin popular directa, conforme lo establece la Constitucin. La funcin legislativa, es ejercida por medio de la Asamblea Nacional y consiste en expedir las leyes necesarias para el cumplimiento de los fines y el ejercicio de las funciones del Estado declaradas en la Constitucin; algunas de sus funciones son: 1. Expedir, modificar, reformar o derogar los Cdigos Nacionales. 2. Aprobar o desaprobar, antes de su ratificacin, los tratados y los convenios internacionales que celebre el rgano Ejecutivo. 3. Disponer sobre la aplicacin de los bienes nacionales a usos pblicos. 4. Dictar las normas oficiales o especficas a las cuales deben sujetarse el rgano Ejecutivo, las entidades autnomas y semiautnomas, las empresas estatales y mixtas cuando, con respecto a estas ltimas, el Estado tenga su control administrativo, financiero o accionario, para los siguientes efectos: negociar y contratar emprstitos; organizar el crdito pblico; reconocer la deuda nacional y arreglar su servicio; fijar y modificar los aranceles, tasas y dems disposiciones concernientes al rgimen de aduanas. 5. Determinar, a propuesta del rgano Ejecutivo, la estructura de la administracin nacional mediante la creacin de Ministerios, Entidades Autnomas, Semiautnomas, Empresas Estatales y dems establecimientos pblicos, y distribuir entre ellos las funciones y negocios de la Administracin, con el fin de asegurar la eficacia de las funciones administrativas. 6. Decretar las normas relativas a la celebracin de contratos en los cuales sea parte o tenga inters el Estado o algunas de sus entidades o empresas.
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7. Conceder al rgano Ejecutivo, cuando ste lo solicite, y siempre que la necesidad lo exija, facultades extraordinarias precisas, que sern ejercidas durante el receso de la Asamblea Nacional, mediante Decretos- Leyes. 2.rgano Ejecutivo El rgano Ejecutivo: est constituido por el Presidente de la Repblica y los Ministros de Estado, segn las normas de esta Constitucin. El Presidente de la Repblica ejerce sus funciones por s solo o con la participacin del Ministro del ramo respectivo, o con la de todos los Ministros en Consejo de Gabinete, o en cualquier otra forma que determine esta Constitucin. El Presidente es elegido por sufragio popular directo y por la mayora de votos, para un periodo de cinco aos. Con el Presidente de la Repblica ser elegido, de la misma manera y por igual periodo, un Vicepresidente, quien lo reemplazar en sus faltas, conforme a lo prescrito en la Constitucin. Dentro del rgano Ejecutivo, tambin se consideran los Ministros de Estado, quienes en conjunto con el Presidente conforman el Consejo de Gabinete. Sobre los Ministerios, nos enfocaremos en dos de ellos; el Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA) y el Ministerio de Economa y Finanzas (MEF). 3.Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA) Creado con la finalidad de promover y asegurar el mejoramiento econmico, social y poltico del
hombre y la comunidad rural y su participacin en la vida nacional, definir y ejecutar la poltica, planes y programas del sector. Entre sus funciones se encuentra:

1. 2.

Organizar y promover la identificacin, potencialidad, conservacin y administracin de los recursos naturales renovables.
Determinar y dirigir la poltica de crdito y financiamiento para el sector agropecuario dando nfasis y prioridad a las necesidades de los agricultores marginados y pescadores artesanales y a los pequeos y medianos agricultores.

ste Ministerio se encarga de representar y expedir a nivel del Consejo de Gabinete, los Decretos Ejecutivos y dems actuaciones que le permite la Ley en materia de recursos pesqueros. Sin embargo, es la Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam (ARAP) la encargada a nivel ejecutor de implementar las polticas sobre el sector pesca y de recursos marinos y costeros no adscritos por competencia a la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente (ANAM).

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4.Ministerio de Economa y Finanzas (MEF)


Creado con el objetivo de encargarse de todo lo relacionado a la formulacin de iniciativas en materia de poltica econmica ; la programacin de las inversiones pblicas y la estrategia social ; el diseo y ejecucin de las directrices generales y las tareas especficas del Gobierno sobre Hacienda y Tesorera Nacional ; la elaboracin, ejecucin y control del presupuesto general del Estado ; el Crdito Pblico y la modernizacin del Estado, as como la elaboracin y ejecucin de la Programacin Financiera del Estado. Es el Ministerio que representa a la ANAM ante el Consejo de Gabinete y el que expide los Decretos Ejecutivos y dems actos que la Ley le confiere en representacin de dicha autoridad.

5.Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam La Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam (ARAP), es la entidad rectora del Estado para asegurar el cumplimiento y la aplicacin de las leyes y los reglamentos en materia de recursos acuticos y de las polticas nacionales de pesca y acuicultura. Algunos de los objetivos principales de la ARAP son los de administrar, fomentar, promover, desarrollar, proyectar y aplicar las polticas, las estrategias, las normas legales y reglamentarias, los planes y los programas, que estn relacionados, de manera directa, con las actividades de la pesca, la acuicultura, el manejo marino-costero y las actividades conexas, con base en los principios rectores que aseguren la produccin, la conservacin, el control, la administracin, el fomento, la investigacin y el aprovechamiento responsable y sostenible de los recursos acuticos, teniendo en cuenta los aspectos biolgicos, tecnolgicos, econmicos, de seguridad alimentaria, sociales, culturales, ambientales y comerciales pertinentes, adems de coordinar sus actividades con todas las instituciones y/o autoridades vinculadas a la pesca, a la acuicultura y al manejo marinocostero, existentes o que se establezcan en el futuro y promover la disponibilidad suficiente y estable de productos y subproductos de la pesca y la acuicultura, para atender la demanda del mercado nacional e internacional. Igualmente, debe identificar y facilitar nuevas tecnologas pesqueras y acucolas amigables con el ambiente, que ayuden a mejorar la calidad de vida de los pescadores y acuicultores, as como a establecer los mecanismos alternativos y eficientes que coadyuven al desarrollo econmico de las comunidades, considerando principios como el de precaucin, de interdependencia, de coordinacin, de cooperacin, de corresponsabilidad y de subsidiariedad, para realizar las funciones relacionadas con las actividades de la pesca, la acuicultura, el manejo marino y costero y las actividades conexas.

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Entre algunas de sus mltiples funciones inherentes a la actividad pesquera, la ARAP debe primordialmente autorizar las actividades de pesca; as como proponer, coordinar y ejecutar la poltica nacional para la pesca, la acuicultura y los recursos marinos y costeros; as como administrar, promover y velar por el aprovechamiento racional, sostenible y responsable de los recursos acuticos y de la proteccin de los ecosistemas, favoreciendo su conservacin, permanencia en el tiempo y, eventualmente, su aumento por repoblacin. Tambin centrarse en promover la participacin genuina y directa de la sociedad civil interesada en las actividades de la pesca, la acuicultura y el comercio de productos y subproductos pesqueros, en la definicin de polticas y normativas que el Estado tome en materia de pesca y acuicultura. Adicional, debe promover, mediante polticas, programas y proyectos, el desarrollo integrado del sector pesquero y de la acuicultura, as como la formacin humana y tcnica de sus trabajadores. Para ello puede emplear el establecimiento de zonas espaciales de manejo marino y costero as como zonas de reserva contribuyendo con la funcin de regular el aprovechamiento de los recursos acuticos. Para la consecucin de los objetivos y funciones relativas a la pesca, la estructura orgnica de la ARAP est conformada por su Junta Directiva y la Administracin General, entendidos como los rganos superiores de direccin de la institucin; La Comisin Nacional de Pesca Responsable, la cual funge como un rgano de consulta y asesora; su Secretara General, que realiza las labores de coordinacin entre los rganos antes mencionados y los operativos, los cuales son: a. Direccin General de Investigacin y Desarrollo b. Direccin General de Ordenacin y Manejo Integral c. Direccin General de Inspeccin, Vigilancia y Control d. Direccin General de Fomento a la Productividad y Asistencia Tcnica e. La Ley permite la creacin de nuevas direcciones o unidades administrativas y/o de coordinacin. Cada uno de estos rganos posee objetivos y sus directores funciones muy definidas dentro de la Ley 44 de 2004. Por otro lado, la Ley se crea el Sistema Interinstitucional de los Recursos Acuticos, integrado por las instituciones pblicas sectoriales con competencia en los recursos acuticos. Estas instituciones estarn obligadas a establecer mecanismos de coordinacin, consulta y ejecucin entre s, siguiendo los parmetros de la Autoridad de los Recursos Acuticos de Panam que regir y coordinar el Sistema, con el fin de
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armonizar sus polticas, evitar conflictos o vacos de competencia y responder, con coherencia y eficiencia, a los objetivos y fines de la presente Ley, sus reglamentos y a los lineamientos de una poltica nacional de pesca y acuicultura. Se instituye tambin, la Oficina de Coordinacin de Apoyo Tcnico a la Organizacin del Sector Pesquero y Acucola del Istmo Centroamericano, cuyas funciones estn circunscritas a ayudar a la Unidad Regional de Pesca y Acuicultura de la Secretara General del Sistema de Integracin Centroamericana (SICA/OSPESCA) adems de coordinar toda la informacin y las actividades de los programas pesqueros en los que participe entre otras. La Ley modifica la Ley 41 de 1 de julio de 1998 (Ley General de Ambiente) estableciendo que los recursos marino-costeros constituyen patrimonio nacional, y su aprovechamiento, manejo y conservacin estarn sujetos a las disposiciones que, para tal efecto, emita la ARAP. Sin embargo, en el caso de las reas protegidas, con recursos marinos y costeros bajo la jurisdiccin de la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente, tales disposiciones sern emitidas y aplicadas por esta entidad. Establece tambin en dicha modificacin que ambos darn prioridad, en sus polticas, a la conservacin de ecosistemas marinos y de aguas continentales con niveles altos de diversidad biolgica y productividad, tales como los ecosistemas de arrecifes de coral, estuarios, humedales y otras zonas de reproduccin y cra. Las medidas de conservacin de humedales establecern la proteccin de las aves acuticas migratorias que utilizan y dependen de estos ecosistemas. ARAP tambin desarroll un Programa Nacional para la Proteccin y Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas; desafortunadamente la informacin no se encuentra disponible en el sitio de Internet de la institucin a diferencia de la solicitud de informacin a la comunidad en donde solicitan que se informe sobre accidentes, lesiones u otros incidentes que puedan poner la vida de las tortugas marinas en riesgo. El departamento de evaluacin de la ARAR; rama de la Direccin de Investigacin y Desarrollo es la encargada de ventilar y dar trmite a estos casos; para lo cual proveen de un nmero de telefax (511-6036) y un sitio web para solicitar la forma a llenar; la direccin es la siguiente:
http://arap.gob.pa/INVESTIGACION/DOCUMENTOS/RED%20DE%20VARAMIENTO%20Y% 20SALVAMENTO%20DE%20TM.pdf

Dicha informacin debe ser enviada a Marino Abrego, responsable del programa y el mismo puede ser consultado en cualquier momento va celular (6150-2101).
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Adicional, la Ley 44 de 2006 establece otras figuras como herramientas de manejo de recursos marinos y costeros, que son las zonas especiales de manejo costero y las zonas de reserva. Las primeras tienen como objetivo fundamental manejar de manera integral los ecosistemas frgiles, sitios de anidamiento y crianza, marismas, humedales, arrecifes de coral y zonas de reproduccin y cra, que se constituyen como ecosistemas frgiles por sus caractersticas eco-sistmicas.501 Y las zonas de reserva por su parte que tienen como objetivo proteger y preservar reas de reproduccin, de reclutamiento y de repoblamiento de las especies consideradas importantes para apoyar el desarrollo de los diferentes sectores involucrados con la pesca. 6. ARAP y INRENARE La presente Ley establece los principios y normas bsicos para la proteccin, conservacin y recuperacin del ambiente, promoviendo el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. Adems, ordena la gestin ambiental y la integra a los objetivos sociales y econmicos, a efecto de lograr el desarrollo humano sostenible en el pas. Crea la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente como la entidad autnoma rectora del Estado en materia de recursos naturales y del ambiente, para asegurar el cumplimiento y aplicacin de las leyes, los reglamentos y la poltica nacional del ambiente. Anteriormente la ejecucin de stos se encontraba a cargo del Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables (INRENARE). Corresponde a la ARAP la formulacin del Plan de Ordenamiento de Recursos Hidrobiolgicos, en coordinacin con la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente que, adems, velar por el estricto cumplimiento de los planes establecidos para lograr la conservacin, recuperacin y uso sostenible de dichos recursos. La Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente coadyuvar con la ARAP, para asegurar que las normas sobre pesqueras que sta elabore, en base a sistemas de ordenamiento pesquero, procuren el uso sostenible de dichos recursos. La Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente velar para que las autoridades competentes ejecuten acciones de supervisin, control y vigilancia, y su accin podr abarcar el mbito de aplicacin total, por zonas geogrficas o por unidades de poblacin. Tambin deben dar ambas autoridades prioridad en sus polticas a la conservacin de ecosistemas marinos y de aguas continentales con niveles altos de diversidad biolgica y productividad, tales como los ecosistemas de arrecifes de coral, estuarios, humedales y
501

Numeral 24 del artculo 2 de la Ley 44 de 2006.


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otras zonas de reproduccin y cra en donde podemos incluir las tortugas marinas como objetivo expreso. Resolucin AG-0526-2005 de 20 de septiembre de 2005 (G.O. 25416 de 27/10/05) La Direccin de reas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre creada mediante la citada resolucin, es la encargada de aplicar los convenios internacionales sobre la vida silvestre suscritos por Panam y est encargada de dar cumplimiento a los convenios internacionales como el de Biodiversidad Biolgica as como administrar el sistema nacional de reas protegidas (SINAP) El rgano Judicial: constituido por la Corte Suprema de Justicia, los tribunales y los juzgados que la Ley establezca. Por su parte, el Ministerio Pblico; est conformado por el Procurador General de la Nacin, el Procurador de la Administracin, los Fiscales y Personeros y por los dems funcionarios que establezca la Ley. Estos son los encargados, entre otras funciones, de: 1. Defender los intereses del Estado o del Municipio. 2. Promover el cumplimiento o ejecucin de las Leyes, sentencias judiciales y disposiciones administrativas. 3. Vigilar la conducta oficial de los funcionarios pblicos y cuidar que todos desempeen cumplidamente sus deberes. 4. Perseguir los delitos y contravenciones de disposiciones constitucionales o legales. 5. Servir de consejeros jurdicos a los funcionarios administrativos. B.Legislacion Nacional 1.Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam de 1972 La Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam de 1972 vigente, establece disposiciones que se relacionan directamente con la conservacin de las distintas especies de tortugas marinas existentes en el territorio de la Repblica de Panam, as: Artculo 119 El Estado y todos los habitantes del territorio nacional tienen el deber de propiciar un desarrollo social y econmico que prevenga la contaminacin del ambiente, mantenga el equilibrio ecolgico y evite la destruccin de los ecosistemas. Artculo 120
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El Estado reglamentar, fiscalizar y aplicar oportunamente las medidas necesarias para garantizar que la utilizacin y el aprovechamiento de la fauna terrestre, fluvial y marina, as como de los bosques, tierras y aguas, se lleven a cabo racionalmente de manera que se evite su depredacin y se asegure su preservacin Artculo 296 La Ley reglamentar la caza, la pesca y el aprovechamiento de los bosques, de modo que permita asegurar su renovacin y la permanencia de sus beneficios. 2.Leyes Cdigo Fiscal Ley 8 de 27 de enero de 1956 (G.O. 12995 de 29/6/56) En el Artculo 295 establece la prohibicin de captura de tortugas comunes que tengan menos de cincuenta centmetros (50 cm) de longitud, y de tortugas carey de menos de veinticinco centmetros (25 cm). Decreto Ley 17 de 1959 (G.O. 13909 de 18/08/59) - Ley General de Pesca El Decreto Ley 17 de 1959 reglamenta la pesca y aprueba la exportacin de productos pesqueros en la Repblica de Panam, poniendo especial cuidado en proteger la fauna y flora del pas. Ley 14 de 28 de octubre de 1977 (G.O. 18506 de 27/1/78) modificada por la ley 18 de 29 de marzo de 2011 (G.O. 26754 de 31/3/11)
Por la cual se aprueba la Convencin sobre el comercio internacional de especies amenazadas de fauna y flora silvestre CITES

Ley 17 de 9 de noviembre de 1981(G.O. 20,545 de 5/5/86) - Aprueba el Convenio Internacional para prevenir la Contaminacin por buques, Londres del 2 de noviembre de 1973. La norma aprueba el contenido completo del Convenio y sus Anexos, regulando las Obligaciones Generales, a fin de prevenir la contaminacin del medio marino provocada por la descarga de sustancias perjudiciales, o de efluentes que contengan tales sustancias. Ley 13 de 30 de junio de 1986 (G.O. 20613 de 7/8/86) Por la cual se aprueba el convenio para la proteccin y el desarrollo del medio marino de la regin del Gran Caribe y el Protocolo relativo a la cooperacin por combatir los derrames de hidrocarburos en la Regin del Gran Caribe

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El artculo 10 de la Convencin adoptada como Ley de la Repblica establece la obligacin de las partes; en ste caso la Repblica de Panam, de adoptar, a manera individual o conjunta con alguna otra parte, todas las medidas adecuadas para proteger y preservar en la zona de aplicacin del convenio (entindase la Regin del Gran Caribe que se extiende desde el medio marino del Golfo de Mxico, el Mar Caribe y las zonas adyacentes del Ocano atlntico al sur de los 30 de latitud norte y dentro de las 200 millas marinas de las costas atlnticas de los Estados parte del Convenio), los ecosistemas raros o vulnerables, as como el hbitat de las especies diezmadas, amenazadas o en peligro de extincin, procurando igualmente el establecimiento de zonas protegidas.
Ley 5 de 2 de enero de 1989 (G.O. 21210 de 11/1/89) Mediante la referida Ley, se aprob en todas sus partes la Convencin sobre la Conservacin de las Especies Migratorias de Animales Silvestres, por la cual la Repblica de Panam reconoci la importancia de conservar y preservar la fauna silvestre que migra ciclnicamente y que tiene en el territorio nacional su refugio temporal. Esta Convencin entr en vigencia para Panam el 1 de mayo de 1989 Ley 6 de 3 de enero de 1989 (G.O. 21211 de 12/1/89) Adopta y aprueba en todas sus partes la Convencin Relativa a los Humedales de Importancia Internacional, especialmente como Hbitat de Aves Acuticas (Convencin de RAMSAR) y el Protocolo con vistas a modificarla. Esta Convencin y su Protocolo entraron en vigencia para Panam el 26 de noviembre de 1990.

Ley 2 de 12 de enero de 1995(G.O. 22074 de 17/1/95)


Mediante esta Ley, se aprueba en todas sus partes el Convenio sobre La Diversidad Biolgica, hecho en Ro de Janeiro el 5 de junio de 1992. Este Convenio entr en vigencia para Panam el 17 de abril de 1995. Ley 9 de 12 de abril de 1995 (G.O. 22763 de 17/4/95) Aprueba el Convenio para la Conservacin de la Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Silvestres Prioritarias en Amrica Central; este tiene como fin principal el conservar la diversidad biolgica, terrestre y costero-marina, de Centroamrica. Este Convenio entr en vigencia para Panam el 3 de junio de 1995

Ley 38 de 4 de junio de 1995, (G.O. 23,056 de 12/6/96) - Convencin de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Derecho del Mar de 1982, firmada en Montego Bay, Jamaica, el 10 de diciembre de 1982. Dentro de sus motivaciones est el solucionar todas las cuestiones relativas al derecho del mar y en la conciencia de que los problemas de los espacios martimos estn estrechamente relacionados entre s y hay que relacionarlos en su conjunto.

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Los artculos a partir del 61 dispone sobre la conservacin de los recursos vivos: 1. El Estado ribereo determinar la captura permisible de los recursos vivos en su zona econmica exclusiva de acuerdo a mtodos cientficos y medidas de conservacin de los recursos, con el objeto de que se puedan preservar o restablecer las poblaciones de las especies capturadas a niveles que puedan producir el mximo rendimiento sostenible con arreglo a los factores ambientales y econmicos pertinentes. Mientras que el artculo 62 trata sobre la utilizacin de los recursos vivos sealando la promocin para la utilizacin ptima de los recursos vivos en la ZEE, adems de que el Estado ribereo determinar su capacidad de capturar los recursos vivos de la ZEE. Cuando el Estado ribereo no tenga la capacidad para explotar toda la captura permisible, dar acceso a otros Estados al excedente de la captura permisible, mediante acuerdos u otros arreglos y de conformidad con las modalidades, condiciones y leyes y reglamentos. El mismo artculo, en su cuarto numeral expresa que aquellos beneficiados con este derecho observarn las medidas de conservacin y las dems modalidades y condiciones establecidas en las leyes y reglamentos del Estado ribereo Ley 24 de 7 de junio de 1995 (G.O. 22801 de 09/06/95) modificada y adicionada por la Ley 39 de 24 de noviembre de 2005 (G.O. 25433 de 25/11/05) Ley de Vida Silvestre Esta ley establece que la vida silvestre, incluidas las tortugas, son parte del patrimonio natural del pas y declara de dominio pblico su proteccin, conservacin, restauracin, investigacin, manejo y desarrollo de los recursos genticos, as como especies, razas y variedades de vida silvestre, para beneficio y salvaguarda de los ecosistemas naturales. Ley 42 de 5 de julio de 1996 (G.O. 23706 de 10/7/96)
Mediante esta Ley, se aprueba un Protocolo relativo a las reas y a la flora y la fauna silvestres, especialmente protegidas, del Convenio para la proteccin y el desarrollo del medio marino en la regin del Caribe, hecho en Kingston, Jamaica el 18 de enero de 1990, que tiene entre sus objetivos, proteger, restaurar y mejorar el estado de los ecosistemas, as como de las especies en peligro de extincin y sus hbitats, en esta regin. Establece directrices para el manejo, conservacin y recuperacin de la flora y fauna de la regin. Este Protocolo entr en vigencia para Panam el 17 de junio de 2000.

El mismo establece que su interpretacin no podr ser contraria a lo establecido en los Convenios CITES y CMS. Ley 26 de 26 de marzo de 2003 (G.O. 24773 de 2/4/03) Aprueba el Protocolo relativo a la Contaminacin Procedente de Fuentes y Actividades Terrestre del Convenio para la Proteccin y el Desarrollo del Medio Marino de la Regin del Gran Caribe, hecho en Oranjestad, Aruba, el 6 de octubre de 1999. El depsito del
instrumento de adhesin del referido Protocolo se verific el 9 de julio de 2003.
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Los productos vertidos al mar pueden ocasionar una disminucin en los hbitat de las especies de tortugas al reducir su alimento y por ende minimizar las arribadas por falta de alimento y en esa lnea disminuir la poblacin de tortugas en la regin del Caribe. Con base al principio precautorio, podemos indicar que es necesario contemplar la observancia de ste protocolo enfocado no solo en la proteccin de hbitat de diversas especies, tambin en las propias especies como el caso de las tortugas migratorias de la regin Caribe.

Ley 9 de 16 de marzo de 2006 (G.O. 25506 de 20/03/06) La ley se enfoca en prohibir la prctica del aleteo de tiburones que consiste en cortar las aletas y no aprovechar el resto y aade respecto a las tortugas marinas, la prohibicin de su uso y de otras especies de mamferos marinos como carnada de tiburones. Ley 14 de 18 de mayo de 2007 que adopta el Cdigo Penal (G.O 25796 de 22/05/07) Artculo 405 Quien pesque, cace, mate, capture o extraiga recurso o especie de la vida silvestre, acutica o terrestre protegida o en peligro de extincin, sin contar con los permisos correspondientes para tales efectos, o quien teniendo los referidos permisos incumpla las especificaciones incluidas en estos, relacionados con la cantidad, la edad, las dimensiones o las medidas, ser sancionado con prisin de dos (2) a cuatro (4) aos. La sancin se aumentar de una tercera parte a la mitad: 1. Si se realiza en un rea protegida. 2. Si utiliza instrumento o medio no autorizado o prohibido por las normas vigentes. 3. Si se realiza fuera de las reas destinadas para tales efectos. 4. Si se efecta durante el perodo de veda o temporada establecido para proteger las especies descritas en este artculo y su reproduccin. 5. Si se da en grandes proporciones. La norma es suficientemente clara y busca aplicar sanciones penales por supuestos delitos relacionados con la vida silvestre, marina inclusive, indicando igualmente aquellas especies en peligro de extincin o protegidas. La presente norma a nivel penal tiene aplicacin en cuanto al incumplimiento de la Ley 8 de 4 de enero de 2008.
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Ley 8 de 4 de enero de 2008 (G.O. 25955 de 10/01/08) Aprueba la Convencin Interamericana para la Proteccin y Conservacin de las Tortugas Marinas, suscrita en Caracas, Venezuela, el 1 de diciembre de 1996. Ley 2 del 7 de enero de 2006 (G.O. 25431 de 11/1/06) Regula las concesiones para la inversin turstica y la enajenacin de territorio insular para fines de su aprovechamiento turstico y dicta otras disposiciones502 Esta Ley dispone que para las reas declaradas como de desarrollo especial como en el caso de Bastimentos, deber seguirse el plan de ordenamiento territorial, que para el caso que mencionamos, sitio de anidamiento de tortugas, desconocemos de su existencia y/o procesos de consenso y desarrollo del mismo. Ley 80 de 31 de diciembre de 2009 (26438-B de 31/12/09) Reconoce derechos posesorios y regula la titulacin en las zonas costeras y el territorio insular con el fin de garantizar su aprovechamiento ptimo y dicta otras disposiciones. 3.Decretos de Gabinete / Decretos Ejecutivos / Decretos
Decreto de Gabinete 88 de 27 de noviembre de 1989 (G.O. 21683 11/12/1990) Por la cual se declara parte del litoral de la Provincia de Bocas del Toro llamado Playa Chiriqu y la Isla escudo de Veraguas como zona turstica especial.

Decreto Ejecutivo 4 de 31 de enero de 1992 (G.O. 21974 de 14/02/92) Entre las medidas para evitar la mortalidad de tortugas, exige a todas las tripulaciones de barcos camaroneros aplicar la prctica de la resucitacin a todas aquellas tortugas marinas en estado de coma al momento de la captura, para luego ser liberadas. No existiendo flota de arrastre de camarn en el Mar Caribe, dicha pesca actualmente no constituye una amenaza latente para las tortugas del Caribe ya que a travs del Decreto 10 de 28 de febrero de 1985 (G.O. 20261 de 11/03/85), derogado parcialmente y modificado por el Decreto Ejecutivo 76 de 4 de octubre de 1994 (G.O. 22653 de 27/10/94) se limit la expedicin quedando circunscritas al Pacfico. Igualmente mediante fallo de la Corte

502

Esta Ley fue demandada inconstitucional ante la Corte Suprema de Justicia el mismo ao de su aprobacin, 2006, por considerarse violatoria del Rgimen Ecolgico de la Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam. La Corte an no ha fallado. 134 THE INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC LAW BASIS FOR THE SHARED CONSERVATION,
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Suprema503, ha quedado limitada la expedicin de nuevas licencias que puedan afectar a las tortugas marinas del Caribe. La norma ordena la liberacin de las tortugas marinas capturadas por los barcos camaroneros y exige resucitacin a las tortugas encontradas en estado de coma para luego ser liberadas. La disposicin encuentra aplicacin en la medida que las embarcaciones camaroneras necesariamente tienen que retornar a los puertos de Coquira y Vacamonte, siendo estos los nicos autorizados para recibir descargas del producto camarn. Aqu se verifica el cumplimiento y la captura incidental en caso que se haya dado el deceso de la tortuga. Decreto Ejecutivo 43 de 7 de julio de 2004 (G.O.25091 de 12/7/04) ste Decreto Ejecutivo reglamenta la Ley de vida silvestre, Ley 24 de 1995. La importancia para el tema de tortugas estriba en que en su Ttulo III se recogen disposiciones relativas al manejo de la vida silvestre en las reas protegida (marinas inclusive), por parte de la comunidades indgenas y respecto a la investigacin cientfica de especies de vida silvestre. Decreto Ejecutivo 82 de 1 de abril de 2005 (G.O. 25272 de 06/04/05) Dispone que todas las embarcaciones que se dediquen a la pesca en aguas jurisdiccionales de la Repblica de Panam utilizando redes de arrastre estn obligadas a utilizar el Dispositivo Excluidor de Tortugas Marinas en todos los lances que efecten durante sus faenas de pesca, para preservar estas especies. Se requiere de 2 excluidores de tortugas instalados y revisados en los puertos autorizados y la existencia de un dispositivo de repuesto funcional, para su uso en el caso de desperfecto de alguno de los instalados previamente. Decreto Ejecutivo 238 de 5 de julio de 2010 (G.O. 26570 de 6/7/10) Con ste Decreto Ejecutivo, se cerr la pesca de tnidos en la Repblica de Panam Decreto Ejecutivo 239 de 15 de julio de 2010 (G.O. 26577 de 15 de julio de 2010) Mediante el presente Decreto Ejecutivo, la pesca de tnidos se permite nuevamente con excepcin del uso del arte de red de cerco, y observando lo dispuesto a las Organizaciones Regionales para el ordenamiento de la Pesca (OROP) CIAT y ICCAT. Establece tambin

503

Demanda Contencioso Administrativa De Plena Jurisdiccin Interpuesta Por El Licenciado Salvatore Bacile Ladaris En Representacin De B & L Export And Services Inc., Para Que Se Declare Nulo, Por Ilegal, El Resuelto No. 0213 De 11 De Mayo De 1998, Expedido Por El Director General De Recursos Marinos Y Costeros De La Autoridad Martima De Panam, Acto Confirmatorio Y Para Que Se Haga Otras Declaraciones. Magistrada Ponente: Mirtza Anglica Franceschi De Aguilera. Panam, Diecisis (16) De Febrero Del Ao Dos Mil Uno (2001).
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que los buques pesqueros para tnidos no podrn exceder de tonelaje de registro neto mayor de 150. Decreto Ejecutivo 486 de 28 de diciembre de 2010 (G.O. 26690 de 29/12/10)
A travs de este acuerdo, se restringe el uso de arte de pesca de lnea larga denominado palangre (superficial, de media agua y/o de profundidad) a las embarcaciones pesqueras de tipo industrial y comercial, en las aguas jurisdiccionales de la Repblica de Panam, permitiendo ejecutarla por embarcaciones de menos de 6 toneladas de registro bruto. Decreto 225 de 27 de noviembre de 1919 (G.O. 3238 de 5/12/19) Permite la pesca de tortugas en la circunscripcin de San Blas entre la punta de San Blas y el Cabo Tiburn. A pesar de existir la Ley 8 de 2008, y no haber ubicado las excepciones para la pesca en la Comarca Kuna Yala, entendemos que esta norma sigue vigente en observancia de lo establecido en la Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam; ya que se propugna por una utilizacin y

aprovechamiento de manera racional, evitando su depredacin y se asegure su preservacin y a la vez respetando la identidad y patrones culturales de las comunidades indgenas. 4.Resoluciones Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88)
Establece el Parque Marino Isla de Bastimentos, en la Provincia de Bocas del Toro y se dictan algunas disposiciones en cuanto al manejo y proteccin de los recursos naturales renovables de este parque. Se prohbe la explotacin de sus recursos naturales renovables

Resolucin JD-009-94 de 28 de junio de 1994 (G.O. 22586 de 25/7/94) Crea el Sistema Nacional De reas Silvestres, Protegidas, ente administrativo Del Instituto Nacional De Recursos Naturales Renovables, se definen sus categoras de manejo. Entre los objetivos se establece el conservar en su estado natural diversos ecosistemas marinos, as como propiciar su restauracin y rehabilitacin; as como promover las medidas necesarias para que mediante las investigaciones cientficas aumentes los conocimientos sobre la biodiversidad, as como para mejorar las opciones de proteccin y aprovechamiento; as como tambin para brindar el apoyo a las comunidades indgenas para la administracin en el planeamiento y desarrollo de sus territorios.
Resolucin 41 De 13 De Febrero de 1996 (G.O. 22978 de 22/2/96) Declar constituida en Zona de Desarrollo Turstico de Inters Nacional, el rea denominada Zona 2, Bastimentos, localizado al norte de la Provincia de Bocas del Toro, en el archipilago del mismo nombre. Resolucin AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04)

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Aprueba Plan de Manejo del Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentos, elaborado en agosto de 2001, preparado con la participacin de comunidades, organizaciones gubernamentales y no Gubernamentales del Archipilago de Bocas del Toro, auspiciado por la ANAM. Este Plan de Manejo tiene una vigencia de cinco aos, a partir de la promulgacin de esta Resolucin. Resolucin AG-0346-2004 de 17 de agosto de 2004 (G.O.25136 de 14/9/2004) Declar humedal de importancia internacional Damani-Guariviara, el rea ubicada en la Regin de Kribo, Comarca Ngbe Bugl. Este Humedal tiene por objetivo proteger los humedales en el mejor estado de conservacin, atendiendo a los lineamientos y enfoques de uso racional definidos en la Convencin de Ramsar, 1971. Es la ANAM Comarcal y el Congreso General Ngbe Bugle (CGNB) los encargados de vigilar y conservar el humedal y sus aptitudes biolgicas. Consideramos que sera prudente mediante una retroalimentacin geogrfica, obtener las playas de anidacin existentes dentro del humedal y as primariamente identificar las tortugas que utilizan el mbito (aunque ya est indicado en prrafos superiores en la parte compromisos internacionales en lo que respecta a la Convencin RAMSAR) y establecer planes en conjunto con la administracin y el CGNB.

Resolucin 074 de 7 de abril de 2005 (G.O. 25314 de 06/06/05) y Resolucin 0276 de 2 de diciembre de 2005 (G.O. 25444 de 14/12/05) Declara a los puertos pesqueros de Vacamonte y de Coquira, respectivamente, como puertos acreditados para la emisin de zarpes de pesca a las embarcaciones de arrastre, para realizar la inspeccin y fiscalizacin de uso del dispositivo excluidor de tortugas marinas, as como la descarga de productos provenientes de esta actividad en las aguas jurisdiccionales de la Repblica de Panam. Con esta medida se busca que las embarcaciones camaroneras que se dedican a faenar cuenten con dispositivos instalados y funcionales, adems de asegurar la existencia de un dispositivo adicional de repuesto para cualquier eventualidad de fallo en alguno de los instalados. Resolucin AG-0491 de 8 de agosto de 2006 (G.O. 25647 de 06/10/06) Reglamenta los artculos 94 y 95 de la Ley 41 de 1 de julio de 1998 en lo que respecta al aprovechamiento, manejo y conservacin de los recursos costeros y marinos en las reas protegidas de Panam. Establece que para cada rea protegida con recursos marinos y costeros se deber disponer de un plan de manejo o en su defecto de un plan accin confeccionado por el Jefe del Parque as como la existencia de un Plan Operativo Anual (POA) para la consecucin los objetivos de cualquier Plan existente.
Resolucin AG-0038-2007 de 1 de febrero de 2007 (G.O. 25747 de 12/3/07) Estableci el Comit Nacional de Humedales de la Repblica de Panam. Dicho organismo constituye el rgano asesor del Gobierno Nacional y la sociedad civil panamea en materia de
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humedales, en la implementacin de la Poltica Nacional de Humedales y en la aplicacin de la Convencin relativa a los Humedales de Importancia Internacional. Resolucin AG-0051-08 de 22 de enero de 2008 (G.O. 26013 de 7/4/08) A travs de esta Resolucin, se reglament lo relativo a las especies de fauna y flora amenazadas y en peligro de extincin. Para tal efecto, se cre un listado de especies amenazadas de Panam, en el que se incluiran, aquellas especies, subespecies o poblaciones de la flora y fauna silvestres que requirieran medidas especficas de proteccin en el marco territorial de Panam. Resolucin AG-0095-2009 de 9 de febrero de 2009 (G.O. 26230 de 27/2/09) Declara como rea protegida, el globo marino e insular ubicado en la provincia de Bocas del Toro, que comprende la isla Escudo de Veraguas y una porcin del Golfo de los Mosquitos del distrito de Bocas del Toro, provincia de Bocas del Toro, la cual se denominar "Paisaje Protegido Isla Escudo de Veraguas-Deg La declaratoria tiene su gnesis en la existencia de 3 tipos de ecosistemas tropicales marinos ms distintivos: arrecifes de coral con una presencia importante tanto de extensin como en calidad (arrecife barrera, arrecife en franja o costanero y parche arrecifal), pastos marinos y manglares. Igualmente posee numerosas costas rocosas acantilados y playas de arenas. Estas ltimas son importantes sitios de desove de tres especies de tortugas marinas como la tortuga verde (Chelonia mydas , tortuga carey (erethmochelys imbricata) y la tortuga canal o baula (Dermochelys coricea). La importancia de sta rea para la tortuga es tal, que la cobertura total del rea protegida que asciende a 42, 129 ha., 41,596 ha., corresponden al rea marina y 533 ha., a la parte terrestre.

Resolucin AG-0139- 2009 de 4 de marzo de 2009 (G.O. 26235 de 9/3/09) "Por medio de la cual se declara el rea protegida de Donoso en donde a travs del Plan Maestro para Donoso y Santa Fe, elaborado por Forest Stewardship Council (2006), se seala que las zonas costeras como las playas de Rincn y Petaquilla son utilizadas por tortugas marinas para el desove, siendo que una caracterstica de estas playas es que son de poca extensin y por tanto, muy importantes para la conservacin de estas especies. Establecer como lmites del rea Protegida de Donoso, los ambientes terrestres, fluviales, lacustres, y marino costeros ubicados en el Distrito de Donoso, provincia de Coln, colindante al Norte con el Mar Caribe, al Sur con los distritos de la Pintada y Penonom en la Provincia de Cocl, al Este con el distrito de Chagres, Provincia de Coln y, al Oeste con el distrito de Santa F, Provincia de Veraguas. La superficie total del rea total protegida es de ciento noventa y cinco mil novecientos diecisiete hectreas con seiscientos cuarenta y siete metros cuadrados (195,917ha + 647m2) de los cuales dieciocho mil ochocientos cincuenta y dos hectreas con trescientos setenta y cuatro metros cuadrados (18,852ha + 374m2) corresponden a la superficie marina del rea protegida de Donoso.
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Resolucin AG-0299-2009 de 27 de abril de 2009 (G.O. 26311 de 26/6/09) Designa a la Administracin Regional de la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente en la Comarca Ngbe Bugl, como encargada de la administracin del rea protegida denominada Paisaje Protegido Isla Escudo de Veraguas-Deg.

Resuelto ARAP 003 de 18 de noviembre de 2009 (G.O. 26422 de 07/12/09) Adopta el Cdigo de Conducta para la Pesca Responsable de la Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentacin (FAO) y sus anexos, as como tambin el Plan de Accin Internacional para Prevenir, Desalentar y Eliminar la Pesca Ilegal, No Declarada y No Reglamentada de la Organizacin de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentacin (FAO).
Igualmente a nivel nacional existe activo; ms no constituido legalmente, el Comit Nacional para la Proteccin y Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas; actualmente se est trabajando en lograr el reconocimiento de dicho comit a travs de una Resolucin de ARAP504. Este comit se encuentra impulsado con participacin de ONG como Conservacin Internacional, Fundacin MarViva y otras instituciones gubernamentales.

5.Legislacin Indigena Ley 16 de 19 de febrero de 1953 (G.O. 12042 de 7 de abril de 1953) Rgimen Kuna Organiza la Comarca de San Blas creada mediante Ley 2 de 16 de septiembre de 1938 (G.O. 7873 de 23/9/38) Dicha ley establece en su artculo 218, que la defensa y conservacin del territorio kuna no se entiende slo con respecto a la porcin de tierra dentro de los lmites de la Comarca, sino tambin al mar y sus recursos y a todos los ecosistemas que son bases de la biodiversidad en la Comarca. Igualmente en su artculo 45, indica que habr un tiempo de veda para todos los animales vulnerables de extincin parcial o total, que sealarn las autoridades regionales; y que no se utilizarn medios y tcnicas que permitan la explotacin a gran escala, de manera que pongan en peligro su existencia en los mares, costas y tierras de Kuna Yala. Asimismo, en su artculo 46, establece que, el Congreso General podr declarar lugares marinos o terrestres, reas y ecosistemas protegidos; o adoptar otras medidas para la conservacin y reproduccin de las especies. Resolucin 10-06-05 de 26 de junio de 2005 del Congreso General Kuna
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Declara Gaigirdgordup y sus alrededores como sitio reservado y protegido para la conservacin de la tortuga carey y arrecifes coralinos, as como de otras especies marinas que se encuentren alrededor de la isla. Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna Establece un tiempo de veda de 5 aos a partir de la aprobacin (19 de noviembre de 2006) de la para la captura de las 4 especies de tortugas marinas existentes en la Comarca Kuna Yala: Yauk Suer Sueret o tortuga baula o tortuga canal (Dermochelys coricea - leatherback); Moro o tortuga verde (Chelonia mydas - green); Yauk o tortuga carey (Eretmochelys imbricada hawksbill); y Moro Non Dummad o tortuga cabezona o caguama (Caretta caretta) - Loggerhead

La resolucin tambin determina y reconoce como Zonas de Refugio Pesquero todos los lugares en la Comarca en los que las tortugas marinas anidan y depositan sus huevos (playas de anidamiento). En estas zonas queda estrictamente prohibido perjudicar en cualquier forma a las tortugas marinas que anidan y se reproducen. Tambin queda prohibido en todo momento recolectar, poseer y comercializar huevos de tortugas marinas u otros productos provenientes de estos animales. Igualmente se prohbe recolectar juveniles de las tortugas marinas en estos sitios y otros a lo largo de la comarca Kuna Yala. Tambin qued prohibido en todo momento, la destruccin o alteracin del medio natural que hace posible la anidacin y reproduccin de las tortugas marinas. El Congreso General Kuna est encargado de aplicar estas medidas supervisando y protegiendo las zonas de anidamiento y reproduccin, as como el cumplimento de la moratoria y de todas las medidas establecidas en esta Resolucin. Igualmente, el Congreso General Kuna reglamentar el uso de redes de pesca, de forma que se evite la captura accidental de tortugas marinas. Ley 10 de 7 de marzo de 1997 (G.O. 23242 de 11/3/97) - Rgimen Ngbe-Bugl Dispone que sea necesaria la coordinacin con la ARAP para el manejo de los recursos marinos y costeros dentro de la circunscripcin comarcal; as como con la ANAM para todo lo relativo a la flora y fauna dentro de los lmites de la misma. La ARAP tambin adelanta conversaciones ya se han acercado a las comunidades de Armila, donde anida la tortuga Canal o baula, y existe propuesta de trabajo conjunto con

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esta comunidad ya se trabaja en un Proyecto de Cra Sostenible de Tilapias. Ellos tambin han solicitado la creacin de la Zona de Reserva de Playa Armila, esto est en proceso505. Podemos apreciar que a pesar de existir una regulacin nacional (que an falta por desarrollar y unificar por estar muy dispersa) la misma entra en conflicto y hace confusa muchas veces, la aplicacin frente a las leyes comarcales. Entendemos que la legislacin local es ampliamente aplicada a nivel comarcal y la ley comarcal inclusive, siempre y cuando no entre en conflicto con lo dispuesto en las normativas exceptuando las excepciones que se hagan en casos especficos como el Decreto 225 de 27 de noviembre de 1919 que permite la pesca de tortuga en San Blas; ahora que con la moratoria actualmente decretara en 2006 por el congreso general Kuna, entendemos que sta ltima resolucin prevalece sobre el Decreto en cuestin. C.Jurisprudencia Relacionada a La Proteccin De Las Tortugas

Marinas
Mediante Sentencia de la Sala Tercera de lo Contencioso Administrativo, a travs del expediente 691-06 de 27 de noviembre de 2008, se ratific a nivel judicial la obligatoriedad de cumplimiento del contenido del artculo 4 del Decreto Ejecutivo 82 de 1 de abril de 2005, que establece que las embarcaciones pesqueras estn obligadas a salir del puerto con un mnimo de tres dispositivos excluidores de tortugas marinas, y obliga a que dos de esos dispositivos estn en uso y el otro en repuesto precisamente para cuando se dae cualquiera de los que estn funcionando; por la ausencia de ese dispositivo de repuesto, se dispuso imponer multa por la suma de tres mil treinta y cuatro balboas con 00/100 (B/.3,034), a la M/N Amrica VI, con licencia de pesca de camarn NC-110, en razn del incumplimiento de la citada norma la cual fue ratificada por la Sala Tercera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia aduciendo lo siguiente: A la Sala le correspondi resolver los siguientes problemas jurdicos: (i) Si la decisin de la Direccin General de Recursos Marinos Costeros de la Autoridad Martima de Panam, consistente en multar a la Motonave Amrica VI y suspender a la tripulacin de esa nave por el trmino de un mes, vulnera o no las normas legales que exigen el uso de los dispositivos excluidores de tortugas marinas a las embarcaciones que se dediquen a la pesca utilizando redes de amarre, ii) Si el monto impuesto por la entidad demandada supera al permitido por la ley y, iii) Si la autoridad administrativa al adoptar la decisin viol normas del procedimiento administrativo general.
505

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Al momento de la inspeccin la M/N AMERICA VI contaba con solo dos dispositivos, aunado a ello, que tampoco el demandante acredita con las piezas procesales aportadas en el expediente que sali de puerto con los tres dispositivos exigidos. La obligatoriedad de cumplimiento de acuerdo a lo dispuesto en el artculo 4 estriba en la necesidad de aminorar la posibilidad a la captura, dao o muerte incidental de las tortugas marinas durante el desarrollo pesquero; en este caso, pesca de camarn. El segundo problema jurdico respecto al monto de la multa impuesta. Segn queda manifestado en el expediente administrativo la tonelada registrada en la M/N AMERICA VI, al momento de la inspeccin ascenda a 60.68 lo cual al multiplicar por B/.50.00 balboas (autorizado segn el artculo 297 del cdigo fiscal por tonelada) totalizaron la suma de B/.3,034.04, como en efecto vemos fue atendido en este caso, pues, la norma en comento tal como se encuentra vigente no establece un lmite de monto para imponer multas por infracciones a la normativa vigente sobre la pesca. Cabe advertir, que la parte actora no presenta oposicin alguna respecto las toneladas registrada, por tanto, tampoco se ha producido la ilegalidad del artculo 297 del Cdigo Fiscal. Respecto al ltimo problema jurdico planteado que refiere a la falta de aplicacin del procedimiento administrativo general, ste se aplica cuando no existan normas especiales, lo cual no es el caso que nos ocupa, porque ante la circunstancia de que qued acreditada una conducta prohibida por el decreto ejecutivo 82 de 2005, era viable jurdicamente imponer las sanciones respectivas Por las razones expuestas la Sala Tercera de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, declar que no era ilegal la Resolucin D.G.R.M.C. N 0105 de 2 de junio de 2005, expedida por la Direccin General de Recursos Marinos y Costeros de la Autoridad Martima de Panam

A travs del Expediente 720-07, la Sala Tercera Contencioso Administrativa de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, declaro ilegal la Resolucin DIEORA IA-218-2007 de 19 de junio de 2007, emitida por la Administradora General de la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente a travs de la cual se aprob el Estudio de Impacto Ambiental Categora III, para la ejecucin del Proyecto denominado "RED FROG BEACH CLUB, FASE 2. Los argumentos de los demandantes se fundamentaron en propias objeciones de la autoridad, a travs de su Direccin Nacional de reas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre de DNAPVS-1004-06 de 7 de agosto de 2006, toda vez que era preocupante "la magnitud e incompatibilidad de muchas de las actividades a desarrollarse, especialmente por tratarse del rea de amortiguamiento del Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentos, una de las pocas reas Protegidas de Amrica Latina que preserva varios ecosistemas frgiles en una misma rea..."

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Aadieron que el Instituto Panameo de Turismo, tambin se opuso al proyecto por considerar que careca de cierta informacin, y su concretizacin produca prdida de la biodiversidad y afectaciones a los frgiles ecosistemas que conforman Isla Bastimentos y todo el entorno del Parque Nacional Marino. La primera fase del proyecto que fuese ya iniciada, respalda la demanda presentada al argumentarse el incumplimiento de la empresa Pillar Panam, S. A., en las medidas de mitigacin establecidas en el Estudio de Impacto Ambiental aprobado por la ANAM -a travs de la Resolucin INEORA IA-069-04 de 2 de diciembre de 2004, que conllev a la imposicin de una sancin pecuniaria por la suma de ciento treinta mil balboas (B/.130,000.00). Las acciones que sustentaron dicho incumplimiento se relacionan con "la aplicacin y aseguramiento de la eficiencia en las medidas de control de erosin, conservacin de hbitat y manejo adecuado de desechos slidos, proteccin de drenajes, reforestacin y revegetacin e implementacin de programas de educacin ambiental. Adicionalmente, se endilgan con el desarrollo de actividades por parte de la empresa Pillar Panam, S.A., que causaron el aporte de sedimentos y la dispersin de estos en el mar, donde se ubican recursos frgiles como las formaciones coralinas o hbitat de anidamiento de tortugas. Como corolario de lo expuesto, se indic que el acto impugnado infringe los artculos 22, 75 y 95 de la Ley 41 de 1998, "General del Ambiente"; 1 y 4 de la Ley 24 de 1995, "Sobre la Vida Silvestre en la Repblica de Panam"; artculos 22 (literales e.2., e.4., e.5.), 25 (literales f y g), 41 y 52 del Decreto Ejecutivo N 59 de 16 de marzo de 2000 (Que reglament hasta el mes de septiembre de 2006 el Captulo II del Ttulo IV de la Ley 41 de 1998, "General del Ambiente"); 37 y 52 de la Ley 38 de 2000 "Sobre Procedimiento Administrativo General"; 7, 10, y 12 de la Ley 13 de 1986, "Que aprueba el Convenio para la Proteccin y el Desarrollo del Medio Marino de la Regin del Gran Caribe"; 6, 8, y 10 de la Ley 2 de 1995, "Que aprueba el Convenio sobre Diversidad Biolgica"; 10, 11, 15 y 18 de la Ley 9 de 1995, "Que aprueba el Convenio para la Conservacin de la Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Prioritarias en Amrica Central"; y el artculo 4 de la Ley 10 de 1995, "Que aprueba la Convencin Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climtico". Entre las repercusiones que acarreara ste proyecto, estaba la afectacin de la zona de amortiguamiento de una de las 47 reas protegidas que a nivel nacional conforman el Sistema Nacional de reas Protegidas segn la investigacin elaborada por el Centro de Estudios y Accin Social Panameo, y el mismo representaba un impacto humano que acarrea movimiento de tierra, remocin de vegetacin nativa, amenaza de especies protegidas -caso de zamina skinnerii-, peligro para la anidacin y reproduccin segura de tortugas marinas en peligro de extincin, entre otras. Dicho informe fue remitido al Jefe del Departamento de Anlisis y Gestin Ambiental, a la Ingeniera Diana Velasco, Jefa del Departamento de Evaluacin de Impacto Ambiental de la Autoridad Nacional del
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Ambiente para su consideracin. En el mismo, se afirm categricamente que se mantena el "criterio de no emitir una opinin favorable al proyecto Red Frog Beach Resort, Fase II, por la magnitud de los impactos negativos a los frgiles ecosistemas de Isla Bastimentos y el entorno del Parque Marino". Los impactos que hubieren causado la construccin del proyecto Red Frog Beach, Fase II contemplaban la afectacin del rea de amortiguamiento del Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentos, tala de bosques maduros; prdida del hbitat para especies vulnerables de flora y fauna, entre ellas: (zamia skinneri), anfibios (dendrobates claudie, dendrobates pumilio, elutherodactylus sp.), aves (columbia nigrirostris, procnias tricarunculata, psarocolius montezuma, 7 especies de colilbres); incluida la instalacin de luces artificiales dentro y fuera de las edificaciones afectar la salida a la playa de las tortugas hembras (carey y baula) a desovar as como la de los neonatos en su movimiento hacia el agua. Impactos como sedimentacin y aumento de la turbiedad de las aguas, contaminacin por agroqumicos, actividad de personas en las playas, pondra en peligro el hbitat de alimentacin, anidacin y reposo de las tortugas marinas. Por su parte, la Direccin de reas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre, en su calidad de autoridad competente en esta materia, para el 14 de febrero de 2007, reconoci que el Proyecto Red Frog Beach Club, Fase II va a desarrollarse en un rea insular, catalogada como zona de amortiguamiento del Parque Nacional Marino Bastimentos, advirtiendo entonces que est compuesto por un conjunto de islas e islotes de 13,226 hectreas, en la Provincia de Bocas del Toro entre la Baha de Almirante y la Laguna de Chiriqu, siendo el primer parque marino establecido en la Repblica de Panam y constituye una de las pocas reas protegidas de Amrica Latina que preserva en un mismo sitio arrecifes de coral y manglares, ecosistemas de playa, entre otras. Adems de ser reconocido como lugar a travs del cual se protege arrecifes de coral, praderas marinas, playas de anidacin de tortugas marinas, cayos de manglar y, adems, bosques insulares y se conserva la nica laguna de agua dulce insular en las islas del archipilago, la Laguna de Bastimentos. En el caso del Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentos, parque nacional mediante Resolucin J.D. 022-88 emitida por el Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales Renovables, prohbe la realizacin de actividad alguna que ocasionara la destruccin de los recursos naturales renovables existentes en el Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentos, salvo aquellas relacionados con la extraccin de material biolgico indispensable para realizar investigaciones cientficas debidamente autorizadas y supervisadas por la autoridad competente. Expuesto lo anterior, nos referimos a la zona de amortiguamiento, afirmando que su afectacin la determinan distintos elementos de prueba, y que este concepto se define como aquella "rea perifrica inmediata a un parque o reserva que tiene restricciones sobre sus
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usos para proveer una faja adicional de proteccin a la reserva natural en s y para compensar a los aldeanos por la prdida de acceso a las reservas estrictas..." En el caso particular del PNMIB (Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentos), con el conocimiento actual del rea circundante al rea protegida, se considera que el entorno inmediato del parque, ya sea terrestre o marino, debe formar parte de esta zona Conocida la importancia de conservar no slo el hbitat del Parque Nacional Isla Bastimentos en Bocas del Toro sino tambin su rea de amortiguamiento, destacamos que el estudio de impacto ambiental -cuya aprobacin que se demanda ante esta Sala, tiene como finalidad describir las caractersticas de una accin humana y proporcionar los antecedentes fundados para la prediccin, identificacin e interpretacin de los impactos ambientales, y describe, adems, las medidas para evitar, reducir, corregir, compensar y controlar los impactos adversos significativos. Bajo estos y dems argumentos, La Sala Tercera encontr demostrados los cargos de violacin contra artculos 22, 75 y 95 de la Ley 41 de 1998, "General del Ambiente"; 1 y 4 de la Ley 24 de 1995, "Sobre la Vida Silvestre en la Repblica de Panam"; artculos 22 (literales e.2., e.4., e.5.), 25 (literales f y g), 41 y 52 del Decreto Ejecutivo N 59 de 16 de marzo de 2000 (Que reglament hasta el mes de septiembre de 2006 el Captulo II del Ttulo IV de la Ley 41 de 1998, "General del Ambiente"); 7, 10, y 12 de la Ley 13 de 1986, "Que aprueba el Convenio para la Proteccin y el Desarrollo del Medio Marino de la Regin del Gran Caribe"; 6, 8, y 10 de la Ley 2 de 1995, "Que aprueba el Convenio sobre Diversidad Biolgica"; 10, 11, 15 y 18 de la Ley 9 de 1995, "Que aprueba el Convenio para la Conservacin de la Biodiversidad y Proteccin de reas Prioritarias en Amrica Central"; y el artculo 4 de la Ley 10 de 1995, "Que aprueba la Convencin Marco de las Naciones Unidas para el Cambio Climtico" y por ende, declar ilegal, la Resolucin DIEORA IA-218-2007 de 19 de junio de 2007, emitida por la Administradora General de la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente.

VII.reas

Protegidas y Programas de Conservacin de Especies Relevantes para el Caribe de Panam


A.Kuna Yala:
Convenio Congreso General Kuna (CGK) y ANAM: El 30 de agosto de 2006, el Congreso General Kuna y la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente firmaron un Convenio de Cooperacin con el propsito de promover la gestin e implementacin de un plan de manejo y proyectos de conservacin sostenible en el rea Silvestre de Nargan, y otros ecosistemas de importancia para el desarrollo sostenible de la Comarca Kuna Yala. El mismo tiene una vigencia de 5 aos. La
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investigacin realizada no arroj resultados sobre la implementacin del convenio en s, por lo que los esfuerzos que se hayan emprendido no pueden ser mencionados en el presente documento. b. Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General

Kuna - Establece un tiempo de veda de 5 aos a partir de la aprobacin (19 de noviembre de 2006) de la para la captura de las 4 especies de tortugas marinas existentes en la Comarca Kuna Yala: - Yauk Suer Sueret o tortuga baula o tortuga canal (Dermochelys coricea leatherback); - Moro o tortuga verde (Chelonia mydas - green); - Yauk o tortuga carey (Eretmochelys imbricada hawksbill); y - Moro Non Dummad o tortuga cabezona o caguama (Caretta caretta) Loggerhead La resolucin tambin determina y reconoce como Zonas de Refugio Pesquero todos los lugares en la Comarca en los que las tortugas marinas anidan y depositan sus huevos (playas de anidamiento). c. Resolucin 10-06-05 de 26 de junio de 2005 del Congreso General Kuna Declara Gaigirdgordup y sus alrededores como sitio reservado y protegido para la conservacin de la tortuga carey y arrecifes coralinos, as como de otras especies marinas que se encuentren alrededor de la isla. B.Bocas del Toro y Comarca Ngbe-Bugl:
Resolucin AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) Aprueba Plan de Manejo del Parque Nacional Marino Isla Bastimentos, elaborado en agosto de 2001, preparado con la participacin de comunidades, organizaciones gubernamentales y no Gubernamentales del Archipilago de Bocas del Toro, auspiciado por la ANAM. Este Plan de Manejo tiene una vigencia de cinco aos, a partir de la promulgacin de esta Resolucin. A la fecha el perodo de 5 aos ha vencido y la ANAM oficialmente no ha prorrogado la vigencia del mismo y se desconoce su implementacin ante la falta de su publicacin masiva. Resolucin AG-0095-2009 de 9 de febrero de 2009 (G.O. 26230 de 27/2/09) Declara como rea protegida, el globo marino e insular ubicado en la provincia de Bocas del Toro, que comprende la isla Escudo de Veraguas y una porcin del Golfo de los Mosquitos del distrito de Bocas del Toro, provincia de Bocas del Toro, la cual se denominar "Paisaje Protegido Isla Escudo de Veraguas-Deg Resolucin AG-0299-2009 de 27 de abril de 2009 (G.O. 26311 de 26/6/09) Designa a la Administracin Regional de la Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente en la Comarca Ngbe Bugl,
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como encargada de la administracin del rea protegida denominada Paisaje Protegido Isla Escudo de Veraguas-Deg Resolucin AG-0346-2004 de 17 de agosto de 2004 (G.O.25136 de 14/9/2004) - Declar humedal de importancia internacional Damani-Guariviara, el rea ubicada en la Regin de Kribo, Comarca Ngbe Bugl. Este Humedal tiene por objetivo proteger los humedales en el mejor estado de conservacin, atendiendo a los lineamientos y enfoques de uso racional definidos en la Convencin de Ramsar, 1971. Es la ANAM Comarcal y el Congreso General Ngbe Bugle los encargados de vigilar y conservar el humedal y sus aptitudes biolgicas.

C.Coln: Resolucin AG-0139- 2009 de 4 de marzo de 2009 (G.O. 26235 de 9/3/09) "Por medio de la cual se declara el rea protegida de Donoso en donde a travs del Plan Maestro para Donoso y Santa Fe.

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Cuadro 1. Relacin entre instrumentos y el Desove y Anidacion de las Tortugas: Instrumento Relacin con el hbitat de desove y anidacin

Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin A pesar de estar prximo a vencer, tiene como norte la 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 proteccin de los recursos marinos y costeros, tortugas del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin incluidas / Protege hbitat adems de declarar zonas de refugio 10-06-05 de 26 de junio de 2005 del donde se tienen reconocidos sitios de desove. Congreso General Kuna Prohbe la explotacin de los recursos naturales renovables dentro del parque por lo que entendemos que los sitios de Resolucin AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto alimentacin deben ser protegidos as como sus playas de de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) anidacin; lamentablemente dicho plan no ha sido publicado por lo que su contenido no pudo ser revisado. La declaratoria tiene su gnesis en la existencia de 3 tipos de ecosistemas tropicales marinos ms distintivos: arrecifes de coral con una presencia importante tanto de extensin como en calidad (arrecife barrera, arrecife en franja o costanero y parche arrecifal), pastos marinos y manglares. Igualmente posee numerosas costas rocosas acantilados y playas de arenas. Resolucin AG-0095-2009 de 9 de Estas ltimas son importantes sitios de desove de tres especies febrero de 2009 (G.O. 26230 de 27/2/09 / de tortugas marinas como la tortuga verde (Chelonia mydas , Resolucin AG-0299-2009 de 27 de abril tortuga carey (erethmochelys imbricata) y la tortuga canal o de 2009 (G.O. 26311 de 26/6/09) baula (Dermochelys coricea). La importancia de sta rea para la tortuga es tal, que la cobertura total del rea protegida que asciende a 42, 129 ha., 41,596 ha., corresponden al rea marina y 533 ha., a la parte terrestre. Declara las zonas costeras como las playas de Rincn y Petaquilla son utilizadas por tortugas marinas para el desove, siendo que una caracterstica de estas playas es que son de poca extensin y por tanto, muy importantes para la conservacin de estas especies. La superficie total del rea Resolucin AG-0139- 2009 de 4 de total protegida es de ciento noventa y cinco mil novecientos marzo de 2009 (G.O. 26235 de 9/3/09) diecisiete hectreas con seiscientos cuarenta y siete metros cuadrados (195,917ha + 647m2) de los cuales dieciocho mil ochocientos cincuenta y dos hectreas con trescientos setenta y cuatro metros cuadrados (18,852ha + 374m2) corresponden a la superficie marina del rea protegida de Donoso.

Cuadro 2. Condicin de conservacin de los hbitats de anidacin y alimentacin


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Playa
Calovebora Roja San San Santa Catalina Sixaola Wizard Bluff / Flores Pia Chiquita Beln Caimito Chiquita Colorada Cuango Gobea Palmas Bellas Punta Pancheta Salud Chiriqu

Provincia o localidad
* * * * * * Bocas del Toro Colon Coln Coln Coln Coln Coln Coln Coln Coln Coln Coln

Tortugas
Dc, Ei Dc, Ei Cm , Dc, Ei Dc, Ei Cm, Dc, Ei Dc, Ei Cm, Dc, Ei Dc, Ei

Proteccin espacial explicita


* * * * * * * * *

Dc Cm, Dc, Ei Dc, Ei Dc, Ei Dc Dc

* * * * * * *

Dc

* * *

Comarca Ngbe-Bugl Cm, Dc, Cc, Ei / Bocas del Toro Comarca Ngbe-Bugl Cm, Dc, Ei

Soropta

* Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10

Anachucuna

Kuna Yala

Dc, Ei

Carreto

Kuna Yala

Dc, Ei

Colorada

Kuna Yala

Ro Cart Grande

Kuna Yala

Dc

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Cuadro 2. Condicin de conservacin de los hbitats de anidacin y alimentacin Provincia o Playa Tortugas Proteccin espacial explicita localidad
Ro Pitgandi Kuna Yala Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin Dc, Ei 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin Dc, Ei 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin Cc, Cm, Dc, Ei 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin Ei 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin Dc, Ei 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin Dc 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Dc Dc, Ei Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 Convenio CGK y ANAM / Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna / Resolucin 10 150

Airdigandi Archipielago de San Blas Baha Aglatomate Cayos Maoqu (Cayos Holandeses) Colorada

Kuna Yala

Kuna Yala

Kuna Yala

Kuna Yala

Kuna Yala

Este del Ro Napakanti

Kuna Yala

Maguebgandi

Kuna Yala

Masangardup

Kuna Yala

Ei

Masucum o Portogandi

Kuna Yala

Dc

Napakanti o Navagandi

Kuna Yala

Dc

Pito

Kuna Yala

Dc, Ei

Ro Playon Grande

Kuna Yala

Dc, Ei

Sasardi

Kuna Yala

Dc

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Cuadro 2. Condicin de conservacin de los hbitats de anidacin y alimentacin Provincia o Playa Tortugas Proteccin espacial explicita localidad
Escudo de Veraguas Comarca Ngbe-Bugl Colon Coln Resolucin AG-0095-2009 de 9 de febrero de 2009 (G.O. 26230 de 27/2/09) / Resolucin Dc, Ei. AG-0299-2009 de 27 de abril de 2009 (G.O. 26311 de 26/6/09) Resolucin AG-0139- 2009 de 4 de marzo de Dc, Ei 2009 (G.O. 26235 de 9/3/09) Resolucin AG-0139- 2009 de 4 de marzo de Dc 2009 (G.O. 26235 de 9/3/09) Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88) / Resolucin Dc, Ei AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88) / Resolucin Dc, Ei AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88) / Resolucin Dc AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88) / Resolucin Dc, Ei AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88) / Resolucin Cm, Dc, Ei AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88) / Resolucin Dc, Ei, Cc AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04)

Miguel de la Borda Chagres

Cahuita

Bocas del Toro

Dreffe

Bocas del Toro

Isla de Caa Blanca

Bocas del Toro

Cayo Zapatilla Grande

Bocas del Toro

Cayo Zapatilla Pequeo

Bocas del Toro

Larga Bastimentos

Bocas del Toro

Cuadro 3. Leyes e Intitutuciones Pblicas vinculadas a las Tortugas Marinas Norma Autoridad

Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam de Corte Suprema de Justicia / Pleno de la Corte / Sala 1972 Quinta
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Cdigo Fiscal Ley 8 de 27 de enero de 1956 (G.O. 12995 de 29/6/56) Decreto Ley 17 de 1959 (G.O. 13909 de 18/08/59) Ley General de Pesca Ley 14 de 28 de octubre de 1977 (G.O. 18506 de 27/1/78) modificada por la ley 18 de 29 de marzo de 2011 (G.O. 26754 de 31/3/11) Ley 17 de 9 de noviembre de 1981(G.O. 20,545 de 5/5/86) - Aprueba el Convenio Internacional para prevenir la Contaminacin por buques, Londres del 2 de noviembre de 1973. Ley 13 de 30 de junio de 1986 (G.O. 20613 de 7/8/86) Ley 5 de 2 de enero de 1989 (G.O. 21210 de 11/1/89) Ley 6 de 3 de enero de 1989 (G.O. 21211 de 12/1/89) Ley 2 de 12 de enero de 1995(G.O. 22074 de 17/1/95) Ley 38 de 4 de junio de 1995, (G.O. 23,056 de 12/6/96) - Convencin de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Derecho del Mar de 1982, firmada en Montego Bay, Jamaica, el 10 de diciembre de 1982. Ley 24 de 7 de junio de 1995 (G.O. 22801 de 09/06/95) modificada y adicionada por la Ley 39 de 24 de noviembre de 2005 (G.O. 25433 de 25/11/05) Ley de Vida Silvestre Ley 42 de 5 de julio de 1996 (G.O. 23706 de 10/7/96) Ley 26 de 26 de marzo de 2003 (G.O. 24773 de 2/4/03) Ley 9 de 16 de marzo de 2006 (G.O. 25506 de 20/03/06) Ley 14 de 18 de mayo de 2007 que adopta el Cdigo Penal (G.O 25796 de 22/05/07) Ley 8 de 4 de enero de 2008 (G.O. 25955 de 10/01/08) Ley 2 del 7 de enero de 2006 (G.O. 25431 de 11/1/06)

ARAP ARAP ANAM

Autoridad Martima de Panam (AMP)

AMP ANAM ANAM / ARAP ANAM

AMP

ANAM

ANAM ANAM ARAP Ministerio Pblico ARAP Ministerio de Econmica y Finanzas (MEF)

Cuadro 3. Leyes e Intitutuciones Pblicas vinculadas a las Tortugas Marinas Norma


Ley 80 de 31 de diciembre de 2009 (26438-B de 31/12/09)

Autoridad
MEF 152

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Cuadro 3. Leyes e Intitutuciones Pblicas vinculadas a las Tortugas Marinas Norma Autoridad

Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam de Corte Suprema de Justicia / Pleno de la Corte / Sala 1972 Quinta Cdigo Fiscal Ley 8 de 27 de enero de 1956 (G.O. 12995 de 29/6/56) Decreto Ley 17 de 1959 (G.O. 13909 de 18/08/59) Ley General de Pesca Decreto de Gabinete 88 de 27 de noviembre de 1989 (G.O. 21683 11/12/1990) Decreto Ejecutivo 4 de 31 de enero de 1992 (G.O. 21974 de 14/02/92) Decreto Ejecutivo 43 de 7 de julio de 2004 (G.O.25091 de 12/7/04) Decreto Ejecutivo 82 de 1 de abril de 2005 (G.O. 25272 de 06/04/05) Decreto Ejecutivo 238 de 5 de julio de 2010 (G.O. 26570 de 6/7/10) Decreto Ejecutivo 239 de 15 de julio de 2010 (G.O. 26577 de 15 de julio de 2010) Decreto Ejecutivo 486 de 28 de diciembre de 2010 (G.O. 26690 de 29/12/10) Decreto 225 de 27 de noviembre de 1919 (G.O. 3238 de 5/12/19) Resolucin J.D. 022-88 de 2 de septiembre de 1988 (G.O.21129 de 6/9/88) Resolucin JD-009-94 de 28 de junio de 1994 (G.O. 22586 de 25/7/94) Resolucin 41 De 13 De Febrero de 1996 (G.O. 22978 de 22/2/96) Resolucin AG-0296-2004 de 2 de agosto de 2004 (G.O. 251166 de 16/8/04) Resolucin 074 de 7 de abril de 2005 (G.O. 25314 de 06/06/05) y Resolucin 0276 de 2 de diciembre de 2005 (G.O. 25444 de 14/12/05) Resolucin AG-0491 de 8 de agosto de 2006 (G.O. 25647 de 06/10/06) Resolucin AG-0038-2007 de 1 de febrero de 2007 (G.O. 25747 de 12/3/07) ARAP ARAP MEF / Autoridad de Turismo de Panam (ATP) ARAP ANAM ARAP ARAP ARAP ARAP ANAM / ARAP ANAM ANAM ATP / MEF ANAM

ARAP ANAM ANAM / ARAP

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Cuadro 3. Leyes e Intitutuciones Pblicas vinculadas a las Tortugas Marinas Norma Autoridad

Constitucin Poltica de la Repblica de Panam de Corte Suprema de Justicia / Pleno de la Corte / Sala 1972 Quinta Cdigo Fiscal Ley 8 de 27 de enero de 1956 (G.O. 12995 de 29/6/56) Decreto Ley 17 de 1959 (G.O. 13909 de 18/08/59) Ley General de Pesca Resolucin AG-0051-08 de 22 de enero de 2008 (G.O. 26013 de 7/4/08) Resolucin AG-0095-2009 de 9 de febrero de 2009 (G.O. 26230 de 27/2/09) Resolucin AG-0139- 2009 de 4 de marzo de 2009 (G.O. 26235 de 9/3/09) ARAP ARAP ANAM ANAM ANAM

Cuadro 3. Leyes e Intitutuciones Pblicas vinculadas a las Tortugas Marinas Norma


Resolucin AG-0299-2009 de 27 de abril de 2009 (G.O. 26311 de 26/6/09) Resuelto ARAP 003 de 18 de noviembre de 2009 (G.O. 26422 de 07/12/09) Resolucin 10-06-05 de 26 de junio de 2005 del Congreso General Kuna Resolucin 08/11/2006 de 19 de noviembre de 2006 del Congreso General Kuna

Autoridad
ANAM Comarca Ngbe-Bugl ARAP Congreso General Kuna (CGK) CGK

D.Proyectos de Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas En Nicaragua y Panam, Wildlife Conservation Society ha trabajado con las autoridades locales para crear reas protegidas para las tortugas verdes y carey, y para reducir la caza furtiva mediante el desarrollo de medios alternativos de subsistencia y fuentes de protenas para las personas que dependen de la carne de tortuga marina y los huevos. Ahora estamos redoblando nuestros esfuerzos para aumentar la financiacin de la

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Ley de Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas a travs de fondos adicionales para la respuesta del Golfo.506 Bocas del Toro y Comarca Ngbe Bugle: catalogada como una de las zonas ms importantes de anidacin de Dermochelys coriacea (baula o canal), en el siglo pasado se estableca como un rea importante para la anidacin de Eretmochelys imbricata (carey). En esta zona existe un esfuerzo de trabajo cientfico por STRI, APRORENANB, ANNVECONA y STC, donde se colaboran diversos cientficos de diferentes latitudes para realizar investigacin y monitoreo de Caretta caretta (Blanca o Negra), Chelonia mydas (Cabezona), Dermochelys coriacea (Canal o baula) y Eretmochelys imbricata (Carey) que utilizan el Parque Nacional Marino de Isla Bastimentos, Playa Chiriqu y la Isla Escudo de Veraguas como sitios de anidacin del Caribe.507 Coln: existen varios sitios de anidacin en la provincia, se destaca el trabajo que realiza el Sr. Generoso en el Cocl del Norte, Distrito de Donoso, con un proyecto de proteccin y conservacin de tortugas marinas que ya tiene ms de 9 aos. El tiene un proyecto de Proteccin y Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas que consiste en un Vivero de Proteccin de Nidos. Los principales problemas que destacan en esta rea es que los pobladores cazan las tortugas para consumir y vender su carne, adems saquean los nidos para el consumo y venta sin ningn control, aunado a esto las autoridades locales no se atreven a actuar por el desconocimiento de las leyes y por la ausencia de la polica. Existen otros problemas naturales como la erosin y las altas mareas que estn afectando los nidos. Es importante que se realicen las coordinaciones para que se pueda trabajar en la concienciacin de las personas que residen en estas comunidades costeras para evitar la cacera ilegal, la venta de carne y huevos de tortugas marinas. Kuna Yala: existen esfuerzos por parte de la ARAP (Direcciones Generales de Investigacin y Desarrollo y de Ordenacin y Manejo Costero Integral) para declarar la Zona de Reserva de Playa Armila, donde se realiza tambin el monitoreo de esta playa con dos especies de tortugas marinas en peligro de extincin, la tortuga canal o baula (Dermochelys coriacea) y la carey (Eretmochelys imbricata). Existen grupos organizados en varias comunidades de Kuna Yala que trabajan en la Proteccin y Conservacin de Tortugas Marinas como Nargan, Corazn de Jess, Ticantiqu, Isla Diger, Ro Azcar y

506

http://www.wcs.org/news-and-features-main/wcs-gulf-response.aspx - Traduccin no oficial del ingls al espaol. 507 Montoya F. & C. Drews 2006. Livelihoods, Community Well-Being and Species Conservation. A Guide for Understanding, Evaluating and improving the links in the context of Marine Turtle Programs. WWFMarine and Species Program for Latin America and the Caribbean. San Jos, Costa Rica. 2006 ISBN 9968825-32-8 1st Edition, December 2006.
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Maguebhand. Las especies que anidan en esta rea son la Chelonia mydas (verde), la Dermochelys coriacea (canal o baula) y la Eretmochelys imbricata (carey). E.Arreglos de Comanejo de reas Protegidas El Convenio con el Congreso General Kuna y la ANAM; as como la adjudicacin e manejo del Escudo de Veraguas por la ANAM Ngbe Bugle, son en del primer caso, el acuerdo de co manejo de reas que podemos destacar de ste trabajo; y el segundo, como la oportunidad ideal para que los objetivos del rea en mencin, puedan generar impactos positivos en las comunidades Ngbe Bugle del rea.

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