Evolution of the Christian Cross

Charles Severs

American Public University

History/300

Kelly Whitaker

July 26, 2009

 Evolution of the Christian Cross

Billions alive today accept this cross as the mode of death of Jesus Christ and

view it as a world renowned representation or symbol of the Christian faith.1 Additionally

the cross is one of the earliest Christian symbols and the one most widely used by

Christians.2 Historians as well as Bible Scholars continue to debate as to when and where

the usage of the Cross began being used in Christianity. Art and the history surrounding it

has depicted for centuries that a Cross was used to kill the founder of the Christian faith,

but how and when did Christendom begin using the cross as a symbol of its faith? A

critical examination of some of the primary ancient sources reveals that the Cross did not

begin to be used in the Christian arena until the time of Constantine the Great.

The Process of Elimination. When was the Cross Not Used?

In all the pages of these Early Church Fathers (writers in the early centuries that

influenced church doctrine, from the early second century into the third and fourth), “The

works which have come down to us from the Fathers who lived before the days of

Constantine make up over ten thousand pages… and no such thing as a representation of

the instrument of execution is once referred to.”3 There is no real historical evidence that

shows the Cross being used in Christian Worship anytime before Constantine, or that

Jesus died on a Cross. A very interesting source tells us that there was however, other

Christian symbols being used, but because the Cross is entirely omitted; it can be
1
Sommers, Catherine. “Crosses in History.” Catholic Insight, December
1996, 12-13. http://find.galegroup.com /ips/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents
&type=retrieve&tabID=T003&prodId=IPS&docId=A30205062&source=gale&userGrou
pName=uphoenix&version=1.0(accessed 5 May 2007).
2
Henderson, Charles. (2007). “The Symbols of Christianity: the Cross.” http
://www.godweb.org/ morecross.htm (accessed 10 July 2009).
3
Parsons, John D., The Non-Christian Cross. Derby and London: Bemrose &
Sons, Ltd, 1896. 12. http://www.christianism.com/html/links.html (accessed 3 July 2009).
assumed that it was not a Christian Symbol up to that date. Clement of Alexandria notes

in the late 3rd century and before Constantine, “And let our seals be either a dove, or a

fish, or a ship scudding before the wind, or a musical lyre, which Polycrates used, or a

ship’s anchor, which Seleucus got engraved as a device.”1 If the Cross was at associated

with Christendom at this period of time, then it makes sense that it would have been

mentioned here, along with the other symbols or seals approved of by the church and

described by Clement.

Still, some feel that The Cross was used as a Christian symbol during the first

several centuries, but that fear of persecution was keeping them from coming out of the

closet so to speak with regards to Cross usage. This does not seem tenable. The early

“Church Fathers” that we are considering as some of our primary sources, and the same

sources that advocates for early Cross usage point to, were writing very candidly and

openly about supposed doctrine and the Bible during their day, so why would they go out

of their way to omit any references to the Cross as they were writing, as if afraid of some

sort of extra persecution if they has mentioned the Cross in their writings?

1
Titus Flavius Clemens (c.150 - 215) “Clement of Alexandria,” typescript (c. 150-
215) quoted in Philip Schaff, The Ante-Nicene Fathers Translations of the Fathers down
to A.D. 325 Volume II Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras,
Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria (Entire) ed. and trans. by Alexander Roberts,
and James Donaldson. Grand Rapids, MI.: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 2006.
http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.html (accessed July 11, 2009).
2
Sommers, Catherine. “Crosses in History.” Catholic Insight, December
1996, 12-13. http://find.galegroup.com /ips/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents
&type=retrieve&tabID=T003&prodId=IPS&docId=A30205062&source=gale&userGrou
pName=uphoenix&version=1.0(accessed 5 May 2007).
 Another pre-Constantine era source discusses the Cross, but makes no mention of

Jesus’ impalement on it, and even goes on to mention that the Cross is associated with

some other pagan belief. Minucius Felix (circa 150-250 A.D.) writes,

We assuredly see the sign of a cross naturally, in the ship when it is carried along

with swelling sails, when it glides forward with expanded oars; and when the

military yoke is lifted up it is the sign of a cross; and when a man adores God with

a pure mind, with arms outstretched. Thus the sign of the cross either is sustained

by a natural reason or your own religion is formed with respect to it.1

That comment is used as evidence by some to explain that the Cross was used by

Christians, predating Constantine. However, Felix later adds that, “Crosses, moreover, we

neither worship nor wish for. You, indeed, who consecrate gods of wood, adore wooden

crosses perhaps as parts of your gods”2 (Italics added).

Tertullian, (circa 155-230) another early “Church Father” writes another major

reference that does discuss the Cross but omits any link to the death of Jesus with the

Cross, or usage of the Cross as part of early Christian Worship. His famous quote that is

offered as proof or justifying the use of the cross in Christian worship pre-Constantine is,

“At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our

clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on

couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the

21
Felix, Marcus M. “The Octavius of Minucius Felix,” typescript (c. 150-250)
quoted in Philip Schaff, ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth;
Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second Robert E. Wallis. Grand
Rapids, MI.: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 2006. http://www.ccel.org /ccel
/schaff/anf04.html (accessed July 11, 2009).
2
Ibid.
sign.”3 Tertullian credits the practice to be related to a pagan act. Tertullian further states,

“…and if my memory still serves me, Mithras there, (in the kingdom of Satan,) sets his

marks on the foreheads of his soldiers; celebrates also the oblation of bread, and

introduces an image of a resurrection, and before a sword wreathes a crown.”2

Ambiguous as this example appears in history, is it enough to justify Cross usage by

Christendom before Constantine?

Constantine’s Influence on Cross Usage

Constantine, (c.274-337) was an emperor and leader of the Roman Empire who,

while recognized as a sun-god worshipper, is credited for permitting Christians freedom

of religion and affording this freedom to them on about 312, or 313 AD and only after

having seen a miraculous vision in the heavens.3 History relates to us that Emperor

Constantine had a miraculous vision in the sky of Jesus, a Cross (or something else) and a

command to go and conquer his enemies. Our source for details comes from the Bishop

of Caeserea – Eusebius, who wrote after Constantine’s death,

He said that about noon, when the day was already beginning to decline, he saw

with his own eyes the trophy of a cross of light in the heavens, above the sun, and

bearing the inscription, CONQUER BY THIS. At this sight he himself was struck

1
Tertullian, “Tertullian” typescript (c. 145-220) quoted in Philip Schaff,
ANF03.The Ante-Nicene Fathers Volume 3 Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian.
Allen Menzies. Grand Rapids, MI.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Christian
Classics Ethereal Library, 2006. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.i.html (accessed
19 July 2009).
2
Ibid.
3
Collins, Michael, & Price, Mary. The Story of Christianity. New York: DK
Publishing, Inc. 2003. 32.

2
3
 with amazement, and his whole army also, which followed him on this

expedition, and witnessed the miracle.1

Although somewhat ambiguous, Eusebius adds more details that strongly suggest

that a Cross was just now beginning to be used and provides us with evidence that a

transformation from what was used at that time, evolved into the Cross as used by

Christendom from that date or era forward. Eusebius continues in this regard,

…and commanded him to make a likeness of that sign which he had seen in the

heavens, and to use it as a safeguard in all engagements with his enemies… Now

it was made in the following manner. A long spear, overlaid with gold, formed the

figure of the cross by means of a transverse bar laid over it. On the top of the

whole was fixed a wreath of gold and precious stones; and within this, the symbol

of the Saviour's name, two letters indicating the name of Christ by means of its

initial characters, the letter P being intersected by X in its centre: and these letters

the emperor was in the habit of wearing on his helmet at a later period… The

emperor constantly made use of this sign of salvation as a safeguard against every

adverse and hostile power, and commanded that others similar to it should be

carried at the head of all his armies2

With the invention of the this standard (which already was in use, a staff or pole

with a transverse bar) we see that more emphasis was put on what is called the monogram

1
Eusebeus, Bishop of Caesarea, “The Conversion of Constantine,” typescript (c.
337), quoted in Philip Schaff, A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the
Christian Church . Second Series. 1, Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. New York: Christian
Literature Co, 1990. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/conv-const.html (accessed
July 1, 2009).
2
Ibid.
of the Christ, the two letters X and P are referred to as the sign to conquer in. Parsons

mentions that,

…their leader, (Constantine) who was anxious to obtain the support of the

Christians, allowed a loop to be added to the top of the vertical spoke so that the

Christians might be able to interpret the victorious symbol as or , or ;

i.e., ΧΡ or ΧΡΙ, the first two or three letters of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ,

Christos, Christ.1

This consideration shows two points. One, that a cross was not being used at this

time because the cross was not yet being venerated as a Christian Symbol, and secondly

that the use of the X and P were being used from this point onward. Thus, the concept of

The Monogram of Christ, as introduced by Constantine’s miraculous vision, evolved into

the cross. It makes sense that during the Reign of Constantine, the Cross evolved into

what it became from the X and the P mentioned by Eusebius of Caesarea after the Church

was founded officially, and was observed that the Cross became a unifying symbol in

Constantine’s empire, a symbol that considered the ideology and beliefs of both sun-god

worshipers and Christians.

In short, we have reviewed only a small portion of the information available to us

in regards the evolution of the Cross’s use in Christianity and how the cross was ushered

in to the Christian arena for use a worldwide icon, symbolizing the Christian faith in

general. Examining the history of Constantine and the early church fathers reveals that

the cross was not accepted until sometime during or after Constantine’s reign, and at any

rate evolved from the Monogram of the Christ.

1
Parsons, John D., The Non-Christian Cross. Derby and London: Bemrose &
Sons, Ltd, 1896. 18. http://www.christianism.com/html/links.html (accessed 3 July 2009).
 Bibliography

Collins, Michael, & Price, Mary. The Story of Christianity. New York: DK Publishing,

Inc. 2003.

Eusebeus, Bishop of Caesarea, “The Conversion of Constantine,” typescript (c. 337),

quoted in Philip Schaff, A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of

the Christian Church . Second Series. 1, Philip Schaff, Henry Wace. New York:

Christian Literature Co, 1990. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/conv-

const.html (accessed July 1, 2009).

Felix, Marcus M. “The Octavius of Minucius Felix,” typescript (c. 150-250) quoted in

Philip Schaff, ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth;

Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second Robert E. Wallis.

Grand Rapids, MI.: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 2006. http://www.ccel.org

/ccel /schaff/anf04.html (accessed July 11, 2009).

Henderson, Charles. (2007). “The Symbols of Christianity: the Cross.” http

://www.godweb.org/ morecross.htm (accessed 10 July 2009).

Parsons, John D., The Non-Christian Cross. Derby and London: Bemrose & Sons, Ltd,

1896. 12. http://www.christianism.com/html/links.html (accessed 3 July 2009).

Sommers, Catherine. “Crosses in History.” Catholic Insight, December 1996, 12-13.

http://find.galegroup.com /ips/infomark.do?&contentSet=IAC-Documents

&type=retrieve&tabID=T003&prodId=IPS&docId=A30205062&source=gale&us

erGroupName=uphoenix&version=1.0(accessed 5 May 2007).

Tertullian, “Tertullian” typescript (c. 145-220) quoted in Philip Schaff, ANF03.The Ante-

Nicene Fathers Volume 3 Latin Christianity: Its Founder, Tertullian. Allen

 Menzies. Grand Rapids, MI.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Christian

Classics Ethereal Library, 2006. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.i.html

(accessed 19 July 2009).

Titus Flavius Clemens (c.150 - 215) “Clement of Alexandria,” typescript (c. 150-215)

quoted in Philip Schaff, The Ante-Nicene Fathers Translations of the Fathers

down to A.D. 325 Volume II Fathers of the Second Century: Hermas, Tatian,

Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Clement of Alexandria (Entire) ed. and trans. by

Alexander Roberts, and James Donaldson. Grand Rapids, MI.: Christian Classics

Ethereal Library, 2006. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.html (accessed July

11, 2009).