11.2 Anthropological Terms How does the Old Testament person speak about himself or herself?

Which ideas are used in order to describe human existence, life, behavior, and experiences? 68 In the Yahwist's narrative of creation and disobedience (Gen. 2:4b-3:24), -a" cribx mrr = yahweh 'elohim ydsar ("YHWH Elohim forms") humanity, that is, the man ( c i s = 'dddm), like a potter from the nmx = 'Mama ("land"; Gen. 2:7).6 9 With this image, the connection between humans and the soil is stressed, while, at the same time, the important significance of the inhabited land for the Yahwist is emphasized. This latter emphasis, assuming the form of the so-called nnix ('dddmd = "soil, arable land") motif,7 0 runs through the entire primeval history (Gen. 2:19; 3:19; 4:2f., 10f., 14; 6:1, 7; 8:8; and 9:20) 110 11. The Israelite and His Relationship to God and enters into and combines with the ancestral narratives, beginning with the important text in Gen. 12:3. The interpretive addition, "dust" (nsi) = 'dpdr; Gen. 2:7), which likely stems from Gen. 3:19, emphasizes that humans are frail, for they are "dust and to dust they shall return," as it is written in Gen. 3:19 (cf. Qoh. 12:7), where "dust" (nsu = 'dpdr) also appears together with nms ('dddmd = "soil, arable land"). Similar conceptions of the creation of humanity by one or more deities from clay or earth are known in Israel's cultural environment.7 1 When the frailty, powerlessness, and weakness of humanity are addressed or are to be addressed, the term "ion = ba'sar ("flesh") is used, a term that consequently does not appear once in the statements about God.7 2 Moreover, "flesh" in the Old Testament is not at all used in the sense of the Pauline adp^ = sarx ("flesh"; cf., e.g., Gal. 5:16f.), that is, it yet does not characterize "flesh" as the special location of s i n . 7 3 This also is not even implicit when the sexual organs of both male and female are included under the term "flesh" (Lev. 15:2f., 7,19; Ezek. 16:26; and 23:20). The male member describes a power and potency that one uses in making an oath by placing the hand under the thigh and on the loins ("]T = ydrek; Gen. 24:2-4, 9; and 47:29). nrhx mrr = yahweh 'elohim ("YHWH Elohim") breathes into the nose of the human being fashioned out of the earth the "breath of life" (D"n noB3 = nismat hayyim) and in this way the person became a living being ( r r n DD]^ = lenepeShayyd; Gen. 2 : 7 ) . 7 4 Whoever translates the statement as "The man became a living soul" completely misunderstands what is meant, for Old Testament anthropology is familiar neither with the dichotomy of body and soul nor a trichotomy of body, soul, and spirit.7 5 What is designated the "breath of life" in Gen. 2:7 is breath (1 Kings 17:17; Isa. 2:22; Prov. 20:27; and Dan. 10:17), something that, according to Gen. 7:22, the animals also possess. God is the one who gives this breath of life, meaning that life is dependent upon him and his gift (cf. Isa. 42:5). In the Old Testament, this breath of life is more often called m i = ruah ("wind, spirit"), and both expressions occur beside each other in Isa. 42:5; 57:16; Job 27:3; 32:8; 33:4; and 34:14. When someone ceases breathing, then both nno: = neSdmd ("breath") and m i = ruah ("wind, spirit") are used for this expression (Dan. 10:17; and 1 Kings 10:5 = 2 Chron. 9:4). When God withdraws this breath of life from a person, then he or she dies (1 Kings 17:17ff.; Job 27:3; and 34:14f.). And when no naai = neSdmd ("breath") remains, then life no longer exists (Josh. 11:11; cf. 10:40; 11:14; and Deut. 20:16). The Old Testament is not familiar with any part of the human

person that continues beyond death.7 6 All that has or still has breath praises YHWH (Ps. 150:6). The word m i = ruah("W\n&, spirit"), previously mentioned, consequently can have a breadth of meaning (as does the corresponding Greek equivalent Trv6\5|xa = pneuma), ranging from wind (Exod. 10:13,19; 14:21; and Isa. 7:2), 11.2 Anthropological Terms 111 to breeze (Gen. 3:8), to breath, to spirit (Isa. 19:3; and 29:24), and to the phenomenon itself as well as to the power that causes it to move.7 7 Accordingly, mn = ruah stands for both the vitality of the human person (cf. Gen. 45:27; Judg. 15:19; and 1 Sam. 30:12) and simply his or her breath (Isa. 42:5; 57:16; and Zech. 12:1), something that is designated as the "breath of life" in Gen. 2:7 that God breathes into the man. In Ezek. 37:1-14, where most of the wide range of meanings belonging to rrn = ruah is displayed, the term refers to the action of the mi = ruah (Ezek. 37:6, 9 1 , and 14) that then issues forth through the word of the prophet. Further, the rrn = ruah as breath cannot be limited only to humans. The animals also share it (Gen. 6:17; 7:15: P), for "all flesh" contains it (Num. 16:22; and 27:16; cf. Job 10:12; 34:14; Qoh. 3:19,21; 12:7; Pss. 104:291 and 146:4). When God withdraws and takes back to himself the rrn = ruah or rmo: = nesamd, humans as well as animals die (Pss. 104:291; 146:4; and Job 34:141). Humans and all creatures continue to be dependent on God. Consequently, dead idols do not contain breath in themselves (Hab. 2:19). mi = ruah designates further the human will ("spirit"). Ezekiel 11:19 and 36:26 (here together with zb = leb ["heart"], as in Exod. 35:21; Deut. 2:30; Ps. 51:12, 14; etc.) are typical examples. Further, one may point to, for example, Gen. 41:8; Isa. 26:9; Jer. 51:11; Ezek. 11:5; and 20:32 where the term refers simply (as does oa: = nepeS; see below) to humanity. It can also be used to mean "I" (Pss. 31:6; 77:4, 7; and 143:7). oa: = nepes, a common Semitic word that frequently is found in Israel's Near Eastern environment, is not what one understands by the word "soul"78 in Greek, Hellenistic, and perhaps even modern thought. Nor does the term oa: = nepeS approach the meaning of its predominant translation in the LXX, = psyche, that is, something that probably is immortal as over against something corporal, and is more precious than the body. Such an understanding, found in the LXX, is first present in the early Jewish text, the Wisdom of Solomon (Wisd.), which seeks to combine Hellenistic ways of thinking with Old Testment wisdom (Wisd. 2:221; 3:13; 4:10-5:23; 8:191; and 9:15). Moreover, that 2332 = nepes has nothing to do either with "soul" or with "immortality" is demonstrated by the Old Testament expression no oa: = nepes met ("dead nepeS") which simply designates the entire human person as a corpse with its dreadful power (Lev. 19:28; 21:11; Num. 5:2; 6:6; etc.). oa: = nepes, which also can simply mean a "person,"7 9 stands concretely for "throat" (as does its Ugaritic equivalent; cf. Isa. 5:14; 29:8; Jonah 2:6; Ps. 23:3; Prov. 10:3; 13:25; 16:24; 25:25; 28:25; and Qoh. 6:7), as well as for the breath that passes through it (cf. noo: - neSdmd or mi = ruah; Gen. 35:18; 1 Kings 17:211; Jer. 2:24; and 15:9). The verb oa: = nps (niphal) means "to draw a deep breath,"80 and *|X = 'ap ("nose") as the human instrument for breathing and blowing (Isa. 2:22; and Job 4:9) not accidentally means "nose" as well as "anger" (Prov. 30:33; Deut. 9:19; etc.). All living creatures have this breath, not just humans 112 11. The Israelite and His Relationship to God (Gen. 1:20, 30). In Gen. 2:7 the breathing into the man results in his becoming

a rrn OS] = nepes hayyd ("living being"). However, this expression is found frequently within priestly thought also in regard to the animal world (Gen. 1:20; 9:10,12,15,16;Lev. 11:10,46; and Ezek. 47:9). One understands "soul" to mean the interiority of humans, their feelings, aspirations, and their life force, but it is not a component of human nature that is separate from the human person. It is the case then that one can render o'S] = nepes with the word "soul" in some places in the Old Testament8 1 (cf., e.g., 1 Sam. 1:15; Ps. 42:5; and Job 30:16). Above all, however, OS] = npS occurs in those places which have to do with human longing (Deut. 23:25; Prov. 16:26; 23:2; Micah 7:1; e t c . ) 8 2 and with the human being's vital self (H. Seebass); (Gen. 12:13; 19:19f.; Prov. 8:35f.; and Job 19:2). "My soul" Cos] = napsi) stands for "my life" or for "I" (1 Kings 20:32; Pss. 103:lf.; 104:1; etc.; cf. Pss. 6:4; 42:6f.; 43:5; Jer. 4:31; e t c . ) . 8 3 One is to love YHWH with one's entire "I" (E?D: = nps; Deut. 4:29; 6:5; 10:12; etc.; used of YHWH in Jer. 32:41!). For all intents and purposes, "life" is meant when OS] = nps is spoken about.8 4 In a less colorful way, OS] = nps stands frequently (both for male and female) for "someone."8 5 The Old Testament mentions a OS] = nps of YHWH only in Jer. 32:41 and 1 Sam. 2:35, while OS] = nps in Isa. 1:14 probably refers only to his "I." Important still is the combination of OS] = nps and m = dam ("blood"; Gen. 37:21ff.; Lev. 17:11; Deut. 12:23). When the breath departs, life ends. When the blood flows, life flows with it. Life, however, belongs only to YHWH. Consequently, humans do not have the power of disposal over blood, even when they are allowed to consume animals following the flood (Gen. 9:4f. P; cf. Lev. 3:17; 7:26f.; 17:10, 12, 14; etc.). For the purposes of atonement, accorded by YHWH and not produced by humans, blood may be used in the so-called blood ritual (Lev. 4:5-34; 16:14-19; and 17:11).8 6 The heart bhri7 = leb/lebdb; a common Semitic term), according to the people's understanding in the Old Testament (however, e.g., also to that of the ancient Egyptians),8 7 was the seat not only of the emotions and feelings8 8 but also of the will, of thought (Judg. 16:17f.), and of the understanding (Deut. 29:3: understanding heart).8 9 Solomon prays for a "hearing heart" (1 Kings 3:9), that is, for a will that is willing to be obedient. "Without heart" signifies not "heartless" in our sense but rather "without insight" (Hos. 7:11). And even when the beloved is told by his lover that she has stolen his heart, he understands as an Old Testament human being that she has destroyed his wits. Thoughts of the heart can also be evil (Gen. 6:5; and 8:21), so that the will in addition to the intellect is involved. The phenomenon of blood circulation was probably not completely unknown. Moreover, heartbeats are mentioned in Ps. 38:11. In the first two chapters of Genesis, rich in anthropological statements, 2b = leb ("heart") is not mentioned. However, the fact that 2b = lib ("heart") stands not only for the interiority and spiritual nature of humans is shown by the statement that eat11.2 Anthropological Terms 113 ing and drinking make the heart strong (Gen. 18:5; Pss. 22:27; and 104:15). "Heart and kidneys" as a word pair designate the thought and feelings of humans as a whole (Jer. 11:20; 17:10; 20:12; Pss. 7:10; and 26:2). Thus, as only YHWH really knows the heart and kidneys of humans, so his activity and knowledge have a special affinity with the 3b = leb ("heart") of human beings.9 0 The human person sees what is before his or her eyes; however, YHWH looks into the heart (1 Sam. 16:7). YHWH is also the one who places a thought into the human heart (Ezra 7:27; Neh. 2:12; 7:5; and Qoh. 3:11: late texts). Therefore,

in Hebrew thought "heart" and "speech" are closely connected.9 1 However, the human 3b = leb ("heart") is also obstinate or can become obstinate.92 A pure, different, and new heart is nothing but thinking that includes a correct decision of the will and right action (Ezek. l l : 1 9 f ; 36:26; Pss. 51:12; 73:13; Prov. 20:9; and 22:11; cf. Matt. 5:8). To say that one's heart is not present means that he or she is not honest (Prov. 23:7). However, when people do something with their "entire heart," then this takes place with their entire will and all of their feelings (Deut. 6:5; 10:12; etc.). Thus YHWH inscribes the Torah on the human heart, that is, places it into the will that is the center of human emotions. In so doing, the Torah is fulfilled (Jer. 17:1; and 31:33; cf. 1 Kings 8:58). And even YHWH himself has a heart, that is, feelings, will, and desire (Gen. 6:6; 1 Sam. 2:35; 13:14; 1 Kings 9:3; 2 Kings 10:30; Jer. 3:15; 7:31; 32:41; Ps. 33:11; etc.), and this has positive significance for humans (Hos. 11:81). rrn = riiah ("spirit, wind"), BEH = nepeS ("soul, mind," etc.), and 3b = leb ("heart") can all be used to refer to the emotions, including, for example, anger, vengeance, vexation, and fury (Exod. 15:9; Deut. 19:6; Judg. 8:3; Isa. 25:4; Ezek. 16:27; Ps. 27:12; etc.), mourning or pain (Isa. 57:15; 65:14; etc.), love (Gen. 34:3,8; 1 Sam. 18:1; 20:17; and Cant. 1:7; 3:1-4), joy (Prov. 2:10; and Isa. 55:2), courage (Num. 14:24; Josh. 2:11; etc.), pride as well as humility (Lev. 26:41; Isa. 57:15; 61:1; 66:2; Ps. 131:1; Prov. 16:19; 18:12; 29:23; etc.), patience (Qoh. 7:8) or impatience (Exod. 6:9; and Job 21:4), passion (Deut. 24:15; Jer. 22:27; and Ps. 84:3), desire (Deut. 12:15, 20; 1 Sam. 2:16; and Micah 7:1), and jealousy (Num. 5:14, 30). The Old Testament is not aware of a particular word for conscience. Probably, however, the phenomenon of a bad and thus restless conscience is impressively described in Psalm 32. On occasion, 3b = leb ("heart") is used in these connections (1 Sam. 24:6; 25:31; 2 Sam. 24:10; 1 Kings 8:38; and Job 27:6), and sometimes also the kidneys (Ps. 16:7). Liver (133 = kabed; only in Lam. 2:11) and kidneys (nvbs = kelayot) stand for organs to which the feelings were attributed. The kidneys are so important that they are especially mentioned as being created by YHWH (Ps. 139:13). They are the object of punishments (Job 16:13; and Lam. 3:13) and the seat of feelings (Jer. 12:2; Prov. 23:16; Job 19:27; and Ps. 16:7; together with the heart: Jer. 11:20; 17:10; and Pss. 7:10; 73:21). 114 11. The Israelite and His Relationship to God The frequently found proximity of these just mentioned terms9 3 as well as their intersecting meanings makes it clear that the Old Testament has a rather holistic view of humanity. The individual terms are related to each other (as, e.g., the "United States": Robinson), for in referring to each respective organ the Old Testament is not attempting to describe only one particular part of the human person. Rather, in the reference to an individual organ the Old Testament seeks to set forth the particular "feature under which the human person at that specific moment appears." Further, "the nature of the human person comes to light in his 'behavior'; what the human person is is 'expressed' in what he does."9 4 11.3 Genesis l:26ff.: Humanity as the Partner of God Several Old Testament texts contain theological statements about humanity that are set forth in a conceptually expanded form. To these belong, first of all, Gen. l:26ff. where God creates humanity according to his own image.9 5

In a speech that, with its "let us," is directed to his court9 6 as well as to himself (cf. Gen. 3:22; 11:7: J) but does not point to or even suggest the notion of the Trinity, God commands the creation of humanity ( c i x = 'dddm) Mcbxz inniDiD = besalmenu kidmutenu ("as our image, according to our likeness"). The LXX translates cbx ( = selem; "image") here with e i K w v = eikon ("icon, image"; Vulgate: imago; "image"), while it translates moi ( = demur, "likeness") with 6|XOI(IXTL<; = homoidsis ("likeness"; Vulgate: similitudo; "likeness"). The occurrence of these terms in the LXX already points toward the importance which they came to have in the N ew Testament (2 Cor. 4:4; and Col. 1:15) and in the Christian history of dogma and dogmatics. However, what do these terms mean in the context of Genesis 1 ? First of all, one should point out that these terms also occur in additional places in the Old Testament, namely, in Gen. 5:1, 3 and 9:6, that is, two Priestly texts that occur respectively after the fall and the flood. Since the Bible does not treat the subject of what humans have lost (entirely or only partially) because of the fall, there is no indication of how humans after the flood, including the ancient as well as contemporary readers of the Old Testament, are to relate these statements to themselves. Furthermore, these predications are mutually true of both male and female (Gen. 1:27). In this regard, however, the Priestly theologians themselves did not persist in carrying out a program of equality for male and female. This fact is indicated by the cultic legislation, cb^ ( = selem; "image"), preceded by a b (beth essentiae = "as our image"), means more an external representation, for example, a statue (2 Kings 11:18) or a figure. However, it is understandable that, for a theologian like P (or better P&), this term may no longer have to do only with the external form of appearance. In addition, this 11.3 Genesis 1:26ff.: Humanity as the Partner of God 115 notion of external appearance does not fit the Priestly statement in Gen. 9:6. The abstract term mm (= demur, "likeness"), which is added here and coupled with an attenuating a (k; "according to"), further reduces the impression that the idea first or primarily involves external appearance (cf. Gen. 5:1, 3 which has a = b instead of a = k)91 and keeps one from reaching an understanding that is oriented only to the external.9 8 Thus the translation of = kidmutenu would be "something that is similar to u s . " 9 9 Further, both terms occur together and are to be interpreted in relationship to each other. The human person is the "image and likeness," that is, the image of the divine primeval archetype1 0 0 in a way that is analogous to the relationship between the tabernacle and the heavenly temple (cf. Exod. 25:9, 40; m a n = tabnit, "pattern"). Since these terms alone do not explain what being in the divine image more precisely implies, it is time now to look at the context. According to the context, the human being is the recipient of the blessing of God, is to multiply, fill the earth and take possession (o'aa = kdbas) of it, and is to look after the animal world (nrni = rddd; cf. Ezek. 34:4; Ps. 4 9 : 1 5 ) . 1 0 1 P several times makes reference to the commission to multiply, an activity that enjoys divine blessing, in the promises of increase in the history of the ancestors (Gen. 17:2,20f.; 28:3f.; 35:11; 47:27; and 48:3f.), and this history finds its (primary?) purpose in promising that Israel will become a great nation (Exod. 1:7 P; cf. Gen. 47:27; and Lev. 26:9). Also the commission to take possession of the earth is related to Israel and its land (in Num. 32:22, 29; and Josh. 18:1; cf. also 1 Chron. 22:18f.). This has to do neither with a general commission to have dominion

nor with a license to exploit the earth.1 0 2 "Dominion," if one wishes to use this term, can never refer to absolute dominion, according to Old Testament understanding. These commissionings are connected with the blessing of God and, more than that, to the God who issues them. Responsibility is to be lived out, and it is in this way that the image-like quality and the likeness of humans to God are expressed. Humans were taken into service as the "partner" of God, a word that probably best and most comprehensively translates the meaning of "image" and "likeness." These terms make no statements about the nature of human beings but rather intend to describe humanity's function as willed by God. Humans represent God in a prescribed realm and receive for this purpose certain qualities, which do not make them godlike (the a = k elucidates this) but rather elevates them to be the partners of God. Humans are to be the feudal partner of God in his formation and administration of the creation. While they are the partner of God in a legitimate way, they are not regarded as the "crown of creation." Indeed, God's work for seven days does not culminate with humanity; rather, rest is the final act of God that brings to conclusion his activity of creation. Thus, it is the Sabbath that is the crowning climax of the whole of creation (Gen. 2 : 1 - 3 ) , 1 0 3 and it is the ordinance of the Sabbath that is 116 11. The Israelite and His Relationship to God founded in creation and blessed and made holy by G o d . 1 0 4 This was and became the day for Israel's communion with God, since it is on this day that both YHWH's glory took up residence in their midst and his call was issued (Exod. 24:15b-18a P; cf. also Exod. 39:32, 43). Consequently, humanity is, according to Gen. 1:26-2:3, not only the partner sharing in the sovereignty of God but also his conversation partner who, hearing YHWH's call and acknowledging his sovereignty, was to live responsibly before him. YHWH and Israel both depended on and gave meaning to the other. The one may not and could not exist without the other, and the one could not be properly fashioned without the other. The dominium terrae is no carte blanche for the exploitation of the world. If one has (unfortunately) (mis)understood this in this way, this is not intended in the text itself. Rather, what is intended is the commissioning of humans to participate in divine sovereignty over the earth.1 0 5 One may see rather clearly in all of this the formative power of Yahwistic faith at work in the portrait of humanity (cf. later to J, etc.). The creation is to be secured and to be set in order, and humanity has to live in dialogue with God. As his partner, humanity has to bring God into the conversation in this world. Thus, according to the witness of the Old Testament, something was promised to all humans in general that, elsewhere in the ancient Near East, was appropriate only for kings. It has been correctly noted that P is also here dependent on previous tradition. For example, salmu was a royal predication in Akkadian. This term does not mean the appearance; rather, it designates the position and office of the king. The king was the representative of the deity, and this was as true of Akkad as it was of Assur and of Egypt.1 0 6 What mostly in Israel's cultural environment was stated especially about the king (although not exclusively, as, e.g., Egyptian texts s h o w ) , 1 0 7 the Old Testament for all intents and purposes attributed to humanity. Further, Gen. 1:26ff. stands in obvious proximity to Psalm 8, although this psalm shows no evidence of dependence on Genesis 1. Rather, both texts go back to an older tradition that was prior to each of them.1 0 8 In addition, what is said in Gen. 1:28 states in an obviously intentional, more extenuated fashion what was expressed about

the sovereignty of the "royal" human in Ps. 8:7. Therefore, not only is God imagined in anthropomorphic terms,1 0 9 humans also are believed to be theomorphic. In humanity, God is to continue to effectuate acts of creation, and Gen. 1:28 is God's "preliminary design" (N. Lohfink)1 1 0 for what is to come, that is, for what P narrates later on. This preliminary design for what is to come is already said by God to be "very good" (Gen. 1:31). In this divine assessment of "very good," the sexuality of humanity is also included. The image and partnership mark the dignity and at the same time the dependency of humanity as well as its divine commission and responsibility before God. What are present here are statements of relationship between God and humanity, not expressions about something that exists within human beings. Whoever chooses to speak 11.4 Humanity according to Different Groups of Texts 117 of God must therefore speak at the same time of humanity, and whoever wishes to speak correctly about humanity must also speak about God. All of this is true for both male and female, according to Gen. 1:27. Both genders are to be partners of God in the ordering of the world. There is in addition to this, at least implicitly, the addressing of the work of humanity, something that is more directly spoken dbout in Gen. 2:5 and 3:19. Humanity's work in the producing of culture and civilization forms a partnership with God's activity in the ordering of his world.