WALLED UP TO HEAVEN

HARVARD SEMITIC MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

Lawrence E. Stager, General Editor Michael D. Coogan, Director of Publications

STUDIES IN THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORY OF THE LEVANT

edited by Lawrence E. Stager

1. 2. 3. 4.

The Archaeology of Jordan and Beyond: Essays in Honor of James A. Sauer, edited by Lawrence E. Stager, Joseph A. Greene, and Michael D. Coogan The House of the Father as Fact and Symbol: Patrimonialism in Ugarit and the Ancient Near East, by J. David Schloen Canaanites, Chronology, and Connections: The Relationship of Middle Bronze IIA Canaan to Middle Kingdom Egypt, by Susan L. Cohen Walled Up to Heaven: The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies in the Levant, by Aaron A. Burke

WALLED UP TO HEAVEN
The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies in the Levant

By

AARON A. BURKE

EISENBRAUNS Winona Lake, Indiana 2008

Walled Up to Heaven: The Evolution of Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies in the Levant by Aaron Alexander Burke

Copyright 2008 President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

CONTENTS
Figures Tables Preface General Abbreviations Bibliographic Abbreviations ix xi xiii xv xvii

PART ONE
AN INTRODUCTION TO MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS 1. RESEARCHING MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS A. Previous Scholarship B. Levantine Fortifications in Their Regional Context C. Methodology D. Geography and Chronology E. Moving Forward 3 3 15 17 18 20

PART TWO
THE EVOLUTION OF WARFARE AND DEFENSES IN THE LEVANT DURING THE BRONZE AGE (CA. 25001500 B.C.) 2. WEAPONRY AND THE ART OF WAR (CA. 25001500 B.C.) A. Levantine Textual Traditions on Warfare B. The Emergence of Siege Warfare in the Ancient Near East C. The Role of the Chariot in Bronze Age Warfare D. The Weapons and Tactics of Siege Warfare E. Mortuary Evidence for Siege Warfare F. The Military Context for Middle Bronze Age Fortification Strategies MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS A. Architectural Elements B. Building Materials C. Fortifications and the Landscape D. Architectural Evolution 25 25 27 29 31 44 45 47 48 73 77 78

3.

PART THREE
MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFICATIONS & THEIR CULTURAL CONTEXT 4. A HISTORY OF WARFARE IN THE LEVANT (CA. 25001460 B.C.) A. Early Bronze Age Warfare (ca. 25001900 B.C.) B. Middle Bronze Age Warfare (ca. 19001460 B.C.) C. Conclusions DEFENSIVE STRATEGIES & POLITICAL ORGANIZATION A. Bronze Age Settlement Patterns B. Defensive Settlement Networks C. A Case Study in Bronze Age Polities: The Kingdom of Ashkelon THE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT OF FORTIFICATION CONSTRUCTION A. The Organization of Labor in the Levant B. Construction Rates and Resource Requirements C. Estimating Labor Consumption D. Scenarios for the Construction of Fortifications E. Social Complexity and the Construction of Fortifications CONCLUSIONS 87 88 94 101 103 103 122 125 141 141 143 146 153 155 159

5.

6.

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viii

Contents

PART FOUR
A CATALOG OF MIDDLE BRONZE AGE FORTIFIED SETTLEMENTS IN THE LEVANT AND MESOPOTAMIA, AND THEIR FORERUNNERS GENERAL NOTES 1. NORTHWESTERN MESOPOTAMIA (CA. 30001500 B.C.) 2. THE LEVANT (CA. 24001500 B.C.) A. The Northern Levant: Western Syria, Lebanon, and the Hatay B. The Southern Levant: Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Territories 3. EGYPT Bibliography Index 165 167 185 186 228 320 321 351