UNIT 6 DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT AND DROGRAPH ANALYSIS

Structure
Introductioll
Objectiven

S tre'am Gauging Procedures Measurement of Stage

6.3.1 Non-recording Stream Gauging Station 6.3.2 Recording Stream Gauging Station

Discharge Measurement
6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 6.4.5 6.4.6 Area-velocity Methods Dilution Technique of Streamflow Measurement Electronlagoetic Method IJltrasonic Method mow-mlasuring Structures Slope-area Method

Stage-Discharge Relatiollship
6.5.1 Pernlanenl Control 6.5.2 Shifting Control 6.5.3 Extrapolation of Rating Curve

Hydrograph Analysis
of Runoff and Hydrograph 6.6.1 Co~nponeuts 6.6.2 Catchment P~.ocesses 6.6,3 Bmin Response Mechanism

Sunm~ary A~swersto SAQs

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Stream flow has served as the lifelilie for several ancient civilizations. Today also, it continues to serve mankind in similar ways. It supplies waler for domestic, commercial, and industrial use; irrigation water for crops; dilution axid transport for removal of wastes; energy for hydroelectric power; lransport channels for commerce; and a medium for recreation. Records of streamflow is the basic data used in determining reliable surface water supplies because it provides information on its variability in time and space. These records arc therefore very useful in planning and designing and later for operating and managing the surface water related projects. Apart from using in water resources projects, the streamflow records are also utilized in designing bridges, culverts, flood plain delineation and flood warning systenls.

Figure 6.1: Pliny the Elder's Calibmfion o f the River Nile's Stages

An open masonry water well built by the Romans in b e first century A,D, exists at the upstream end of an island in the Nile at Cairo. The marks on the inner wall of this well constitute a waler-level gauge which wars.calibrated by

Pliny-the-Elder. This illustrates tl~c social inlporlauicc of the waler' level ln Ult river (such as: disaster. ahmltl,u~ce, security, happiness, sufkr~ng, hunga). This gauge, shown in Figiirc 6.1 is tllc earlicst hmcllown attcillpt ol' scrcamilotv il~asurement. Stream ilow records ;we priiniuily cc~iltiimunusrccords of Iluw, paqslng Lluough a piu-ticulilr section 011 thc stream. TIlese scctions ol' interest, wlle~cLhr f l o w is measured, are cdletl stream galngirlg stations. A net work of strea~n-gauging statio~lsis estnhlislied on tllc sweruns of interest lo get infvrnlat~onibouI Ule surface resources of the region. Somctinies auxi1l;uy stations arc set up to :iugmcnt L m l e records or lhe network. For cx;~mplc, a n auxiliay station may recorcl 011ly h e peak d i s ~ l ~ i ~ whidl ge occur at that site during a certain period or a11 auxiliary slation migl~lbe cstablished to obtain data Sol planning of a project and is closed once tl~escdata are obtained.

Objectives
Aftcr shidying this unit, you sl~ould bc able to: state llle criteria for scleclioil v l 3 sile for strewn gauging, a explain various nlctl~ods of stage rneasuremer~t, e dislinguisl~ between direct and irldi~cctillethods Tor delcmminal~on of discliargc, e step by step procedure for deterlnll~ationof discharge by slope area method, slatc various mclllotls fix i~leasuririgdepth ol' flow, difl'orenliate betwom pcrmrmenl control and sliil't control. define ratmg curve a ~ state ~ d its applications, e state components of runofE, describe ~uiioffprocess in a catchment, and distiuguish bctween I-Iorton overl;md flow :kind si~turi~tion nvrrland flow. You iKC adviscd lo view the video programme on "Discl~lu.grn~easurerneiitin streaills" (ET-011 VE (93)) for proper understanding h i s unit and get a See1 of practical aspect of streatn gauging.

The lernls stage and gauge beight are h~terchangeably used to express the elevalio~l of tile river water surt'ace above an establisl~ed datum plume. The amount of flaw passing Lhrough a section per unit time is ternlcd as dlscl~argeat h a t section, The discharge at a site is oftcil estimated by indirect methods. Fortunately, thcre exists a relation between the stage and the corresponding discliarge at a section. This relation is terlned as Stage-discharge relationship or rating curve. A rating curve for a cross-section changes if the cl~aracteristicsof the chru~nelin tile vicinity of the measuring section significantly, for eximnlple, due to sediment deposition, weed growth etc. Obviously, the measureme~~ls of stage and discharge at n site are used to develop the rating ctuve. The rating cntve is periodically checked and if some change in Ulis relationship is clctected, the previously cstablished relationship is updated, This relationd~ip is used for Lransforming the observed stages into h e corresponding discharges. The contir~uousobservation of river water level (or stage) may be niade with conlparative ease and economy. Generally, h e river stage is measured by either installed instrumeilts, that sense aud record the water levcl data, or by observing the water surface elevation manually at suitable time intervals. With the help of 'he, rating curve and these records, the discharge at the site can be estimated at corresponding time intervds. At inlportaut stations, the stage is nleasuretl at hourly intervals ;u~d discharge is

measured once or twice each day. A less important stations, only stage measurements arc made regularly. A1 ma11y silcs, discharge is no1 a unique function; variables other Lllan stage nus st also be continuously measured at such a siles to obtain a discharge rccord. For exanlple, if variable backwaler profile occurs at a site, the data about slope of Llle waler surface of the stream is necessary and can be measured by installing at1 &uxiliarystalge-gauge tlownslream. The rale o C change of slage can be a11 important variable where llow is unsteady i~lld cba~~nel slopes are flal. Artil'icial controls are somelimes built to slabilize the stage-discharge relationship. These conuols arc made only for ilows of low range owing to a very high construction cosl. Tlie data obtained at the gauging slations are reviewed and m;dysed from time to time, and discllargc ratings are established, and Ule gauge height is transformed lo the corresponding discharges. Selection of Gauging Sites In general, Ihc selection of gauging siles is dictated by purpose of dala collection. Whcn the data is needed for planning, designing, operating or rn'maging a water resources project, the general locatioll of lhe gauging site is fixcd in Ule immcdiate vicinity of the project. However, if the network of gauging statiz~nsis LO be cslablishe~1 for a study of the general hydrology of a rcgion the11 judicious thought is requiretl while selecting the area where gauging slatinn should be localed. This is lo ensure Ulat the optimum quru~tumof informalion is oht:tined Ibr h e nloncy spcnt 0 1 1 the collectiorl of ciala. After tile general localion of a gauging statio~l has been cielernlincd, its precise location is decided upon lo obtain the besl cor~ditions for stage arld discharge mcwurenlent, ar~dfor developing a slable discharge rating. For example, let us supposc that h e outl'low l'ro~na reservoir is to be gauged to provide the flow data needed for miulaging the rescrvoir releases. The general location of the gauging station will be along the stretch of tl~e stream chamlel between the d a i l ~ and Ule l'irst streiun coniluence of significant size downstreun from the d u n . Now the localio~lof the gauge site should be so chosen that it is reasonably away from Llle dam hilt the flow is fairly unifor~nlyeslahlishcd rlcross the entire width of Ule slrei~in. On the other hand, the gauge should not be located so far downstream thal 'lhc stage of the gauged slreanl may he affecled by the stage of the confluen1 stream. These limits often provide a reach of channel of several kilometers whose llydraulic fealures niusl he considered in sclectirig a specific sile for thc gauge installation. The ideal gauge sitc salisl'ies tlle following criteria :

a) The generrll course of llle stream is straight for n about 1(X) inetcrs upslrealn
and downslream from the gauge sile, b) The river should not be braided at lhe gauge sitc and all the trow must be confined to single slreaitl at all slagc, c) Tlle strea111 bed is 1wt subject to scour deposition of silt ;uld is lrce from weeds, d) Banks are pemwent, high enough L o contain floods, e) The gauge site is appropriately located upstream fro111 the coniluence or from tidal effect to avoid any vxiahlc iulluence on Ule slage at tlle gauge sile, fl A satisfnclory reach for measuring discharge at all slages is available within reasonable proximily of the gauge silc, and g) The site is readily accessible for ease in installatio~land operation of the gauging station. It is very rare tl~al an ideal site is found for irlstalling a gauging station, ~ u d judgement has L o be exercised in choosiiig between otherwise suitable sites, each of which may have some shortcomings.

SAQ 1
111tlic;tlc tlrc soitabiliiy of l11e followii~gIoci~lionsI ~ I I .seL(illg-~~p ii gi~ugillg silc. ~ i v i n g appropriate rcilson in tach casc :

I S i l c 1o~;~tetL on

;I

hcnd

/ Silo ,jest upslrenni

. . _ _ . _

I , [ ; I

'lam
flocltl

I
plni~~r;.
_

1
____.________

Sire wliu~c~vslcrI'i.~(ltlct!tly elltexs

_ I _

__

MEASUREMENT OF STAGE
-

--

--

Stage or gauge ~lkight is usually expressed in hundredths or thousandths of a meter. Stages are easy to observe as compared to discharges. Records of stages are used in co~~junctiou wit11 stage-discharge relation while colnputing the corresponding stream discharges. The reliability of such i1 discharge record is, fhereforc, dependent on the reliability of stage data and Uie accuracy of the stage-discharge selationsl~ip curve. Stages are illeasured with reference to a recognised dahim, such as mean sea levcl. or an arhitrmy datum plane cllosen [or convenience, A ~ nrbitrary I datuin plane is selected for the conve~~ience of using relatively low values for gauge 11c1gMs.To eliminate Uie possibility of getting negative values of gauge height, the datuiii selecled for practical purposes is always below tile elevation of zero ilow. A record of stage is obtained by systen~atic observatio~ls or a non-recording gauge or by ineruls of a water level recorder. The advmtages-of, tlle<lon-recbrdi~~~ gauge are the low initial cost and the ease of installalion, while the disaclvimtages iwe the need for an observer and the lack of accuracy of the estimated coilti~~uous stage graph drawn through the plotted points of the observed stagcs. For n long term operation the adviultages of recordmg gauge outweigh those of t l ~ e aon-recording gauge. However, at a recording gauge station, one or inore none-recording gauge sl~ould be maintaiued as auxiliary gauges because the recording type gauges being mecllanical or electro-mechanical is Iishle'to breakdown, and in such situations Ule record of stages may he taken witli the help of a non-recording type of auxiliary gauge.

6.3.1 Non-recording Stream Gauging Station

The most generally used equipmen1 at non-recording stations consists of a graduated staff or float-tape gauge. At these stations the non-recording gauge is usually read twice a day by the observer. Additional readings are made during periods o r rapidly changing stage. Description of these two types of no11-recording gauges is as Collows : Staff Gauge Staff gauges are either placed vertically or in a n inclined As11.ion. Vertical staff gauges may consists of procelain enamelled iron sectifins, each 150 mnl wide; one meter long, and graduated every 10 rnrn (Figure 6.2). The vertical staff gauge is used as UI inside reference gauge (inside ale obsenlation hut), 01in h e slream as an outside gauge. An inclined staff gauge is usually a graduated.heavy limber, securely attached to permanent foundation piers. Many times the rock outcrop on the river bank also makes a good base Tor inclined staff gauge. The steep rock outcrop may directly be graduated with good enanlel after slight

tlressr~lg01' Ihc r0ck. I~Icllncdgauges huill llusll will1 Lhe stream hank are less likely to h e (liIlll;lgc(l hy [looils. floilling ico. or tlril'l tll;m arc prt!jccling vorlicill sL~ISUgi~ugcs.M~lillS L ~ I ~ iultl S I>I.OIILC nlrnc~alsarc gc~rerallyuseti fi)r pnduations. li~cl~iietl gilugc are usecl only as outsitlc g;lupc,j.

I~iscIirrt.ji~ M C : ~ S I I I * ~ .arltl ~IICII~ Hyclrngr:~l>h An:~lv\is

1
1

MEA SUREMENT

O F STAGE

' *

ji

Detoqhoblc plate showlng m e t r e

numeol

A Iloat-tape FiLLIgC co~~sisls or ;I float. griltlualcd stccl tape, co~u~tcrwcighl. ;~nti l'rullcy (Figure 0.3). Thc Sloat pulley is usu:~lly 0.150 In in tlia~neter,groovctl 011 U 1 e circ~unferencclo i~cco~n~nodnlc lhe tape, i ~ ~is t lmounted on a supl>orl. AII

Pigr~rc 6.3: Float Tape G a u g e

a r m exteiids from the support to poilit sliglilly bcyond Ihe tape to carry an acljuslable index. The lape is con~~eclcd 10 Ule I'loilt by a clanip which also may be used lor mCkingadjuslnients lo tho 1ape reading if Ule l~eccssaryadjustments

are too luge to he accol~llnodatedby the adjustable index. A 0.25 111 diamcter copper float and 1.kg lead counterweight are normally used. The flonl-t;lpc gauge is used chiefly in a ssiilling well as a 1 1 inside reference or. si~y, as ;11iauxiliary gauge.

6.3.2 Recording Stream Gauging Station

Tbe depth of water surface is sensed for autornalic recording hy a stilling well, or by a gas-purge system that traris~llitsthe pressure head of water (due lo fllc prcvailir~gdepth of water) in stream to a manometer. The gas-purge system. which does not require a stilling well, is known as a bubble gause. In India, mostly the float sensors are used since they are comparatively cheap. Thc bubble gauges have rcce~ltlybee11 introduced in Iridia nnd are very few owi~lg L o their higher installatioil cost. Essential details of float-sensor type recording Sauge are given as followsi

way.

b -

canister F l o a t
W A A A A ~ \ A * K A A A * A n +

Figure 6.41a): Float Gougc Recorder a i d Stilling Well h~stallation

Figure 6.4(b): Flont~

A float sensor consists of s tape or cable passing over a pulley, will1 a lloat in a stilling well attached to one end of f f ~ tape e or cable and a counterweight to the other end (Figure 6.4 (a)). The float follows the rise and fall of the water level, and the water level can be read by using an index and graduated [ape, or Lhe pulley can be attached to a water-level recorder to transnlit tllc water level to the recorder. A water level recorder is an instrument for producing a grapliic or puncl~edtapc record of tlie rise <andfall of the water surface wid) respectjto time It consist of a time element ru~da guage beight element which, while operating together, produce a record of flucluations of the water surface, 011 a chart or on : I lapc. The time element is controlled by a clock-work mechanism, whicll is driven by a spring, by a weight, or by electricity. The gauge height elerne111 1s actuated by a float or a pressure actuated system.

6.4 DISCHARGE NEASUIREMENT

Dischcuge i s Ule Slow of water 113 itenis of volume pnsslng Lhrougli a ccrl:~in seclion of a cl~iuniclin a unit ti~ne period. 11 is expressed i11 cubic nleLcrs pcr seconrl (cumec) or cubic l t e t per sccond (cuscc). hlilially Ulc discharge measnremcnts ;ire made at vnr~ous stages at Lhc stzition L o del'ine Lhc rilli~lgcurve. Then illis rating curve is verified by nlaking measuicmeuts zit periodic intervals, usually moiiUily. At i~~porllvll slations, discharge is mc;isurccl ill Icast ollcc tach (lay. Discharpc nicasuremcnt techniclucs ciin be hroatlly classiflctl 1nto two ciltcgoncs as i) direct determnin;ltioii, culd ~ i indirect ) dctcrmin:~tion.Uiidcr cach category tlicre ;we scolcs of nielliotls avniliible. Thc impollanl oncs itre listcd below. i) Direct Determination of Discharge ;I) Area-veloci ty Methods, h) Dilution Techniques, C) Electrt.rln:lgnetic Mclhndj i ~ i d d) Ultraso~licMethocl. ii) Indirect Determination of Discharge Under this category la11 those n~elliotlsthat make usc ol' tllc rel:itionship hclwecn discharge iilld the depth of tlow (i.e., the rating curve) at s~ccificrlloc;ttions, Thc S~eldmeasurement, in these methods, is reslriclcd k) the measure~ncntOC clopllis only. Broarlly specking, indirect mcthods can be c1;lssil'icd as: a) Tllose iising a11,eady existing flow mc;tsuring structilrcs on lhc slreani, ant1 b) S lope-area me tllod.

6.4.1 Area-Velocity Methods h the category of area-velocity ~llelhods, dischi~rgcmcii,surcmenls can be lllaclc
by several procedures. The basic procedurc involves nieasuring lhc flow vclocily and Ule llow area ;tilt1 the multiplicntion of tliese two givcs tlie discl1:irge. Sjllcc Ule velocity of [low at a cross-seclion varies laterally :u~dwitll depth also, it is not enough to measure the velocity at a single point. Dcl~eridiiipupon t l ~ c tlcgrcc of a accuracy required, the width oS a slreanl is divided into certain ~lumhcr01' vertical portions, allti in these porlions tl~evclocily is n~ei~surcd at one or more' points along the depth l'or getting a representative velocity in Ulal portion. The area of the individual portioil call he easily worketl 0111 il' tlie bed PI-ol'ilcar~tlthe w n .approach is knwo11 as uea-velocity tllctlloti ol' discllacge stage are k ~ ~ ~ This inensul-ement. The main variable (velocity) lnay be ~ilensuredby n cnnventiond method (for exalilple float or a current nleter) or by a11 advanced procedure, for exainple the illoving boat technicluc. These tccluliclucs are describeti bclow. Measureme~itof Velocity using Floats A Float is a distinguisllable article b a t iloats on Ule water surhcc, such as a wooden disc, a bottle partly filled will1 either water, soil or stones; or n woode11 rod (Figure 6.4 (b)). for a float measurement, two cross-sections are sselccled on n straight reach of Ule given ch'mnel. The cross-sections should be snfficiently far nparl so that the time tnken hy float L o travel from one cross-section to the other. can be accurately measured. A number of floats are dislributed uniformly across the stream width, and Ule position of each witti respect to distnncc lrrom the bulk

is noted. The 1lo;lls are il~lroclucccla shorl ~Iis1;~ice hefore tlic i1cr~li11 ul~slr'i~~ii cross-section so lhal they loose inertiil ;uirl movs with Ihct \ ~ l ' l o c ' r ~ot ) n1;llcr ~ I I L ~ I I lhcy x i ~ c hllic upstrtani cross-seclio~i.A stopwatch is ~lsctllo r~~t~;isurc~ Il~c~~r lcavel tilllo hctwcc~itlie two c~ltlcross-sccliorls ol' rhc rci~cli. The velocity of llle Ilo;ll is equal ro ~11ctlis~.ancehelwren 11ic Iwt~cross-scctions divitled by the Lime titkcn hy the fioal 10 travel iron1 tlicl upstrciu~~ C~~SS-SCCI~I~I tc~lhe clownswe;uli onc. The meiui vclocity ill the vi!rtici~l is eqtii~l10 lllc l'loal velocity ~nultiplicdhy ;I coefficient whose v;~lueis rlepo~ldc~ll 011 111~' stli11)t~ o f fll~. vcrlical-velocity profile of Uic slrealii ;uid o n pclrlion (strip) or' ~ 1 1 ~ c~.oss-sccrio~i. ' A cocl'l'icicnt oS 0 . 8 5 L o 0.00 is co~rmmo~lly used to collvtlrt the vclovitg ol' :I surlrice float to Uie inearl velocity i l l the vertical. Normally. tlic I'loi~ls;u.c lossc~l Sronl a bridge or cableway hut in case Lhere is no sue11 opporlunity the11 llicp hc f:~unchctl lion^ !he stream h;uik. A boiil, ill case thcre is no such opporluuily l l l ~ l l tllc)~crui he I;lunchcd fro111 lhc slrcani h:tllk. A ho11t 11li1y I)e vi'r\.; IIuI~-II'LIIl o r tossing tlic l'loa!s wliile the I)o;LI. si~ils;)cross Lllc widlli 01' 1l1c sI1.L1iin~.

b!

A curl-cnt nictcr i.; itvai1;lhlc. ~ L I L Uic nieasurcnienl S I I ~ L I L ~ I L I I ~ C ~ -or ~~I~~ c;lhlcw;~y I ~ ; I $ heell tlcstr~oycti.and e q u i p n ~ e for ~ ~ l~llei~suri~lg 1111111;I I ? O ~ I I i \ 11o~ avi~ilahlc, iuid

ir LIII;I~IVIS;II~IC' c) A convenlio~iillcurrcut rrleler is a nvailnblc hut debris rl~ilkc~s to use the liicter. In developi~~p countries like I~ldia,floats are slill, being usctl u~~clcs 11Onlliil . circu~nstiuiccs,:IS well as i~lso(111-regulx h:isis, and mcnsurcmrnt 01' (1i~cllitf.g~ 011 : rllntly slre;1111is still being doile using floats. An accuracy of nhouc 10 perccwl nuly he achieved in Ulc eslimation 0 1 discliarge based on nleasurcnlc.nl h!~ Clrlitls lnake u ~ ~ d e favourable r condilions.

ii)

List iI few ohicc~s which nl;ly Ise uvcd a s Floats vclocity in ii stre;~nl';

101.

the rnc;lhurc1lls1bt 01

Me:rsurement of Velocity using C u r r e n t M e t e r The most co~luno~ily used Instrument in hydro~lietryto nlensure [lie velocity ol' ilow at a point in the tlow cross-section is the current mclcl-. I1 e:,senllillly consists of n rotating element whic11 rolates due to the reaction of the S L ~ ~ ~ L I I I currcut. It employs the principle of proportioni~litybetween tlie vclocity of water i ~ Uie ~ d resulting :u~gularvelocity which is acquired by the rotor o T the mcler. By placing :I current 111eterat a point in a stream and cc>unting Uitt ~iu~nher {IS revolutions of thc rolor during a measured time interval. the velocity ol' water ill tllill point is cletermi~lccl.Currc~ltmclers xt: generally of two types : those ha\ririg horizontal ;lxis rotors xlrl tliosc having vertical axis rotors. Verticiml-axis melers co~lsist 01' n series ot conical cups (Figure 6.5) mounled around vcrlical axis. T h c cups rolatc in i1 lionzontal plane i u ~ d a cam attacl~edto the vert~cali~xinlspiacllc records the gelierated signals proport~onalto Ule revolutions of the cup assembly. Thc Price current meter and Gurley current meter are the instruments coimilonly used in USA. The ~lormalrange of velocities measured by current ~ ~ i c r e IS l s froin

0.15 to 4.0 nlh. Tlie rcla~ionshipbc[wcen Lhe [low \rt'locily, ~ ~ ~ \ ~ o l u lper i o ~seco~lcl lh N 1) give11 by.

1'

and nu11lhc1-of

observer

5oonding w i g h t

y e

H o r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t ametors l - i l ~ consist is of i\ psupollcr ~ n o u d c d ILL onc rnil o l horr~o~llill shi~l't(Figun: 6.6). 'These :rrc :~vnil;lhlcin ;I wicic vnricry ol' SI/L'A will1 ( ~ I ' ~ ~ ) L ' I I P I di;lmcters 111 Lhc r;uige 6 lo 12 cln iuld can rcgislcs Lhc vclocilics in lllc r;inpt! of 0.15 to 3.0 nits (Ill'-Ncyrlcc and Willt-t ypt' nietcrs arc typici~li ~ l s l ~ u ~ t l c untlcr ~lls tills kiull.

II
I
Propeller

ttoisting $ ~ l e c t n c a lconnection

sounding w e i g h t
Figure 6.6: I'roicller 'l'ype Cl~rretltMeter

The charnclerislics of holh of lhcse currenL mslers c;ul be sumnlarised iis under :
Horizontal-axis Rotor

a) Tlle rotor disturbs the ilow to a lcsser clcgrw than docs a vcrlical-axis rotor, bccausc of axial syllurielry will1 Ule [low dircclion,
b) The rotor is less likely tu he enlailgled by debris Ularl n ve1.1ical axis rotor, and

Tl~e bearing friction is less co~nparedL o Ule vertical axis rolor. Vertical-axis Rotor with Cups
C)

a) Operates in velocities lllat are lower Ulm Utllse in whicll horizoutal-axis meters operate,

Ii
i

i
i

b) Tlle bearings ;ire well protected from silty walrr, c) The rotor is repairable in Ult: field withoul adversely affecting the rating, and
d) Shlgle rotor ser17esfor the elltire range ol' velocities. The current llleter measurements are usually classified in terms of tllc mesu~s used to cross the slream during llie measurerne~lts.sucll as : watlilkg, cableway,

bridge. or boat. I11 small stleiul~qof shallow depth the current liieter 1s held at the requisite depth helow Ule surlacl: 111 vcrt~calby nn observer who stands In tlle watcr. Tlus zulangenlcnl, cirllcd w;~dmgIS cjulte tast but 1s obvtously :~ppllcable only to snlall stlci~ms. In tlle rlve~sfollowing in rlanow gorges 111 well deltnetl channels, a cableway 1s st~ctchcdlronl balik well abovc l l ~ e iloo~llevel. A carriage nloving over Ulc cableway 1s used ils the observation platform. Brldges U~oughhydraulically no1 the bcst localions, ale advlmtageous from lhc pomt of vlew of :~cccssihil~ty and krnsportation. The velocity measurcmcnt is pel-foimed 011 flie downstrerun accessibility aid lrallsporlation, The velocily measurement 1s performed on thc downstream portlon of the bridge to nlirlirnizc the instrument damage due to dril't and knock iigainst Ule bridge piers. Boats are most sat~slactory for current lileter measurements in wide rivers. A cross-sectional line 1s marked I)y distinctive land markings and buoys. The position of Ihe boa1 is cleter~ninedby using two theodolites on t l ~ e banks with the help of the intersection method. Current ~nelersu c held down by a weight to enable Ihem to be posltiolled 111 21 stable m~annerat llle rerluued locatlol~in Howmg water. Thc weights all: streamlined with a fill in Lhe ~ c r uimd are collnected to the currcnt meter by a hanger and pi11 assembly. Also, tllese weights are used to know tlle depth of flow by suspending up to the bed of the stream and hence are called sounding
weights.

At tlie gauging site the section linc is masked on pernlanent survcy lnarkings ,mdlor buoys in the streilms. The cross-section along this section delernlined h y surveying with the help of sounding rods or souriding weights. Wllell t l ~ cdepU1 of water is inore Or if quick and accurate depth measureine~~ts ;Ire needed, an eleclro-acoustic ii~stru~nent called echo-depth recorder is used. A sonic sounder lilay also be used; it is usually used in conjunctioll with a reel aud a sounding weight, It is obvious tllat a current meter measures the velocity at a point. However, for tllc estimation of discharge Ule nletv~velocity in each of tlle selected verticals is required. The meiul vclocity in a vertical is approximated from velocity observations at one or more points along tllat vertical. Following are the most cornrnonly used methods lor determining b e mean velocity : a) Two-point method : In this method, the mean velocity of flow through the strip, i.e., the segment, is taken as eclual to tl~eiivcrage of the point velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of tile depth below the free water surface. b) six-tenths depth method : In this, the mean velocity is considered to be equal to the point velocity measured a1 0.6 of the dcpth below the surrace. c) Thl-ee-point method : In this method, point velocities are observed at 0.2, 0.6 a r ~ d 0.8 of the depth below the surface. First, t l ~ e average of 0.2 and 0.8 depth observations is made and then this vdue is averaged with the 0.6-depth observations. Hence; it is a combination of two-point 'and six-tenths
llli' The cliit;l rclatcd to ;I strciliin gaugi~rpoperation are givcnm imelow. C,~lca~lntc tlisclniuge Ilo\lling in t l ~ c strcikm.

'

Moving Boztt: Method

011 very wide streams and estuaries tile conventiorlal nlethods of measuring discharge by current rneter are I-ieque~llly imnpracticable or involve coslly and teiiious procedures. At some sites, unsteady flow conditions require that nleiLsuremenls be made as rapidly as possible. Measurements on tide-affected rivers inusl not only bc ~nadercrpirll~~, but oflen contiwuou,rly, throughout a tidal cycle. Also, when the river is in spatc it is almost impossible to use the current meter by the conventional mehods. The bilsic principle governing this inetllod is Ult' s;lme as that for. conventional currall meter method. 30th of thenl employ the velocity-area appraoch in detriluning the discharge. The difference between the two lies in the procedure of data collection. The standard current meter mell~odor nleasuremcllt uses n stiitic approach, i.e. Ihe data are collected at each ohservatioll point 1 1 1 the cross-section while Ule observer is in a stationary position. Whereas, in the nloving boat techniclue data are collected at each ohservation point while the observer is aboard a rapidly traversing boat.

Discl~argeMensu~.erncnt Hydrogmplt Analysis

j
!

I
.!

The moving-boat llleasurement is inade by Waversing Ule stream along a pre-selected path which is normal to Ule direclion of flow. While the boat trrlverses the width of the stream, maintaining itself along the selected path (Figure 6.7), the data are collected at intervills of Ule distance. The velocity of

Angle indicator

Transducer Current meter

Figure 6.7: A.Boat carrying Velocity Mensr~ri~rg Equipment

the boat, Vb, along the defined path is the velocity at which lhe current meter is pushed through the water. This velocity is the result of two forces acting simultaneously; one force resulting due to the movement of the hoat at angle 0 with the path, arid the other due to the natural streamtiow norinal to the path. The velocity of the boat' in the direction of the selected path, Vl,, is the resultant of the apparent velocity of boat, Vn, at an ,angle 0 to the pat11 and the velocity of flow, Vf it1 the stream. The vector diagram in Figure 6.8 dcpicts this relation. The s'mlpling data recorded at each observation point provide the necessary information to define, V,. The angle, 8, is read from the angle indicator which is a attached to the vane of the current meter. Strearn velocity, V f perpendicular topath of the hoat, at each sampling p i n t is given by: Vf = ' V , sin 0 Since the current meter is usually immersed at a depth of 0.5 m from the water surface, thc velocity V obtained above corresponds, approximately, to the surface velocity and not 'the average velocity in the vertical. This surface velocity multiplied by a coefficient, ranging from 0,85 to 0.95, to obtain fhe average velocity of flow at the section.

Marked

tor

After tllc cross-seclion llns Own selcctcd, the width o i thl: s~re;1111 is div~tledinto adccluatc nu~nberol pi~rticularscctlons (strips or scgmenls, Figurc h.9) so as lo llirvc lesser vilnalion bctwcel~two adlaccnt verlicals. If prcviouh ~neasuremenls have s11ow11un~lor-mil y of both Ihe cross-scction and the veloc~lytlislrihution Ihcn Ct:wcr verlicals rimy hc Inkell II is hcller 11 no pistid section hus mole lllilll 5 10 10 percent of Ihc lolit1 discharge. As cxplnine~l: ~ h o v cthe ;lvcragc vcloc'ily in thescl suh-scc11cYl~ 14 Sub- area m a r k s

Figwe 6.9: Schematic Sketch. of a Velocity-iirea Stutiol~

~lleasurcdwith the help of curreill ~ n e t c r s or tloals. Figure h.9 shows the cross-section of a rivcr in whtch N-1 verticals are drawn. The velocity i1vcr;lged over the vertical at each section is obtained as explainod earlier. Considering Ule total area to bt: divided into N-1 segments, the Lotal discharge is calculated by Ihe mcU1od of mid-section as follows: Compulatjoi~ of total discharge is clone by sum11ing up the discharges in tile individual verlicals. The discharge in a vvellcal is equal lo product of the m e a ~ velocity i n thc vertical and the area represented by illat vertical. If may he expressed as :

n
1

e=C
i = 1

(~ixa;)

where Q is told discharge, a; is an individual partial cross-sectional area, and Vi is the corresponding mean velocity in Ulat area. The area cxter~ds laterally from half the dislance from the preceding obscrvalioil verticd to half L h c distance to the next, and then verlicdly from Ulc water surface lo Ihe sounded depth.

6.4.2 Dilution Technique of Streamflow Measurement

The dilution method of flow ii~easurement,also known as Ule chemical method, depends upon the principle of continuity applied to a lracer which is allowed to mix coinpletcly with the flow. A tracer is an ion or a con~pountl (say, salt) whose known quantity is introduced into thc llow at an upstream section. The concentration C ol' the tracer is measured a1 a downstream seclioil at which the iracer has completely nixed wilh L h e ilow. Consids a tracer which does not t e x t with the lluid or Ule hholmdary of the cross-section. LeL GIhe the small 111itialconcenlration (background concenlration) of the tracer in the strea~nflow. A1 section 1 d snlall cluantily (volume V,) o l hlgh concentralion ( CI ) is arlded (Figurc 6. lo), Lct seclion 2 he sufIicienlly far away, on 1 1 1 e tlownslrcam of

:
I
1

Sudden rniection o f v o l u m e Vl a t sec. 7

~ i m e
Ipi'ignrc 6.10: Suddcn I~hjectioliMethod

sectioi~I. so tllal Ule lracsr mixes thoroughly will1 the fluid due to the turbulent niix~ngprocess wl~ilcpassing down through Ule reach. The coi~ce~ltralion profile Laken at section 2 is schematicallly show11 in Pigurc 6.10. Thc concelllralio~lat section 2 will obviously, have a base value (:I, in the stream llow at Urn star1 o l tlie experimenl ( tl ); UIC concentration ~nuslillcrease to a peg& value (which is less than CI), and Ulen gradually reacllcs a base valuc o l C'2 ill Ule li~llct 2 . The slream flow is ossuiued to be steady. By contil~uityof the kaccr tnalerial we 1IIily write. 1 M1 = inass of traccr added d sectlon 1 = Vl x C
12

1 J e ( c l a ) [if+- t?v - tl 1 ( c - c o ) d l
I

12

..,

(6.1)

11

Neglecti~gthe secozld term on Ule right-hand side as insignificanlly snlall, we gel

Thus the dischare, Q, in the stremi can be estimated for a known value of M I , knowing the variation of C with time a1 sectioil 2 and Q,, this ~nelhodis known as sudden injection or gulp or integration method. Another way of using the dilution principle is to inject the tracer of known collcentration CI a1 a co~~stant rate Q, a1 seclioi~ 1. At section 2, concentration gradually rises from the background vdue of Co at tiitle t lo a co~~stant value C2

Runoff

(Figure 6.11). At this steady state the conlinuity equation for tllc Uncer is writtell
;IS

:
QlCl+QCO

= ( Q + Q , ) C'2

This technique i11 which Q is estimated by knowing C', , C2, (7~ iuitl L),is know11 as constant rate injection method or plateau gauging:

~ime
Figure 6.11: Constant Rate Injectiurl Metliotl

It is necessiuy to elnphasise here that tile dilution method of zauging is based 011 the assumption or a steady flow running in the chmlel. If Ule [low is u~lsteady and the flow rate cllanges appreciably during gauging, rhcre will be a change in the slorage volume in tile reach ,and the steady-state conlinuily ecjualioll used lo develop Equations (6.2) and (63) is not valid. Systenlatic errors car) be expected in such cases. The tracer used should have ideally the followi~lgproperties a) 11should not be absorbed by the sediment, channel houndary and vegetation, It Sllould not chemically react with any of the above surl;2ces and also should not be lost by evaporation; b) It should be non-toxic; c) It should be capable of being detected in a distinctive manner in slnall concentrations; ruld d) It should not be very expensive. The tracers used are of three maill types a) Clie~nicals (common salt and sodium dichromate are typicail): b) Fluorescent dyes (Rl~odanlir~e-WT and Sulpho-Rllodanline B Extra arq typical); and c) Radioactive materials (such as Brome-82, sodium-24 and Iodine-132). ~ detccted with an error of 1% up to a conce~ltrationo T 10 Common salt c a be ppm. Sodium dichromate cau be detected up to 0.2 ppm concentrations. Fluorescent dyes have the sldvantage that they can be detected at levels oT tens of nanograms per litre ( = 1 in 10" ), and hence require very small amounts of solution for injections. Radioactive tracers are detectable up to accuracies of tens of picocuries per litre ( = 1 i n 1014), and therefore permit large-scale dilutions. However, they involve tlle use of very sopl~isticatedinstruments and handling by trained personneI only. The availability of instrumentation or detraction, environmental effects of the tracer and overall cost of the operation are chief factors that d e t e r m e the choice of the tracer to be used. The dilution method has the major advantage that the discharge is estimated directly in an absolute way, It is a particularly attractive method for small turbulent streams, such as those in mountainous areas. Wherever feasible, il call

be used iLS a11 occasi~)11;11 procedure for checking die calibratio~~ of stage-discharge curves, etc, obtained by other metliods.

A hag of 1 (HI kg of conanion salt was sudtle~~ly emptied ;it ;I ccrlikila secl.iom of hi: slI.caln. 'Mle hackground col~centrilliolnof tlne salt in tlir slrciU~~ was
0.1 ha 1000. After a 1:lpse of 5 minutes Uic sialt concentration st:uicd increasing at some' downslream sectiolm. his cooccnlt.atinn inc.reased lirlenrlv L o 8 vidue of 3 in 1000 in next 5 minutes anit ngiurn ticcreased lincarlv to the backgroutkd virluc in next 5 minutes. Cnlcula~etllc flow riilc in slre:lm'!

6.4.3 Electx.omagnetic Method

I

II
/
l

This n~elhodrequires sopl~islicatedelectronics particuldy in Uie l~eld of sigr~al detection and processing but the rdvamces made in micro-electronics in 1970s has made this melhod ;ui important addilion to stuldnd strealnilow melhocls. The method is based on F i ~ n d a y priliciple '~ of clcctromi~gtieticinduction. When an e1ecLric;U coladuclor movcs relative to a magnetic field a11 electric curreril is induced in tlae concluclor. The voltage is depe~idcnt on Lhe strcngtl~of the lield arid on the rate of relative movemnenl. Water is rui electrical comlductor (if it is not witllout impurities), and when it flows ilcross earth's ~nagnctic field or across an artificially generated mag~letic field, a voltage is induced in Uie water which is proporliorlal to tllc ilvcrage velocity flow. Hence, thcre are two approaches in this technique. The first relies 011 the magnetic field of the earth to generate the current. In the second approacl-r nugnetic field is artilicially generated b y passing an alternating current tl~rouglia horizontal coil buried below the river bed. The first approach lhough easier has some problelns like less accuracy of the procedure and extra~ieousvoltage induced due to external factors like electric power cables, electric railways, etc. At present the system is slill being developed and it Ins not yet rcacl~eda stage where it can he ciaiiccd lo he n succcssl'ul method for measuring ilow in a natural strelim. Studics indicale Uaal Ule technique of electro~nagnelicstream gauging has a p ~ t a l t i a l to bc praclically l'easible, although there ate still problems lo be resolved.

of

6.4.4 Ultrasonic Method

Uilrasonic metl~odis particularly applicable lo rivers up to about 300 In cir more in width, where : a) there is no stable stage-discharge relation, and b) a measuring .structure, that exists on a. stream, is unsuitable .for taking measurements. The melhod is therefore appropriale under conditions of backwater due to dams, tides, or other causes ilnd where uistallation of a measuring structure would either prove too expensive or sufficietit afflux, or head is not available. Ultrasoilic river gauging is based on the continuous ineasureiuent of stream velocity at chosen depths by recording the difference in time for the retun1 of sound pulses sent obliquely across the river in opposite directions. Sound waves travelling dow~istream propagate at a higher velocity Ulan those travelling upstream due to the component of stream velocily parallel to the acoustic path. Since the stream velocity is much lower than the velocity of sound in water, the difference between upstream and downstream travel time is very small compared to the individual travel times. This requires that m accurate mewtrement is made in order to achieve the required accuracy. Transducers axe mounted on each bank of the river to transmit and receive these sound pulses. The angle between tl~e transducer line, or fligl~t path, and the direction of river f l o w is normally set

belwec~~ 45" and 60' The slrealli velocity component across the ;icoustic pat11 cru1 be measured to within 0.1%. Sin~ultaneously, the average depth of Now is ~neasurcd. The disdluge is Ulcn calcuiatetl by a velocity-ma method froin Lhc lrrearl velocity cornponent along tlle flight path, the average depth of flow and the ch:mnel width. To slnoolh out fluctuations in the tlow, velocity n~easure~nenls ae taken scveral times and avcraged over several nunutes.

6.4.5 Flow-measuring Structures

Use of struclures like notchcs, weirs, flumes and sluice gates for Slow Ineasurenlent in hydraulic laboratories is well known. Tl~ese conventiond structures are also used under field conditions, but their usc is limited by the range of head lo be encountered, debris or sediment load of the stream and llle back-water effects produced by the installations. To overcome many of these limitations a wide variety of special flow measuring structures, with specific advantages, are in use. The basic principle governing the use of a weir, flume or a sinlilar tlow-measuring structure is that these structures produce a uniclue control sectiorl in tlle flow. At lhese sections, the discharge Q is a function of Ule water-surface elevation measured at a specified upstream location, such as : where, H = water sufiace elevation measured from a specified datum. Tl~us, Sor exiunple, for weirs, Equation (6.4) tnkes the form : where, H = head over the weir, and K and n = system constants. Equation (6.4) is applicable so long as the downstream water level is below a certain linliting water level known as the modular limit. Such flows which are independent of the downstream water level are known as free flows (Figure 6.12a). If the tailwater conditiolls do affect the flow, then the flow is known as drowned or submerged flow. Discharges under drow~ledcondition are ohtailled by applying a redpction factor to the free flow discharges. For exa~nple, the submerged flow over a weir (Figure 6.12b) is estimated by the Villemonte formula.

, = submerged discharge, QI = free flow discharge under head where, 2 .HI, H I = upstream water surface elevation measured above the weir crest, Hz = downstream water surface elevation measured above the weir crest, and n = exponent of head in the free flow head discharge relationship (Equation (6.5)). For a rectangular weir n = 1.5.
The various f l ~ w measuring structures can be broadly considered under three categories : a) Thin-plate structures are usually made from a vertically set metal plate. The V-notch, rectangular full width and contracted notches are typical examples under #is category; b) Long-base weirs, also known as broad-crested weirs are made of concrete or masonry and are used for handling large discharge values; and c) Flumes are made of concrete, masonry or metal sheets depending on their use and location. These devices depend primarily on the artifice of width constriction to produce a control section. For a free flowing rectangular weir the relationships are the following Q = 0.0184 L H (for ~ supressed ~ weir)

~ i supply r

(a)

' ~ r ss o 'section'

Figure 6.12 (a) and (b): F l o w Over o Weir

Q = 0,184 (L - 0.2H) H?"' (for end contracted weir at both ends) For a 90'' V-notch Q = 0.0138 where Q = discharge, litres/second,
L = length of crest, cm, and H = head over the crest, cm.

6.4.6 Slope-area Method

A resistance equation for uniform flow in an open channel, e.g,, Manning's for~nula can be used lo relate the depths at eilher ends of a reach to the

Figure 6 . 1 3 : Slope Area Method

discharge. Figure 6.13 shows the logiludinal section of t'low in a rivcr hcbtwccn two sections, 1 , u ~ d2. Knowing the water-surlace elevalions at tile two sections, it is ~cquirctlto estimate the discilarge. Applying the energy ecluatioil to soclio~ls1 and 2.

where, h t = h e d loss in the reach. Tlie hcad loss /zl, call I>c cor~sitlcrctlto hc 111ade up of two parts, i) frictional loss, hf,iuid ii) eddy loss, / I , , . Llel~oting z + y = 11 = water-surfact: clcvntion above the datum.

or, If L = length of tlie reach under consideration then by the Manning's Ibr~liula for unil'ornl flew,
I,
= S j = cnergy slope =
I

Q' K '

conveyance of tlie chru111e1= - A (A is cross-scclional x21.e;~: n R =Alp iuld p is wetled perimeter) 111lion-uniform tlow an average value of conveyance is uscd lo csti~liatc the average energy slope ( jf)in the reach : where, K
=

where, K =

-. 1 1 7/3 K2; KI = - A , R?'~ ; K2 = -A2 RI , and lllc subscripts

nz

referring to tile two seclic)ns, respectively.

It may be pointed out U~atn = Manning's roughness coefficicnl.

Tlie eddy loss 11,. is cstilt~atedas :

where K, = eddy-loss cocfficienl l~avitlgvalues as give11 below :

Values of K , Cross-scctioa Ct~aracteristicsof the Reach Expansioi~ Col~traction

Orndual tmnsition

0.3

0.1
0.6

Ahrupt transition

0.8

Equations (0.7) Uuough (6.9) togelher wilh the continuity ecluation Q = A I VI = A:! V z enable the discharge Q to be estimated for h o w n values 01 h , channel cross-sectional properties and n. The discharge is then calculated by a trial and error procedure using Ule followi~lgsequence of calculations : a)
V ' Assumc V 1 = V2. This leads to ( 2 ~ ) (2~)

-and by

Equation (6.7)

/il. =

h,-

= F = fall in tlic water suruacc between sections 1 a i d 2;

b) Using Ec1u;ition ((1.8) calculale discllnrge L);

")

Cnmpurc a~id

c2 m d v, vI = ~41

-.f.2 Calc,ulats velocity hcads aid cddy-loss h,.;

A2

d) Calculate a rcl'inecl val~re of hl.l,y Equatiol~(b.7), rultl go to slep b). Repeal tlic calculations till two successive cnlculations give values of dischage (or /fi.) dirkring by a negligible margin.

This n~cthodoC cslimating the disc11:uge is known as the slope-area method. It is n very versatile indirect method of discllilrgc eslimation aucl requires : ii the seleclion of a rcach in whidi cross-sectional properties iacluding bed elcvalions are known a1 ils ends, ii) the value of Ma~u~ing's n, and . iii) w i ~ t ~ r - s ~ r i h elevslions ce at the two cntl sections.

I))

In rl ~~eclis~!~rnlau chiu~i~cl which i s 15 111 witie, ihc: tlc!jih of flow ;urd ; C~OSS-sl!~tiOIId iII*CiIS 1IP. e IT~c;~sI.L~'(:~ i1S .3.5111, ~2.5111' il.nd 3.4 ill, 5 ! .(I 1Tltlrop in tilt: wiil(:r s~lrkacc:ulrv;ltion w:~s at t w o si:c:tions 250 111 npiirt. fi.)~.llld 10 I')c 0 . 1 111.1. Assunaing Ni;mnil~g'scoc-:t'tii.icnl I.o hc 0.OIJ cstim;ktc the t1isch:~rge tllrougl~the chalnii!l.

6.5 STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP

As explained exlier, tlischmge in a chulnel is estimated with the llelp of a scage-dischilrge relatio~~ship. The relationship is estahlislled using several observed stages arid ll~e corresponding discharges at short tiine inlervals, Tllese stages a l l d discharges can he observed by using ally suitable technique described earlier. This stage-dischuge relationship (S-Q relationsliip ) is illso known a sW l e rating curve. The ineasured values of dischiuge when plotled agai&t the c o ~ - r e s ~ o n d stages in~ show a definite relationship belween the two, m d it represenls the integrate:ed effect of a wide range of chalinel and flow parmeters. The colllbilled effect of Ihese parameters is termed coatrol. If Ule S-L> relatioilship for n gauging section is constant a11d does not chrulge with li~lle, t h e coiltrol is said lo he permai~ait.If it changes with lime; it is lulawn as shifting control. . .

6.5.1 Permanent Control

A nlajorily of streams and rivers, especially non-alluvial rivers, exhibit permmeilt control. For such a case, the relationship between the slage alld the discharge is a single-valued relationship which is expressed as in which Q is stream discharge, H is gauge height (stage), HO is a c o ~ ~ s t ~ which mt represent the gauge reading correspo~ldinglo zero discl~arge,and n and b are rating curve ujnstants. This relationship call be expressed graplucally by plolting the observed stage against Ihe correspoiidir~gdiscllarge values in an arithmetic or logarithmic plot (Figure 6.14 (a) and (b)). Logaritllinic plotting is advantageous

Runoff

1 1 1 1 1 1

21247 I

P 3242 ( H - t b ) 101-H = 2 1 . 8 m

Figure 6.14 (a): Shgc Llischarge Curve - Aritllnlotic Plot

Figure 6.14 (b): Stage Disrllarge Curve - 1,trgi1ritllnlic I'lot

as Equatio~l ((1.10) plots as a straight line in logarihnlic coordinatcs. I11 Figure (6.14 (b)) the straight line is drawn to best represent the data plotled as L) verses ( H-H o ). The coefl'iciei~tsn and h need not be the same for the Sull range of slages. The best values of a and b in Equation ((1.10) for a given r a g e of stage cm be obtained by the least-square-error method. Thus by taking logarithnls oS both h e sides of the equation :

in which thc dependent variable I' is log Q, independent variable X is log ( H- HO ) and c is log a. The values of the coefficients for Lhe best-l'it straight line using data of N observations of X and Y are :
112

NZXY- CXZY NI;x~-(I;x)~

and the coefficieilt of correlation is given by :

For a perfect reIationsliip, the coefficient of correlation r' sllould he 1.0. IS r is between 0.6 and 1.0 it'is generally taken as a good correlation. I 1 1 the case of' streamflow, the discharge Q increases with ( H - HO) and hence the varibale Y (uld X are positively correlated, Thus r should be positive. Equation (6.11) is known as the rating equatio~iof the stream and can be used I'or estiinating the discharge Q of the stream for a given gauge reading H within the range of data used in its derivation. The constant Ho,representing the stage (gauge height) for zero discharge in the stream, is a hypothetical parameter and cannot be measured in the field. As such, its determination poses some difficulties. The following methods are available for its determination : Method 1
. Plot

Q vs H on an arithmetic graph paper and draw n best-fit curve for this data. By exlrapolnting the curve by eye judgement, find Ho as the value of H corresponding to Q = O. Using this value of Ho, plot log Q vs log ( H - H,, ) m c 1 verify whether the data plots as a straight line. If not, select another

valuc of Ho in the neighbourhood of previously assumed value, and by trail value of Ho which gives a straight line plot of and error find a11 ;~cceptable log Q vs log ( H - H o ).
Method 2 This is a grapl~icalmethod in which F) and H data are plotted on m i~ilhl~lelic scale and a smooth curve through thc plotted points is drawn. Thrce points A, B and C on the curvt; are selccted such Uiat thcir discharges XL. in geo~netricprogressior~with respecl to each other (Figure 6.13, i.e.,

Discharge Measure~~~ent and Hydrograph Annlysis

At A ant1 l3 vertical lines are drawn and then horizonla1 lines are drawn at B and C lo gel D ;md E as illtcrseclion points with the verticals. Two straight lines ED BA are drawn lo intersecl at F. The ordinate at F is the required value of Ho. This 1net110d assun~es that the lower part of the slage-disdiarge curve is a parabola.

RATING CURVE

D I S C H AR G E (

x 103

2 1s)

Figure 6.15: R ~ l n ~ ~ n Metl~od g's for Estinlatiol~of the Col~stsl~t H o

Method 3 Plot Q vs H on

a11

xitlimnetic scale and draw a smooth good-fitting curve by

e 2 eye-judgement. Select three discharges Q 1 , 8 2 and Q3 such that Q I = Q2 Q3 and [rum the curve note the corrcspondu~gvalues or gauge reading H I , H2 ar~dH3. From Equation (6.10):

( H i - H u )- (Hz-Ho) (H2-Ho), (H3-Ho)

Ho =
Method 4

( H I x H 3 ) - ( H z )2 : and (HI+H~)-(ZXH~)

A lumber of optinlization procedures that are based on the use

01 computers are available to estimate the best value of Ho. A trial-and-error searcli for Ho which gives the best value of the correlation is one of U~em,

6.5.2 Shifting Control

The control that exists at a gauging sectio~l giving rise to a unique stage-discharge relatiollship can change due to:

Runoff

i) changing characteristics caused by weed growth, dredging or changing

encroachment,

n alluvial ch;~nnel, ii) aggravalion or ticgradrrtion phenomenon in a iiij variable backwater eflecls aEfeclmg the gauging section, mcl iv) unsteady flow effecls of a rapidly changing stage. o There arc no permanent corrective measures to tackle the shifting controls due L causes i) and ii) listed al~ove. The only recourse in such cases is to hilve S~ccluent currenl-tneter gaugmgs and to update the rating curves. Shifting controls duc to causes iii) and iv) are described helow. Backwater Effect
If the shifting control 1s due to variable backwa~ercurves, the sane stage will indicate different discl~ugesdepending upon the magnitude of the backwater effect. To overcome this situation another gauge, called the secondary gauge or auxiliary gauge is installed some dislarlce downstream of the gauging sectioli and readings of hoU1 gauges ,uc taken. The difference between the lrxain gauge and the secondary gauge gives the fall ( F ) of h e water surface in lhe rcacli. Now, for a given main-stage rcading, the discharge under variable backwater cor~dition is a Sunction of h e fall F, i.e., This fuiclional relationship can be shown i11 the form of a graph. Here, instead of having a three-paramekr~plot,the observed dala is nornlalized with respect to a constant fall value. Let Fo be a normalizing value of the fall taken to be constant at all stages and F the actual fall at a give11 stage when the actual discharge is L). Tllese two fall values ire related as :

in wl~ich,Qo is the normalized dischage at the given stage when the Call is equA to Fo and nl is tlle exponent with a value close to 0.5. From h e ohservcd dala, a convenient value of I;o is selected. An approximate Qo vs H curve for a constant Fo called constant fall curve is drawn, as shown above. For each observed data, F (Figure 6.16). This is - ,and F values are calculated and plotted as - vs FO Q D F!

e el) -

RATIO OF MEASURED T O NORMAL ( Ff Fo)

R p r e 6.16: Measured Dischage-fall Relation (Adjustmel~t Curve)

the adjustment curve. Both the constant fall curve ,and the adjustmerit curve are .refined, by trial and error to get the best-fit curves. When finalized, these two

curves providc the stage-discharge information for gauging purposes. For exrunple, if the observed slage is H I and fall F1, firs1 by using the adjustment curve the value of
Qo

is read for a known value . Using the constant

FIJ

F1

fall-rating curve, discharge valuc is read for the given stage H I which i s
!21 designnled as Qo, and the actual discharge calculated as ( g ) x Q o . [Note : Q (1 is found out l o r n tlie adjustment curve and Q is found &t frdni constant fall rating curve.] Unsteady-flow Effect While a llood wavc advances past a gauging station, l l l e approach velocities are larger than in the steady flow at corresponding stage. Thus, for Ule same stage, more discharge occurs than U~atwould have occwed in a steady uniform flow. In the retreating plialase of Ule flood wave the converse situation occurs with reduced approach velocities giving lower discharges th,ul in a ecluivalent steady flow case. Thus the stage-dischage relationship for an unsteady flow will r ~ o l be a single-valued relationship as in a steady flow, but it will be a looped curve as in Figure 6.17. It m:ly bc noted that at the same stage, more discharge passes
A

FA L LING STAGE

CURVE
PISING STAGE

1'

A . MAXIMUM STAGE P.T. 0 . MAXI MUM DISCHARGE f? DISCHARGE

Figure 6.17: Loop Rating Curvc

through the river during rising stages d~amduring fallirlg stages. Since the condilions for each flooci ]nay be different, hence, different floods may give differell& loops. If Qnis the riornlal discharge a1 a give11 stage under steady uniform flow at any inslant, the conditions, ancl QM is Uie measured (actual) unsteady disd~arge two are related lo each other, as given below :

where, S o 1s the channel slope (= water surface slope at uniform flow), cI/z/dt is the rate of change of stage, and V, is the velocity of the fiood wave. For nalural channel, V,, is usually assumed equal to 1.4 V, where V is lhc average velocity for a given stage estimated by applying Manning's formula and the energy slope Sf.Also, the energy slope is used in place of S o in the denortlinator of Eq. 6.12. If enough field data bout ihe flobd magnitude and dh/dt are available, tlie term
\
/

(& 1can be calculated and plotted against the stage for use. in Equation 6.12.
4211

e m For estimating the actual discharge at an observed stage, is calculated by

using tlie observed data regarding dh/dt. Here, Q,, is the discharge corresponding reach. to the observed stage relationship for steady flow in the cl~annel

6.5.3 Extrapolation of Rating Curve

Most hydrologic designs consider extreme flood flows. As an example, in the design of hydraulic structures, such as barrages, dams and bridges one needs maximum flood discharges as well as maximum flood levels. While the

design-tlood dischi~ge mngniludc can be esti:liiitcd ti-on1 oihcr coasitlcralio~is, the stage-discharge relationship at tlle projecl site will have L o he uscd lu prcdicl the stage corresponding L o design-flood discharges. Since Ihe discllauge n~easuremetitat very higl~flows involves risk in respect of pel-so~u~el ancl ec!uipment, the observation of stage-discharge data during such ;~hno.rmal i.'ieltl conditions is not available. Hence l l ~ e beliaviorlr ot' st:~ge-dischargerel;~tic~nsllip is not known in the higher ranges of the parameters involved, and l.li~is. Illcre is :I need L o generate this data by exlrapolating the avniliihle rating curve. tllc silc Before attempting the required extrapolatinn, it is necessary to ~.xi1111i11e and collect relcvaol inft~rmationon C ~ I ~ I I ~ ill C Uie S river cross-seclio~lclue to llir ii~flue~ice of i'lood plains, rougl~l~ess and b:~ckwater effects. The reli;~.l~ilily ol' tllu exlrapolated v:ilue deperltls o n the sti~bilitpof he gauging-scclion co~ltrol.A stable control ;11 all slages leids L o reli;tblc results. Extri~polatio~~ 01' ~ h c ri~lillg curve in ;LII nlluvii~lriver subjected to aggradation a i d degradilticln is u~lrclii~hle i~ld the results sl~ouldalways be confirmed by alternate ~nelliods.Tllcrc [uc Illilny teckniques of exlending tlx rating curve ;ulil two well-luiown ~iletl~ocls ;Ire described liere. Conveyance Method The conveyance oS a cl~armel, K in non-uniform Bow is dei'ined by Ule rclaL~rru
where, L) is the discharge 111 the chamel, Sr is tllc slope of' lllc c ~ ~ c r q lux. y iuld k ' is the cclnveyance. If Manning's i'ormula is used, we have, as ~nculioncds:~rlie~':

where, ri is M;mning's roughness coeklicient, A is area of cross-section rultl, R i:, hydrilulic radius. Since R iue functions oC the stage, the valucs of K tot vanous slages are calculated by using Equation (6.13), xirl plotted iigainsl tllc st;~gc.Tllo riulge ol' the stage sllould ~ilcludevalucs hcpond Ille level up lo wllich extmpolation is desired. The11 :I smooth curve is rittcd lo t11c ploltcd po111ls

CONVEYANCE

K:. + A R ~ ' [ X m3/s) ~ ~ ~

Figure 6.18 (a): Co~lveya~lce Method of

Rating Curve Exterlsio~~

Figurc 6.18 (b): Conveya11c.eMethotl of Rating C~lrvel3xtension

(

(K vs Stage)

V ,X/' vs Stage)

(Figure 6.18 (a)). Using tile available discharge and stage data, values of ,Sf are calculated by using Equation ( 6 . 8 ) as

m ld are plotted against the stage as shown in Figure 6.18 (b); aud a snlooth

cu~vc is I'lttetl ~1in)ugli the plollecl polllla. This curve is Illen extr:~polatcctkeeping 111 ~iilnrlIhal .Ti i~pproachcs a consliuil value a1 Iiigli stages.
I ih~rigLlic convcyiuicc and slope curves, tlie disclinrgc at ;my sl;~gcis calculated
;I, Q = K ( S,+)' and a slagc-discharge curvc is the des~redr;lngc of cslrapol;~l~o~l IS consLruclccl. With Ihis extrapolilted-rating curvc, the stage L I I I I O S ~ > O I ~ ~ ~ I lo I ~ ! :il rlerign-floor1 cl~schargcciul he ohla~iicd.

'.

I,r~g:u.ithmic-Plot Method
It1 Lliis Lecluiicluc the stago-discharge relalionsliip expressetl by Equalion (6.1 I) is mittlc usc of'. The sLagc is plottetl against Uie d i s C l ~ ; ~ 011 . ~ e;I log-log piiper. A t)~:sl-litlinear rclatio~ishipis ohlained I'or data points lying in die high-stage riuigc i ~ ~ i11ic t l liric is cxlc~ltictlto covcr the ri~~igc 01' clxLr;~polatio~i. Allcrn;~lively, cocl'l'icic~ilso f Ec]i~:~tion ( ( 3 . I I ) arc ohl;~incclhy 1.11~ .Ic;lsl-square-error nlel.Iioti by r'cyrcssing X 011 Y. For lhis Equ;~Lion(6.11) is written as :

where. Lhc clepentlc~ilvitriilble X = log ( N - Hir ). ; L I I ~ i~i~lepelldc~~l v;~rii~[>le ' I = log p. The coullicicnls n, alici C arc ohl;~inetl;IS slio\vn hclow :

a
and,

N Z X Y - C YCX NCY'-(CY)'

C X - r1,C Y

1 v
Thc rcli~lionsl!ipgovcr~iingthe stiI~Ci~IicIrli~cllilrgcis
IIOW

given by :

By [lie use 01' E~lualio~l (6.14) Uic villuc ol lhc stage concspo~iclingt ;I design

[hod tlischarge is cstinii~ted.

:I)

E:;~i~lslisl~ ill<',sl;~:!~:-~tisi.l~i~~(." ~.cIi~tio~ 11sin.j; ~sl~ Lllc i~~ v ~ I I L I ~ : 1~3 1 ' l!li: (i(.)~~'i.\;c:r'! sl.i~yc's arltl Ilic cor~csponding ilischargcs f'ronl Lllct lollowii,?! ~;:l,lr..Assullat thc :;lag? aY /.,!ro tli!;cl~iu'gens I Oij.0 na

, Ihc' i!r!;chi~rgc: if tlic: h) Using llle rcl;ltionsllip estahlislacrl ia is d ~ o v ccslinialc stage IS 103.5 :ii.

6.6 HYDROGRAPH ANALYSIS

The input precipitation (rainfall/snowfall or both) undergoes scvcral processes, in the catchment, before it appexs as a runoff l'rom the basin. Each process llas its own cliaracteristic response to thc rainhll or snowlnelt in lcrna of tlle volume (IT runol'r produced, its peak rate, :u]d h e Lililiilg in sespcct or ~ o l l t r i b u l i o ~ to ~s UIC chu~~ie The l . relative iinportiulce c?t' each process in a region (or evcli on each hill slope) is i~ffecledby climale, geology, topography, soil chuiicterisiics,

vegetation, imd luld use. It is important to remember that the donlinanl process Itlay viuy significantly in its respol~sedepc~ldingwhether Ule slorln is large or snlall. From the point at which tile precipilatioll first touches the calchlllel~tsurface. water may follow several different paths to reach the catchillent outlet. Va~iabilityin surlhce properties. topography and precipitation inllucncc the distribution of water between surface and subsurface flows, and the suhsequcnt pathways. Depending upon t l ~ e path taken, some water cluickly reaches the oirtlct while the other part nlay take considerably longer time. Water flowing on the surlacc generally lnoves several orders of ~tlag~~itude faster than Illat flowing below the surSace. Thcse w ~ d e variations in time scales introduce i~~qortrult scale disparities'in runoff production which make it necessary to understand Uie vnrlous catchment [wocesscs.

6.6.1 Components of Runoff and Hydrograph

The occurrence of major coniponcllts of catchment runoff, as descr~hedin unit 5 can be sunlmarised as givcn below : Siu-face ~~unoff or overland flow is that fraction of runoff which llows over the ground surface till it reaches a clralnage cha~mel.The surface wlofl' from a pcrnieable area can occur o111y if the ramfall rate exceeds the infiltratiou capacity. I11 tlatural catchmenls, in~per~ueable arca is only a small part of the told cnlchment area, ,and hence surface runoff is ;m important factor of total suearnflow only during high-intensity rainfall events. The terlll channel here refers to a depressiol~which acts like a small rivulet while carrying runolf. Since there 'ue llulllerous such cl~annelsin a catchment, the watcr usu;~llyb-avels a s~nall distance as overland flow heforc meeting a channel. A portion of water which infiltrates into thc ground, moves laterally through tile soil till it enters :I chanliel. This water is termed as interflow or subsurface flow. It lnoves slowly as compared to surface flow though it may be large in quantity particularly in rai~~fall events oS moderate intensity. The colltribution of interflow lo the total ninoff depends upon the subsurface properties. 111 ;1 11ulnber of cases, it is considered lo be Ihe major runoff generating mecl~mism.A p'uL oP intiltrating water percolates deep until it reaches the water table. Suhseclucnlly. this water moves in the direction of downwud gradient and may eventually discllarge into a strean as base flow. Due to very low flow velocity, the hasc flow co~ltributjollreaches tl~echannel after a lapse of considerable time. It may be mentioned here that tI~e distinction between the above three coniponents of a hydrograph is somewhat arbitrary in the sellse that waler may start flowing as surface runoff, may infiltrate nnd later-on join the stream as interflow. Also, the interflow may reappear as surface flow if a r ~inl1)ervious layer intersecls a hill-slope.

Time

Figure 6.19: Typical Hydrograph Shape

A typical hydrograph generated by an isolated rainfall event is shown in Figtue 6.19, For the purpose of analysis, this hydrograph may be partitioned into three segments : the rising limb, the crest, and the recession limb. The rising limb is influenced by the stonn characteristics. The shape of the rkcessioa limb is

al'l'ecletl by Lhe calchment propcrties. Tlie colitribution oi the surface tlow cei1se.s after the inflection point a1 tile tail of tlie recession Iimb, and the remaining flow represenls withdritwal fro111 tlie catclll~lenlstorage.

Disclra~~e Mena~~.ernc :u~d ~~t Wy drogrnpl~A~laiyGs

6.6.2 Catchment Processes

The vilrious pl~itscsol'develop~llelil of a hydrograph are explaillcd llerc wiUl the help ol' an ex;~n-rple of il typical silualion wllich is likely to be e~lcounlercd in a natural catchment. The following 1 s a silnplified description of the pliysical processes which arc likely to occur when a tlry area experiences n precipitittion event. In tllis conneclion some siniplifying assun~plinlls have bectl lnatle since l l ~ e niitural prclccsses arc nrllerwise vcry complex. The calchment size is :~ssumeclto be of Ule order of il few square melers, so thal it is realistic to assume a uniform soil over llle arcit. Furlher, it is assumed ttial vegetal cover is uniii,rm mid Uie catchmenl hils a constan1 surface slope. It is alsu assumed Ulat the precipilatioil has unlfor.nl i1re:tl dtslrlhution during lhe evcnt. The rain is applied to Lllc c a t c h ~ n e ~ at~ Lime t I = 0. As so011 as rail1 begins to [all, Ulc vcgclation growing on thc arca will prcvcnt some of it from rc:lcliing Ulc ground surl'acc. This physical process is Lcrmed as interception. If Iherc is 1101 il complelc ciuiopy ccnferage 01 llic area, par1 of Uic rain will i~nmccliatelyrc:lch Uie soil surface. Once ram reaches Ulc soil surl'acc, a portion of it begins lo infiltrate inlo Llic soil prof~lewhile the remainder begins 10 Sill up small tleprcssions o r ~nicro-rellcf;Kcas (111 the mug11 surl'ace of Ulc catclilnent. After thc coirlbilied dernalds : filling depression storage: satisfying interception; and the corltiliuing requirement for inliltralion are exceeded, water begins to accumulalc on tlie ground allti runof l' begms. At tinic t = 0. a certain percentage oT thc ratc at which rainfall is being applied 1s absuacled ils inlcrceptioll. I11 ge~ieral, Ihe initial ralc could be estimated by multlplylng tllc raiillhll ratc by thc percent of Ule surfacc area covcrcd by plait amopy, i.e., ffie prqjcclctl arca o i Ulc crulopy. For exanlplc, if 50 pcrccilt ol' the arca is covcrcd I,y Uie canopy's vertical prc~jection,approxilrlately one-half of the rainla11 would initially he used in satisfying ilitcrception storage, Usually, this rate of abstraction would decrease quickly tlecause the loti11 ililerceplioi~ demand of Ihe plant surTaccs is gene.rally snlall : something of the ordcr of 0.25 Inn1 to possibly as high as 1.5 riun for an agricultural crop c:ulopy. Rairlhll not heing used. to salisly jnterceptioii a1 lime t = O is next ulilixctl. to satisfy infillration clemiuids. assunling that the lnitial infiltration capacity o T the soil is greater than the net rate a1 whicll ratri is being applied L o Uie arca. Tlils mcilns tliat at timc / = 0, lho railll'all supply is being entirely utilized satisfying two demaids : inlcrccption and n porlion of the infiltration-capacity detnmcl. As time illcreases a condition is reached at which the combined demands for interccptioli and infiltration capacity arc less Ulali the rate at which rail-rfall is being suppll'ctl to tlic area. At ihal lirne, a slart is 11ladc toward satisyfi~lgsurface retention-slorage needs. Water not required Sor irlfiltration and interception demands will be filling up micro-relief depressions. Will] die further passage of time, tile illterception tlcrnuids decrcasc essciilially to zero. Althougll a very Iow rate of abstraclion I'or interception due lo evaporation is present, it is assuved to be negligible in con~parisoii to the rates of rainfall, infiltration, etc. Due lo the i ~ n ~ ao c lt falling rain, a we1 ,md co~npactlayer develops near Uie Lop surface ol' the soil cover of the ci1t~llment.This layer is. more dense :md more restrictive to infiltration xld llloveineilt of sub-surface water tluougl-I tlie soil than the upper layer. One of the Ihings likely L o occur in such situations, which are comtnon in agricultural fields subjected to annual ploughing and cultivation, is a significant reductio~iin steady-slate infillration. In addition, a portion of the water Iliat moves inlo the soil profile is likely to move horizontally as well as vertically downward. At some lower elevation in the watershed, il nlay re-emerge into the surface of the ground to again become overland flow. After a certain time, flie combined demands for infiltratiorl capacity iuid surface retention storage become equal the late of application of

,
I

1
I

iI
I

! I I

II

rainfall. This is the first Lillie water is available for surface rletculion stor;~gl: ;uld the first surface runoff occurs from ffle area. The infiltration capacity of dry soil is quile high. As -rainfall is applied md tnoisture lnovcs into the subsurface profile, infiltration capacity tends to decrease with ti~ne uutil ultimately, if rainfall conlinues at a rate in exccss of the infilkation capacity, the rate of infiltration inlo the soil profile evl'nlu;llly beconles relatively constalt and remains so, for a n indet3litc period 01 liuie. A1 that time the infiltration capacity reaches a constant value. While t l ~ e infiltration capacity is,decre;tsing, increasing amounts of rainfall are available to satisfy surface detention needs and the rate of runoff continues to increase. As the surface detention demalds arc conlinually being satisfied ;mcl iis thc infiltralion capacity decreases to a constarit rate, t t ~ e runoff rate graduillly increases until Ule infiltration capacity demand at~drunoff rale become constitllt. This also corresponds to the time at which surface delelition de~niuldsdecrease 10 zero. If rain continues beyond this point a1 a coi~stant rate, runol'f will continue ill a constanl rate equal to the rale of rainfall (Z) minus the rate at whicl~w;tlcr is co~~tinuing L o infiltrate inlo thc soil profile V ) .Therefore, the dil'fcfcrcnce ill Ihc rate of applicalion ot' railifall and the steady slate rate of runoff also equals f : The rate of rainfall minus the rate of all the pern~anentabstractio~~s is tern~cil[IS h e excess rainfall rate. conditions are of little interest, but tlie recessio~iporlion of Sustained equilibriun~ Ule hydrogrilph is interesting. Once rainfall ceases the runoff rate begins to decrease rapidly as indicated in Figure 6.20. Only surface retentiou ;uitl detention storage are available to sustain inl'iltration and runoff. The inliluilric~nrate undergoes a rapid decrease because this process is primarily one of vertical wiiler movement. Wlieli rainfall is no longcr supplying the entire surface area, il is coin111011 that only 10 to 15 percent of the surface will be inundated. Because infillration colllinues at full capacity on ollly this small perceutage of the total area, the overall rate at wllicli water infiltrates over the entire element of the iueii drops very quickly L o a fraction of its rate during rainfall. Surface runoff continues until the detention storage volume is exhausted. Illfiltration will mntinue beyond this point until all Uie surlace retention water llas infiluated or evaporated.
Rillntall

. .

.
.

Eltu=bve durmlion

0 hr

'*

140

IZO

2 Lao80

40
20 .

OBW

1200 Feb 10

1000

2400

0800

1200 Feb 17

1800

Rgure 6.20: Decrease of Runoff after Cessation of Rainfall

6.6.3 Basin Response Mechanism

It is appropriate lo consider the basin response (i.e., runoff) Tor followi~lg two cases : rulioff in regions (or for stom~s) in which the rainl'all intensity exceeds 'the infiltration capacity of the soil, and runoff when the infilmtion capacity is not a limiting factor. It is convenient, in this regard, to categorise Ule flow into Horton overland flow, subsurface stormflow, return flow, 'and direct precipitation onto saturated areas. The last two processes are also known as saturation overland flow.

Horton Overland Flow As discussed earlier, there is a inaximum linliti~igrate at which a soil, in a given condition, car1 absorb rainfall. Horton, a famous hydrologist, termed this limit the infiltration capacity of the soil. This capacity declines with time after the onset of rainfall, gradually reaching a fairly co~~stailt rate. IS rainfall at any time during h e storm exceeds the infiltration capacity, water will accumulate on the soil surface and fill s~llalldepressions. The water stored in U~esedepressions (depression slorage) may have a maxinlurn volume.varying from 0.1 cm, on steep and smooU~hill slopes, to 5 c n ~ on agricultural lands of low gradient. Depressiol~storage does not contribute to stom] runoff, it either evaporates or infiltrates later on. The depression-storage capacity is eventually exhausted, and water spills over to ~ u n down slope in irregular sheet of overlru~di h w . The sheet increases in depth and velocity as more and more excess precipitation is ad!ed to water storcd on h e hillside in it while it flows downslope. The amouiit of the process of flowing downslope is called surface detention. f f rapidly to a Once rainfall illtensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, r u ~ ~ orises sharp peak at Ule end oT rainfall, 1i)llowed by a rapid decline as so011 as rainfall intensity decreases. Water stored as surface detemltio~~ during the storm, drains away to correspond to the recession limb of the hydrograph. During llle succeedi~lgburs1 of rainfall, the process is repeated. This process is lerllled as Horton overland flow. 1 1 1 areas where Horton overland flow is the dominant ' producer of storm runoff, it can be seen as a tl~infilm or sheet or as a whole drainage basin dduriilg a sMrln since the infiltration capacity of soils may vary . even withiu a sllldl catchlllent. The area contributing Horton overland flow I I , ? ~ be only a small portion of the catchment. This c o ~ ~ c e is p t known as the partial-area concept of storm runoff 'and is a modiiicatiol~of tile original Hortor~ model. Horton overl;md ilow occurs wherever rainfall intensity exceeds Ule infiltration capacity of the soil. This occurs ~ z ~ ofrequently st on areas devoid of vegetation or possessi~igonly a t l cover. ~ This process can be observed in semi-arid range lands and cultivaled fields in regions wiUl high rainEa11 intensily. Tile llow is particularly obvious on paved urban areas, barren spoil heaps and conslructio~l sites. arid and semi-arid regions and Ihose disturbed by h r n r ~ ~ activity n (through agriculture, url>anization, md mining), i~~liltration capacity is a lilniting factor and Horton overland flow is the dominant slorm runoff process. Volumes and peak rates of Horton overland flow ViUy with storm size and intensity, and with Ule factors that affect infiltration. Thus, great differences occur between regions and between storms. (:In catch~nentsof less than one square kilonleter, however, intense storn~s solnetiines yield over 50 percent of Ihe rainfall as Horton overland flow, and in the largest storms, the yield approaches 100 percent from hillsides underlain by fine-textured, bare soils or pavement beyond one square kilometer, the yield frequently declines with increasing drainage area, reflecting the lower average rainfall intesities and volurnes over large areas and seepage loses in sandy floodplains and channel alluvium in arid regions. Runoff Production in Regions of High Infiltration Hate hl most hurnid regions, inl'iltration capacities are high because vegetation protects rain-packing and due to the prcsence of llumus and the activity of the soil fron~ micro-fauna creating an open soil structure. Under such collditions rainfall inte~isilies generally do not exceed imliiltration capacities, and Horton overland flow does not occur on large areas. Water infiltrates the surface and percolates downwards.
I

Discltorgc Me:u;ure~~~'nt sntl Hydrog~.:~pli Aoz~lysis

1
1,
1I

/I

I
I

Where soils are well-drained, highly permeable, and cover steep hillsides bordering a nlurow valley flood, subsurface stonnflow dominales Ule volu~neof storm runoff. In situations where the subsurface stormflow is the dominant contributor of storm runoff, h e volumes of stormflow are much iower than those from Horton overlaud Row. Most of the rain is stored b~ Ulc soil md in the groundwater zone md is released slowly to supply the copiow baseflow of U~ese

jlunljd ngioas, 111 comparison to fie velocities oi' H o r ~ t ~ ovcrlall(l ll flaw. substlrhce storm flow is very slow. It reaches cl1;ulnels only slowly ;uld docs llo, ;1t[ai11tl~cs;lllle pcak discharge ratcs as thosc: gc~~eratecl hy FIorloll ovcrli~~~d []ow, S;lturation Overland Flow 1f a rainstorln is large enough or the water table or irnpcnciillg hOl'iz0II hilll low enough, i~lfillrationand percolati011 will cause the walt'r ti~hlclo rise L o thc groutltl surface. Whcn this happens, subsurface wnlcr car1 csc:lllc li.ollr lllc soil u~d llow to Ule channel over the Iimd surhce. This kind of runoi'l' proccss is lermed ns return flow. That portion o l the catdlmcnl ovcr which rclurn llow emerges from tl~esurl'ace is impervious to rain falling onto it. 'Tlic ~llusr llow off tl~eilrea as dirccl precipitatiol~onto saturateil iuc;IS. This ~~lnol'f, Iogcl]lcr with retun] llow, is cillled saturation .overland flow, 11 oftcll IllOVcS ill vciocilics one hundred tiines as Cast ns those of subsurface storsnClow i ~ n d ci111supply runoff lo Lhe c11,annel Inore quickly than water Sollowing thc sullsur1iic.c roulc, Hydrogr:~phsof this flow have higher peaks and much sllortcr lirp lilncs tlli111 those of subsurface stor~nflow.Velocities of saturation overland flow covcr ll~c lower range of values applicable for Horton nmofC because it usu;~llyIlows 011 gentle fool slopes which are thickly vegetated (and rough in tcl'i'i~il~. As thc s t ( ~ w progresses, the saturoled uea expnnds upslope, causirlp nlorc 01' llle c'alchmcnt LO contributc saturation overland flow. l , LISLI~IIIY cove1 The saturated zones often cover less tlla11 half of a c a l c l ~ n a ~ iancl even 1nuc11less. However, they are extremely imporlanl i'ron~~x)llutio~l 11oinl ol' view. Saluralion overlalld flow is capable of washing inlo a strciitll ~IOIlulil~ll~ {hilt would be liltered oul of the runoff if tile water rclnaincd bclow lllc soil surhcc. In ~llosl llu~nidregions where infiltration is not : 1 lilllitii~gh c t o r , t l ~ c v;~riilhlc source model of slorIn runoff is appropriate. But tllere arc inlpol'l;~l~l tlilfc~~cnccs within ilnd between humid regions that il~lluencetl~c rclativc irnl>orliu~co ol' Lllc two major runol'f processes at work, viz., subsurface stonl~l'lowancl s i t t ~ r a l i o ~ ~ Overland flow.

6.7 SUMMARY
In this unit you have learnt important stream gauging proccdurcs, a ~ critcria d for the selection of gauging sites. You also studied the standard tnethods o C measuring flows in streams using both direct and indirect tletennination of discllarge. The methods for estimation of stageMepth of ilow and slagc-discl~argc relationship curves are important for predicting the discharges. Ftwtllcl' extrapolating these curves, extreme flood flows are also worked out. Lastly, we discussed the elemeats comprising a hydrograph relatcd to a given catchment.

4.8 ANSWERS TO.SAOs

L.
Silc located

1)escriptioll of Gatlgillg Site

I

SuitableiNot-soitable
I

Reason

OII

a bcud

Not suitahle Not suitable

Tile llow does not ~ e n i a i ~ l one-duncnsio n a l

Site Ililvirlg i c e d growth

Rating curve varics 21s the wecrl growl11 changes from tune to lilne

Not suitablc

It is difficult to lrieasurc the flt~w wlier~the watcr flows in n

Bed is stable ant1 provides definile rating culve Variilble sllifi in rating curve rllay occur Flow is o ~ ~ e - r l i n l e r ~ s i o wllich ~~al is ~lesirahlc

Site with rocky hcd Site exparie~iciiigscuus :lad depositio~l Sltc having o bt~aiplll each for 500 ~n

Suihhle Not suitable Suituble' Not suilahlc Not suilable

II

Site just upswean of a d m

-

1 .Bnckwalcr effect causes sllift: in

the rating curve Rating CUI.VE ~ h i ~ . ~ t e l . i s in lic~ the flood plains is difkrenl from thal in dle main cl~an~iel, iuid inli,rmalir>n inny not he available for sucll 11igh flows I

Sile wIiere water f~cque~illy enters Slc>otl plaiils

1
1

SAQ 2
a) When il is expected that Il~e depths of waler in a slrean~would he more U ~ U I the height of one sldf gauge, Ihen addilio~lalgauges are established

along tl~ecross-section of thc streail1 so that there is a suficient overlap ol' arounil 0.5 in between co~~sccutive gauges. When 1 1 1 e water level goes ilbove one gauge U~enUlc next gauge is rend which is put ou n fiigl~er lcvcl ~owards the bank?.
b) When thc float rises up, due lo rising watcr level, the lape slackens, and does not tmnst'orm its vertical ~noveinei~t illto Ule correspo~iding rotaliol~al~notiollof l l ~ e pulley. To avoid such slackening al~dlo develop a winding el'fcct a countcrweigl~t011 f l ~ e otl~er side of Ule tape is used. This co~ulterweight bdances the weight of the float. SAQ 3

Tllc hubble gauge has following specific advantages over a float gauge : i) Tllere is no need for any stilling well which is costly to build,
ii) A larger range ol' change in stage, as hig11 as 30 m, may be measured. iii) The recortier assclnbly can be far away from tile sei~sing p i n t and tlms

a small room inay suffice wllicll lnay be built beyond the bulks at a saler location, and iv) Since the air co~~siantly bleeds from tile uozzle, there is less likelihood of the inlet getting blocked or chocked. The float gauge, on Ule other hand, has some advanlages as follows :
i)

Tl~e mecl~anismof the float gauge is very simple and may he handled by a seni skilled pixsoil wwhms the bubble gauge quires to be handled by a skilled p m n , and

ii) Thcre are ,&npd@'m e d ~ m i e d parts in a float gauge as compared to #at in the bulMe @gem Therefore the mahtrslmce of il~e float gauge is rather simples and inexpensive.

Runoff

SAQ 4

a) Wl~ileany floati~lgobject crm be used as a float, normally specially made lenkproot' iuld easily identifiable objects are used. Woocicn blocks, enlpty and sealed cnrlisler, emply floating botlles, orangus or any u~lier suitable objects may be used as floats for measuring surface velocity of' my stream. b) A sinlple float moving on the stream surface is called a surhce lloi~l. These surface floats are al'fectecl by the surface winds slid thus do 1101 yield accurate observations. Thus, to estimate the ine;u~velocity, the observcd velocity is ~nullipliedby a reduction doefficienl. A reduclion factor of 0.85 to 0.90 is norinally used to get the mean velocily tiom rhe surface velocity. Hence for the given observed velocity of 3.0 m/s the average velocily would be equal to, say, 0.90 x 3.0 = 2,7 mls. SAQ 5 l'he calculatioris are shown in Ule followi~~g lable :
I
I

Distance from Left Water Edge (m)

Average Width of the Sectio~l

Depth
(Ill)

Velocity* (rills)

Segmental Discharge
(1 1 i ' / s )

(m)

* From the given rating-curve equation.

From the nnnlysis of the data, as tabulaled above, we can see dial thc total discharge, as required, is equal to 10.98 curnecs. SAQ 6 The 1nai11difference between the discharge measurelne~ltusing current meter U I an ordinary boat, and thal using a current meter in a moving boat is that ir~ tl~e case of ordinary boat the current meter (ant1 bence the boat) lias to bu stationary while making observation, whereas in the case of Ule 111oving boat technique the observations arc taken while the currenl lileter is moving alongwith the boal. This avoids the difficult task of keeping the boal stalionary on the fast-moving surface of stream while making observations in the ordiilary boat technique. SAQ 7 Mass of the tracer added is equal to 100 kg. Mass of the tracer reaching the downstream section is the inlegration of the mass observed over Qe time for which the concentration was more than background concentration. That is to say (considering the area under the concentratioil curve) :
100 = 10.5 x (0.003 - o.tx)o~ )x

s + 0.5 x ( 0 . ~ 3 0.0001 ) x 5 ) x L)

= 0.0i45 Q

Here Q implies the tlow in the stream.

Therefore,

or,

SAQ 8 The 11laill disadvantages of using the discllarge measuring structures in a natural channel may be outli~ledas under :
ti) Thesc structures prove to be very costly in case Uley are eir~ploycd in

~nediu~ to n big rivers. These are l~iosllyused [or small strealrls oniy;
b) Milily of Ule sectiolis where the amount of s e d i ~ l l c ~ load ~ t or debris moveme.~lt is ilighcr, Lhese slruaures cannot be used. Since the bed

corlditions change in sucll circumstiu~ces,therefore Ule discharge

relations hi^, wiLll respect lo the struclurr?, no lollger remains the salnc anti Ulus poses calibration problems;

c) These slruclures create backw;lter effecls in the upslrenlu porlioll of the sueam which may not be clesiri~blein i ~ i u ~ cases; y and d) These slructures opel.;lte u~ldercerlain range of bead whi'ch should be iivailaklc i11 h e section. IS this condilion is not salisfied at some site then the slruclure Inay 11ot be employetl.
SAQ 9

The main clil't'iculty in eir~ployingthe slope-iucn rnelhod is the fixing oC Lhc value o f (he Manning's rougll~less coefficient, I1 is gcllerally assunled on Ulc h;isis o T olles personal expcricocc or somo general guidelines, boU1 of whioll iirc subjective in nilt,ure. Thus, quile high varislion is exl'ecletl in the estimalion of flow nliule by inclel~endentobservers at h e silmc site ;ultl ;II t11e same Lime,

h) Using the suS1i'lixcs 1 and 2 to de~iolc:Ihc upslream ,uld downslrcanl seclinn rcspccrively, Lhc cross-seclionnl propcrlics :KC cnlculaled ns li1llows :
Section 1
!)I

Section 2
j12

= 3.5

rn

= 3.4 111

R I = 2.386

1 1 1

R? = 2.339

Kl = 6249.54
--.

Kz = 5991

Averngc value ol' K for the re;~ch = ~ KKz I = 6 1 19 AssulTling h,, = 0

Since,

therefore, or,
. Now we have to use (I), (2) ,and (3) to find the values of
Ill. nucl Q . This is done by kin1 and error procedure, aid the results are tabulated below. Here, it has been initially assumed that /IJ = 0.12 m. Then for subseclueiil trials Uie valuc of /if is taken cqual to the final value of lzf given by Equation (3).

Trial No.
I

hf (Trial) (1111
0.120

Zf = ( 10- 4 )
P

Q (111"s)
134.1

l?f (by E(I. (3))

0.090

4.800 3.600 3.800 3.750

2
3 4

0.090 0.095 0.094

116.1

0.095
0.094

119.3
118.6

0.094

Frorn Ule table we can see Ulat a 'friction loss of 0.094 111 iuld il discliilrgc of 118.6 cuniecs satisfy the three Equations ( I ) , (2) tmd (3) simultruieously [br h e give11 value of drop i11 ttie water surface.

a) Let llie gauge-discharze Equation (6.11) is

where, Y = log Q , X = log ( H - H o ) nnd r = log a ; and Ho = 100.0 111. For the given values of H ,uld L,, we car] construct a table as given on next page. Fro111 the table, we have :

( C Y)

7-

= 430.4795 and N = 7

The values of the coefficie~ltsfor the best-fit slraigIit line usilig data of N observations of X and Y are :

or,.

nl

7 x 13.8115 - 4.5927 x 20.7480 - -1.3012 - 3.321 7 x 3.4877 - 21.0929

0.4189

or,

I'=
\

NC(XY)-(EX)( GY)

&~zx~-(zx)'N
or.

Sirlce Lhe v;~lueof

1.

is very near to 1.0, the corre'lation is very good.

0.4180

Hence tlie stage-discharge rating curve is given by the relationsl~ip:

L, = 488,877 ( H - H o )

1)) The relationship established in SAQ 10 i) [hove is given as follows :

L, = 488.877 ( H - Ho)0.4189

Gauge reading for zero discharge ( Ho ) is 100.0

1 1 1 .

Therefore for the gauge reading equal lo 104.5 In the dischi~ge would be:

L,

= 488.877 ( 104.5

100.0) "41X"

917.97 culllecs

Thus the discl~i~gc: at a stage of 104.5

rn would

be 917.97 cunlecs.

SAQ 11 It is expected Ulat you will be able to draw the schematic after reading section 6.6.2.