Matter, Measurement and Calculations

Chemistry and the Scientic Method Matter, Properties and Changes Classication of Matter Measurement and Units Accuracy and Precision Signicant Figures Examples of Units in Calculations

Chemistry
The study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Major divisions Biochemistry Organic Inorganic Analytical Physical Study of biological chemicals Carbon based compounds All other elements Methods of analysis Theory and concepts

Scientic method
All scientic studies follow the same approach to examining a problem. The scientic method requires that we -

Scientic method

Observation Descriptions and measurements. Pattern Recognition Cause and effect of relationships & trends. Develop Make hypothesis and then test it. Experimentation Create and use tests to prove or disprove your hypothesis leading to a theory.

Apply logical, organized reasoning

to any observations made.

Form a hypothesis. Reject or conrm that hypothesis

through experiments.

The Scientic Method

Make observation

Physical properties
Lets start with some things to measure. Matter Anything that occupies space and has mass. Mass Measure of the amount of matter that an object contains. Weight The effect of gravity on matter.

Ask question

Make hypothesis

Do tests New tests

The work never ends. You must assume that someday, someone will prove you wrong.

No

Did they work?

Yes

Develop theory

Physical properties
Characteristics that can be evaluated without changing the composition of the material.

Chemical properties
Result in a change in the composition of a material as a result of a chemical reaction. Example A chemical property of wood is its ability to burn - combustion

Examples
! Qualitative color odor taste feel Quantitative density melting point boiling point compressibility

Wood + O 2
Reactants

CO 2 + H 2 O + heat
Products

Reactants and products are often very different.

Examples
A chemical or physical change? Shredding leaves Milk turning sour Making wine Making ice water Beer going at Leaves changing color

A model of matter
Atom Smallest unit of an element that has all of the properties of the element. ! Molecule Smallest unit of a pure substance that has all of the properties of that substance. ! Molecules can be made of a single atom, several atoms of the same type or atoms of different elements.

Types of molecules
Diatomic Molecules containing two atoms. Homoatomic Only one type of atom Heteroatomic Molecules containing two or more types of atoms..

Classication of matter
Matter Pure Substance Mixture

Element (Iron)

Compound (Hemoglobin)

Homogeneous Heterogeneous (Plasma) (Blood)

Mixtures
A combination of two or more pure substances. Homogeneous - Uniform composition Heterogeneous - Non-uniform composition Which are homogeneous or heterogeneous? Blood Gasoline Urine Twinkie T-Bone steak Salad Dressing

Pure substances
Element Cannot be converted to a simpler form by a chemical reaction. Example hydrogen and oxygen Compound Combination of two or more elements in a denite, reproducible way. Example water - H2O

Pure substances
The properties of a compound and the elements it is made of can differ greatly.
Formula Hydrogen Oxygen Water H2 O2 H2O BP (oC) -253 -218 100 Density (g/L) 0.90 1.14 1000 Other Flammable Supports combustion Not ammable

Data, results & units

Data Measurements and observations that you make. Results Data obtained from an experiment. May be converted using known equations. Units Denes the quantities being measured. All measurements must have units.

Units are important

45,000 has little meaning, just a number $45,000 has some meaning - money $45,000/yr more meaning - persons salary Data Results Question Experiment

Example
Does eating junk food cause weight gain? Measure weight, pig out for a week and see what happens. Initial weight 119 lb Final weight 125 lb

Gain = nal weight - initial weight Gain = 125 lb - 119 lb = 6 lbs

Measurements in chemistry
English units. Still commonly used in daily life. Weight Length Volume ounce, pound, ton inch, foot, yard, mile cup, pint, quart, gallon 1 tablespoon 1 cup 1 pint 1 quart 1 gallon 1 peck 1 bushel

Measurement in chemistry
Common English units. 3 teaspoons Uncommon English units. 1 acre 2 10 chains 778 foot-lbs 660 feet 1.15 statute mi 32 pounds 20 grains

16 tablespoons 1 btu 2 cups 2 pints 4 quarts 2 gallons 4 pecks 1 furlong 1 nautical mi 1 slug 1 scruple

Not often used in scientic work They can be very confusing and difcult to keep track of the conversions needed.

1 miners inch 1.5 cu. ft./min

Example
How many teaspoons of oil are in a barrel?
1 barrel = 42 gallons 1 gallon = 4 quarts 1 quart = 4 cups 1cup = 16 tablespoons 1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons

Measurement in chemistry
Metric units One base for each type of measurement. You then use prexes to change size.

Some common base units Type Mass Length Volume Time Energy Name gram meter liter second joule Symbol g m l s j

gal qt cup tbl tsp #4 #4 # 16 #3 bbl gal qt cup tbl = 32 256 tsp 1 bbl # 42

Metric prexes
We change the prex to alter the size of the unit.
Prex giga mega kilo ---deci centi milli micro nano pico Symbol G M k d c m n p 10 9 10 6 10 3 10 0 10 -1 10 -2 10 -3 10 -6 10 -9 10 -12 Factor 1 000 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 001 0.000 000 001 0.000 000 000 001

Example. Metric conversion

How may milligrams (mg) are in a kilogram (kg)?
1 kg 1g = = 1000 g 1000 mg
g mg g

answer = 1kg : 1000 kg : 1000 answer = 1000 000 mg

SI units
SI - System International Systematic subset of the metric system. Only uses certain metric units. Mass kilograms Length meters Time seconds Temperature kelvin Amount mole Other SI units are derived from base SI units.

Conversion of units
Factor label method

Regardless of the type of calculation,

keeping track of the units makes thing come out right. between two units

Must use conversion factors - relationship Canceling out units is a way of checking
that your formula is set up right!

Common conversion factors

English 1 gallon 1 mile 1 ton Factor = 4 quarts 4 qt/gal = 5280 feet 5280 ft/mile = 2000 pounds 2000 lb/ton

Example
A nerve impulse in the body can travel as fast as 400 feet/second. What is its speed in meters/min ? Conversions Needed 1 meter 1 minute = = 3.3 feet 60 seconds

Common English to Metric conversions Factor 1 liter = 1.057 quarts 1.057 qt/l 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds 2.2 lb/kg 1 meter = 1.094 yards 1.094 yd/m 1 inch = 2.54 cm 2.54 cm/inch

Example
? ? m 400 ft = min 1 sec m 400 ft = min 1 sec x 1m 3.3 ft 1m 3.3 ft x 60 sec 1 min 60 sec 1 min

Uncertainty of data
All measurements contain some uncertainty.

? ?

We make errors Tools have limits

Uncertainty is measured using

7273

m min

....Fast

Accuracy How close to the true value Precision How close to each other

Accuracy
How close our values agree with the true value. Here, the average would be close to the true answer but the numbers do not agree. Large random error. How close our values agree with each other. Here, they are all close to each other but not close to the true value. Large systematic error.

Precision

Accuracy and precision

Accuracy & precision

Predict the effect on accuracy and precision.

Our goal!
Good precision AND good accuracy. These are values we can trust.

Instrument not zeroed properly Reagents made at wrong concentration Temperature in room varies wildly Lab partner is not properly trained

Types of errors
Systematic
Instrument not zeroed properly. Reagents made at wrong concentration. Temperature in room varies widely. Lab partner is an idiot.

Errors
Systematic Errors in a single direction (high or low). Can be corrected by proper calibration or running controls and blanks. Random Errors in any direction. Cant be corrected. Can only be accounted for by using statistics.

Random

How good are your tools?

Between 2 - 3 inches

Signicant gures
Method used to express accuracy & precision.
5

Plastic rod

You cant report numbers better than the method used to measure them. 67.2 units = three signicant gures
Certain Digits Uncertain Digit

Between 2.7 - 2.8 inches

With the rst ruler, you might report 2.7 inches. For the second, you could say 2.75 inches. the last digit reported is the one you had to estimate.

Rules for zeros

These numbers all have three significant figures!

255 25.5 2.55 0.255 0.0255

Leading zeros are not significant.

Leading Leading zero zero

0.421 - three significant figures

Captive zeros are significant. 4012 - four significant figures

Captive Captive zero zero

The number of signicant digits is independent of the decimal point.

Trailing zeros are significant. 114.20 - five significant figures Trailing zero
Trailing zero

Signicant gures
All of our numbers are either measured or constants. Constants - all digits are signicant Measured - the tool used will tell you the level of signicance. Varies based on the tool. Examples Tape measure with lines at 1/16 intervals. A balance might be able to measure to the nearest 0.1 grams.

Rules for zeros

Scientic notation - can be used to clearly express signicant gures. A properly written number in scientic notation always has the the proper number of signicant gures.

0.00321 = 3.21 x 10-3

Three significant figures

Scientic notation
If a number is larger than 1

Scientic notation
If a number is smaller than 1 The original decimal point is moved X places to the right. The resulting number is multiplied by 10-X. The exponent is the number of places you moved the decimal point.

The original decimal point is moved X places to the left. The resulting number is multiplied by 10X. The exponent is the number of places you moved
the decimal point.

1 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0. = 1.23 x 108

0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 = 1.23 x 10-7

Scientic notation
Most calculators use scientic notation when the numbers get very large or small. How it is displayed can vary. It may use x10n or may be displayed using an E. They usually have a button like exp or EE. This is to enter in the exponent.

Signicant gures & calculations An answer cant have greater signicance than the quantities used to produce it. Example How fast did you run if you went 1.0 km in 3.0 minutes?

speed

= 1.0 km / 3.0 min = 0.33 km / min

Signicant gures & calculations

Addition and subtraction Report your answer with the same number of digits to the right of the decimal point as the number having the fewest to start with.

Signicant gures & calculations Multiplication and division. Report your answer with the same number of digits as the quantity have the smallest number of signicant gures. ! Example. Density of a rectangular solid. ! 25.12 kg / [ (18.5 m) ( 0.235 1 m) (2.1m) ] ! = 2.8 kg / m3 (2.1 m - only has two signicant gures)

123.459 87 g + 234.11 g 357.57 g

805.4 g - 721.679 12 g 83.7 g

Rounding off numbers

Rules Do all calculations. If the rst insignicant digit is 5 or more, round up If the rst insignicant digit is 4 or less, round down.

Some simplied rules

Simplied rules

2.579 503 5 becomes 2.580 34.204 221 becomes 34.20

Red digit is the rst uncertain digit.

Do all calculations. Look at the data used to do the calculations. Round off so that answer has same number of
signicant gures as the least accurate data value given or measured.

Exact numbers (constants) do not count.

Using units in calculations.

Length Mass Time Temperature SI unit meter kilogram second Kelvin

Temperature conversion
Temperature - measure of heat energy.

Three common scales used Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.

oF oC

= 32 + 9 / 5 oC = (oF - 32) ( 5 / 9 ) = oC + 273

Kelvin

Always try to express terms with meaningful units. Use prefixes as needed. 86 400 seconds 0.003 5 grams = = 24 hours 3.5 mg

SI SI unit unit

Celsius

Example. oF to oC
If it is 20 oF outside, what is it in oC ? 5 9 5 oC = 9
oC

The Celsius scale is based on the melting point (0 oC) and boiling point (100 oC) of water.

(oF - 32) (20 oF - 32) (two significant figure in 20 oF)

oC

= -6.7

Example. oF to K
If the temperature is 75.0 oF, what is it in K? First convert to oC
oC

Density
Density is a characteristic property of a substance.
Density = Mass Volume
3 cm cm3= =ml ml

= 5 9 = 23.9

(75.0oF - 32)

Common units are g / cm3 or g / ml. g / cm3

Air Water Gold 0.0013 1.0 19.3 Bone Urine Gasoline

g / cm3
1.7 - 2.0 1.01 - 1.03 0.66 - 0.69

Then convert to K

K = 23.9oC + 273 = 297

Example. Density calculation

What is the density of 5.00 ml of serum if it has a mass of 5.23 grams? d = mass / volume d = 5.23 g / 5.00 ml d = 1.05 g / ml What would be the mass of 1.00 liters of this serum sample?

Example. Density calculation

What would be the mass of 1.00 liters of this serum sample? The density was 1.05 g/ml density = mass / volume so mass
mass

= volume x density
= 1.00 l x 1000 ml/l x 1.05 g/ml = 1.05 x 103 g

Scientific notation must be used to properly express this answer.

Specic gravity
The density of a substance compared to a reference substance. Specific Gravity =
density of substance density of reference

Specic gravity measurement

Hydrometer

Specific Gravity is unitless. Reference material is commonly water at 4oC. At 4oC, density = specific gravity. Commonly used to test urine.

Float height will be based on Specific Gravity.