Chapter 11

How Genes Are Controlled

PowerPoint Lectures for

Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition

Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lecture by Edward J. Zalisko

Introduction
Cloning is the creation of an individual by asexual reproduction. The ability to clone an animal from a single cell demonstrates that every adult body cell
contains a complete genome that is capable of directing the production of all the cell types in an organism.

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Introduction
Cloning has been attempted to save endangered species. However, cloning
does not increase genetic diversity and
may trivialize the tragedy of extinction and detract from efforts to preserve natural habitats.

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Figure 11.0_1

Chapter 11: Big Ideas

Control of Gene Expression

Cloning of Plants and Animals

The Genetic Basis of Cancer

Figure 11.0_2

CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION

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11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes
Gene regulation is the turning on and off of genes.

Gene expression is the overall process of information flow from genes to proteins.
The control of gene expression allows cells to produce specific kinds of proteins when and where they are needed.

Our earlier understanding of gene control came from the study of E. coli.
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Figure 11.1A

E. coli

11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes
A cluster of genes with related functions, along with the control sequences, is called an operon.

With few exceptions, operons only exist in prokaryotes.

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11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes
When an E. coli encounters lactose, all the enzymes needed for its metabolism are made at once using the lactose operon. The lactose (lac) operon includes
1. three adjacent lactose-utilization genes,
2. a promoter sequence where RNA polymerase binds and initiates transcription of all three lactose genes, and

3. an operator sequence where a repressor can bind and block RNA polymerase action.

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11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes
Regulation of the lac operon
A regulatory gene, located outside the operon, codes for a repressor protein.

In the absence of lactose, the repressor binds to the operator and prevents RNA polymerase action.
Lactose inactivates the repressor, so the operator is unblocked, RNA polymerase can bind to the promoter, and

all three genes of the operon are transcribed.

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Figure 11.1B

Operon turned off (lactose is absent): OPERON Regulatory gene DNA

Promoter Operator

Lactose-utilization genes

mRNA

RNA polymerase cannot attach to the promoter

Active repressor

Protein

Operon turned on (lactose inactivates the repressor):

DNA mRNA

RNA polymerase is bound to the promoter Translation

Protein Lactose Inactive repressor Enzymes for lactose utilization

Figure 11.1B_1

Operon turned off (lactose is absent): OPERON Regulatory Promoter Operator gene Lactose-utilization genes

DNA
RNA polymerase cannot attach to the promoter Active repressor

mRNA

Protein

Figure 11.1B_2

Operon turned on (lactose inactivates the repressor):

DNA mRNA RNA polymerase is bound to the promoter Translation

Protein
Lactose Inactive repressor Enzymes for lactose utilization

11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes
There are two types of repressor-controlled operons.
In the lac operon, the repressor is
active when alone and

inactive when bound to lactose.

In the trp bacterial operon, the repressor is

inactive when alone and active when bound to the amino acid tryptophan (Trp).

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Figure 11.1C

lac operon
Promoter Operator Gene

trp operon

DNA Active repressor Active repressor

Tryptophan

Inactive repressor

Lactose

Inactive repressor

11.1 Proteins interacting with DNA turn prokaryotic genes on or off in response to environmental changes
Another type of operon control involves activators, proteins that turn operons on by
binding to DNA and making it easier for RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter.

Activators help control a wide variety of operons.

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11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
Differentiation
involves cell specialization, in structure and function, and
is controlled by turning specific sets of genes on or off.

Almost all of the cells in an organism contain an identical genome.

The differences between cell types are
not due to the presence of different genes but instead due to selective gene expression.

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11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
Eukaryotic chromosomes undergo multiple levels of folding and coiling, called DNA packing.
Nucleosomes are formed when DNA is wrapped around histone proteins.
This packaging gives a beads on a string appearance.
Each nucleosome bead includes DNA plus eight histones. Stretches of DNA, called linkers, join consecutive nucleosomes.

At the next level of packing, the beaded string is wrapped into a tight helical fiber. This fiber coils further into a thick supercoil. Looping and folding can further compact the DNA.
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11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
DNA packing can prevent gene expression by preventing RNA polymerase and other transcription proteins from contacting the DNA. Cells seem to use higher levels of packing for long-term inactivation of genes. Highly compacted chromatin, found in varying regions of interphase chromosomes, is generally not expressed at all.
Animation: DNA Packing
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11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
Chemical modification of DNA bases or histone proteins can result in epigenetic inheritance.
Certain enzymes can add a methyl group to DNA bases, without changing the sequence of the bases. Individual genes are usually more methylated in cells in which the genes are not expressed. Once methylated, genes usually stay that way through successive cell divisions in an individual.

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11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
Removal of the extra methyl groups can turn on some of these genes.
Inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms not directly involving the nucleotide sequence is called epigenetic inheritance. These modifications can be reversed by processes not yet fully understood.

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11.2 Chromosome structure and chemical modifications can affect gene expression
X-chromosome inactivation
In female mammals, one of the two X chromosomes is highly compacted and transcriptionally inactive.
Either the maternal or paternal chromosome is randomly inactivated. Inactivation occurs early in embryonic development, and all cellular descendants have the same inactivated chromosome. An inactivated X chromosome is called a Barr body. Tortoiseshell fur coloration is due to inactivation of X chromosomes in heterozygous female cats.
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Figure 11.2A

DNA double helix (2-nm diameter) Nucleosome (10-nm diameter) Tight helical fiber (30-nm diameter) Metaphase chromosome

Linker Beads on a string

Histones Supercoil (300-nm diameter)

700 nm

Figure 11.2A_1

Beads on a string

Linker

Figure 11.2A_2

Metaphase chromosome

700 nm

Figure 11.2B

Early Embryo
Cell division and random X chromosome Active X inactivation Inactive X

Adult Two cell populations Orange fur

X chromosomes

Allele for orange fur

Allele for black fur

Inactive X Active X

Black fur

Figure 11.2B_2

Figure 11.2B_1

Early Embryo
Cell division and random X chromosome Active X inactivation Inactive X

Adult

Two cell populations

Orange fur

X chromosomes

Allele for orange fur

Allele for black fur

Inactive X Active X

Black fur

11.3 Complex assemblies of proteins control eukaryotic transcription

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes employ regulatory proteins (activators and repressors) that
bind to specific segments of DNA and either promote or block the binding of RNA polymerase, turning the transcription of genes on and off.

In eukaryotes, activator proteins seem to be more important than repressors. Thus, the default state for most genes seems to be off. A typical plant or animal cell needs to turn on and transcribe only a small percentage of its genes.
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11.3 Complex assemblies of proteins control eukaryotic transcription

Eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins called transcription factors. Transcription factors include
activator proteins, which bind to DNA sequences called enhancers and initiate gene transcription. The binding of the activators leads to bending of the DNA. Other transcription factor proteins interact with the bound activators, which then collectively bind as a complex at the genes promoter.

RNA polymerase then attaches to the promoter and transcription begins.

Animation: Initiation of Transcription
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Figure 11.3

Enhancers

Promoter Gene

DNA
Activator proteins Transcription factors Other proteins

RNA polymerase

Bending of DNA Transcription

11.3 Complex assemblies of proteins control eukaryotic transcription

Silencers are repressor proteins that
may bind to DNA sequences and inhibit transcription.

Coordinated gene expression in eukaryotes often depends on the association of a specific combination of control elements with every gene of a particular metabolic pathway.

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11.4 Eukaryotic RNA may be spliced in more than one way

Alternative RNA splicing
produces different mRNAs from the same transcript,
results in the production of more than one polypeptide from the same gene, and may be common in humans.

Animation: RNA Processing

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Figure 11.4

Exons DNA 1

4 Introns

Introns

Cap RNA 1 transcript

Tail 2 3 4 5

RNA splicing or mRNA 1

2 3

2 4

11.5 Small RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression

Only about 1.5% of the human genome codes for proteins. (This is also true of many other multicellular eukaryotes.)

Another small fraction of DNA consists of genes for ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA.
A flood of recent data suggests that a significant amount of the remaining genome is transcribed into functioning but non-protein-coding RNAs, including a variety of small RNAs.

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11.5 Small RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression

microRNAs (miRNAs) can bind to complementary sequences on mRNA molecules either
degrading the target mRNA or

blocking its translation.

RNA interference (RNAi) is the use of miRNA to artificially control gene expression by injecting miRNAs into a cell to turn off a specific gene sequence.
Animation: Blocking Translation Animation: mRNA Degradation
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Figure 11.5

Protein miRNA
1

miRNAprotein complex
2

Target mRNA

or

Translation blocked mRNA degraded

11.6 Later stages of gene expression are also subject to regulation

After mRNA is fully processed and transported to the cytoplasm, gene expression can still be regulated by
breakdown of mRNA, initiation of translation, protein activation, and

protein breakdown.

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Figure 11.6

Folding of the polypeptide and the formation of SS linkages

Cleavage

S S

S S

Initial polypeptide (inactive)

Folded polypeptide (inactive)

Active form of insulin

Figure 11.6_1

Folding of the polypeptide and the formation of SS linkages

S S

Initial polypeptide (inactive)

Folded polypeptide (inactive)

Figure 11.6_2

Cleavage

S S

S S

Folded polypeptide (inactive)

Active form of insulin

11.7 Review: Multiple mechanisms regulate gene expression in eukaryotes

Multiple control points exist where gene expression in eukaryotes can be
turned on or off or speeded up, or slowed down.

These control points are like a series of pipes carrying water from your local water supply to a faucet in your home. Valves in this series of pipes are like the control points in gene expression.
Animation: Protein Degradation

Animation: Protein Processing

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Figure 11.7
Chromosome Chromosome DNA unpacking Other changes to the DNA DNA Gene Exon RNA transcript Intron Addition of a cap and tail

Gene

Transcription

Splicing Cap Flow through NUCLEUS nuclear envelope

Tail

mRNA in nucleus

CYTOPLASM mRNA in cytoplasm

Breakdown of mRNA Brokendown mRNA Polypeptide Polypeptide

Translation

Cleavage, modification, activation Active protein Active protein Breakdown of protein Amino acids

Figure 11.7_1

Chromosome

Chromosome
DNA unpacking Other changes to the DNA

Gene

DNA

Transcription Exon RNA transcript Intron Addition of a cap and tail

Gene

Splicing

Tail Cap

mRNA in nucleus

Flow through NUCLEUS nuclear envelope CYTOPLASM

Figure 11.7_2

mRNA in cytoplasm

CYTOPLASM

Breakdown of mRNA

Translation Polypeptide Polypeptide

Brokendown mRNA

Cleavage, modification, activation

Active protein
Breakdown of protein

Active protein

Amino acids

11.7 Review: Multiple mechanisms regulate gene expression in eukaryotes

These controls points include:
1. chromosome changes and DNA unpacking,
2. control of transcription, 3. control of RNA processing including the
addition of a cap and tail and splicing,

4. flow through the nuclear envelope,

5. breakdown of mRNA,

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11.7 Review: Multiple mechanisms regulate gene expression in eukaryotes

6. control of translation, and 7. control after translation including
cleavage/modification/activation of proteins and breakdown of protein.

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11.8 Cell signaling and cascades of gene expression direct animal development
Early research on gene expression and embryonic development came from studies of a fruit fly, revealing the control of these key events.
1. Orientation of the head-to-tail, top-to-bottom, and side-toside axes are determined by early genes in the egg that produce proteins and maternal mRNAs.

Animation: Cell Signaling

Animation: Development of Head-Tail Axis in Fruit Flies

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11.8 Cell signaling and cascades of gene expression direct animal development
2. Segmentation of the body is influenced by cascades of proteins that diffuse through the cell layers. 3. Adult features develop under the influence of homeotic genes, master control genes that determine the anatomy of the parts of the body.

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Figure 11.8A

Eye

Antenna

Extra pair of legs

Figure 11.8A_1

Eye

Antenna

Figure 11.8A_2

Extra pair of legs

Figure 11.8B

Egg cell within ovarian follicle Egg cell

1

Follicle cells

Egg cell and follicle cells signaling each other Gene expression Growth of egg cell Localization of head mRNA Egg cell

Head mRNA Cascades of gene expression Fertilization and mitosis Embryo

Body segments
3

Expression of homeotic genes and cascades of gene expression

Adult fly

Figure 11.8B_1

Egg cell within ovarian follicle Egg cell

1

Follicle cells

Egg cell and follicle cells signaling each other Gene expression Growth of egg cell Localization of head mRNA

Egg cell

Head mRNA

Cascades of gene expression

Fertilization and mitosis

Figure 11.8B_2

Embryo Body segments

3

Expression of homeotic genes and cascades of gene expression Adult fly

4

11.9 CONNECTION: DNA microarrays test for the transcription of many genes at once
DNA microarrays help researchers study the expression of large groups of genes. A DNA microarray
contains DNA sequences arranged on a grid and is used to test for transcription in the following way:
mRNA from a specific cell type is isolated, fluorescent cDNA is produced from the mRNA, cDNA is applied to the microarray, unbound cDNA is washed off, and complementary cDNA is detected by fluorescence.
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Figure 11.9

DNA microarray Each well contains DNA from a particular gene. Actual size (6,400 genes)

1 mRNA

is isolated. Reverse transcriptase and fluorescent DNA nucleotides

3 2

4 Unbound

cDNA is rinsed away.

cDNA is made from mRNA.

cDNA is applied to the wells.

cDNA

Fluorescent spot

Nonfluorescent spot

DNA of an expressed gene

DNA of an unexpressed gene

Figure 11.9_1

1 mRNA is isolated. Reverse transcriptase and fluorescent DNA nucleotides 2 cDNA is made from mRNA.

Figure 11.9_2

DNA microarray
Each well contains DNA from a particular gene. Actual size (6,400 genes)

4 Unbound cDNA is rinsed away. 3 cDNA is applied to the wells. cDNA

Fluorescent spot

Nonfluorescent spot

DNA of an expressed gene

DNA of an unexpressed gene

11.9 CONNECTION: DNA microarrays test for the transcription of many genes at once
DNA microarrays are a potential boon to medical research.
In 2002, a study showed that DNA microarray data can classify different types of leukemia, helping to identify which chemotherapies will be most effective. Other research suggests that many cancers have a variety of subtypes with different gene expression patterns. DNA microarrays also reveal general profiles of gene expression over the lifetime of an organism.

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11.10 Signal transduction pathways convert messages received at the cell surface to responses within the cell
A signal transduction pathway is a series of molecular changes that convert a signal on the target cells surface to a specific response within the cell.

Signal transduction pathways are crucial to many cellular functions.

Animation: Overview of Cell Signaling

Animation: Signal Transduction Pathways

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Figure 11.10

Signaling cell
1 2

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Signaling molecule Receptor protein Plasma membrane

Target cell Relay proteins

Signal transduction pathway

4

Transcription factor (activated)

NUCLEUS DNA
5

mRNA

Transcription

New protein
Translation

CYTOPLASM

Figure 11.10_1

Signaling cell
1 2

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Signaling molecule

Receptor protein

Plasma membrane

Target cell Relay proteins

Signal transduction pathway

Figure 11.10_2

Transcription factor (activated)

NUCLEUS DNA
5

mRNA

Transcription

New protein Translation

CYTOPLASM

11.11 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Cellsignaling systems appeared early in the evolution of life
In the yeast used to make bread, beer, and wine, mating is controlled by a signal transduction pathway. These yeast cells identify their mates by chemical signaling.

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11.11 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Cellsignaling systems appeared early in the evolution of life
Yeast have two mating types: a and .
Each produces a chemical factor that binds to receptors on cells of the opposite mating type. Binding to receptors triggers growth toward the other cell and fusion.

Cell signaling processes in multicellular organisms are derived from those in unicellular organisms such as bacteria and yeast.

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Figure 11.11

Receptor factor a Yeast cell, mating type a a

a factor

Yeast cell, mating type

a/

CLONING OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

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11.12 Plant cloning shows that differentiated cells may retain all of their genetic potential
Most differentiated cells retain a full set of genes, even though only a subset may be expressed. Evidence is available from
plant cloning, in which a root cell can divide to form an adult plant and salamander limb regeneration, in which the cells in the leg stump dedifferentiate, divide, and then redifferentiate, giving rise to a new leg.

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Figure 11.12

Root of carrot plant

Single cell

Root cells cultured in growth medium

Cell division in culture

Plantlet

Adult plant

11.13 Nuclear transplantation can be used to clone animals

Animal cloning can be achieved using nuclear transplantation, in which the nucleus of an egg cell or zygote is replaced with a nucleus from an adult somatic cell.

Using nuclear transplantation to produce new organisms is called reproductive cloning. It was first used in mammals in 1997 to produce the sheep Dolly.

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11.13 Nuclear transplantation can be used to clone animals

Another way to clone uses embryonic stem (ES) cells harvested from a blastocyst. This procedure can be used to produce
cell cultures for research or stem cells for therapeutic treatments.

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Figure 11.13

Donor cell

Nucleus from the donor cell

Reproductive cloning Blastocyst The blastocyst is implanted in a surrogate mother. A clone of the donor is born.

The nucleus is removed from an egg cell.

A somatic cell from an adult donor is added.

The cell grows in culture to produce an early embryo (blastocyst).

Therapeutic cloning Embryonic stem cells are removed from the blastocyst and grown in culture. The stem cells are induced to form specialized cells.

Figure 11.13_1

Donor cell

Nucleus from the donor cell Blastocyst

The nucleus is removed from an egg cell.

A somatic cell from an adult donor is added.

The cell grows in culture to produce an early embryo (blastocyst).

Figure 11.13_2

Reproductive cloning Blastocyst

The blastocyst is implanted in a surrogate mother. A clone of the donor is born.

Therapeutic cloning Embryonic stem cells are removed from the blastocyst and grown in culture.

The stem cells are induced to form specialized cells.

11.14 CONNECTION: Reproductive cloning has valuable applications, but human reproductive cloning raises ethical issues
Since Dollys landmark birth in 1997, researchers have cloned many other mammals, including mice, cats, horses, cows, mules, pigs, rabbits, ferrets, and dogs.

Cloned animals can show differences in anatomy and behavior due to

environmental influences and

random phenomena.

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11.14 CONNECTION: Reproductive cloning has valuable applications, but human reproductive cloning raises ethical issues
Reproductive cloning is used to produce animals with desirable traits to
produce better agricultural products, produce therapeutic agents, and

restock populations of endangered animals.

Human reproductive cloning raises many ethical concerns.

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Figure 11.14

11.15 CONNECTION: Therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells with great medical potential
When grown in laboratory culture, stem cells can
divide indefinitely and give rise to many types of differentiated cells.

Adult stem cells can give rise to many, but not all, types of cells.

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11.15 CONNECTION: Therapeutic cloning can produce stem cells with great medical potential
Embryonic stem cells are considered more promising than adult stem cells for medical applications. The ultimate aim of therapeutic cloning is to supply cells for the repair of damaged or diseased organs.

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Figure 11.15

Blood cells Adult stem cells in bone marrow

Nerve cells

Cultured embryonic stem cells

Different culture conditions

Heart muscle cells Different types of differentiated cells

THE GENETIC BASIS OF CANCER

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11.16 Cancer results from mutations in genes that control cell division
Mutations in two types of genes can cause cancer.
1. Oncogenes
Proto-oncogenes are normal genes that promote cell division. Mutations to proto-oncogenes create cancer-causing oncogenes that often stimulate cell division.

2. Tumor-suppressor genes
Tumor-suppressor genes normally inhibit cell division or function in the repair of DNA damage. Mutations inactivate the genes and allow uncontrolled division to occur.

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Figure 11.16A

Proto-oncogene (for a protein that stimulates cell division) DNA

A mutation within the gene

Multiple copies of the gene

The gene is moved to a new DNA locus, under new controls

Oncogene Hyperactive growthstimulating protein in a normal amount Normal growthstimulating protein in excess

New promoter Normal growthstimulating protein in excess

Figure 11.16B

Tumor-suppressor gene

Mutated tumor-suppressor gene

Normal growthinhibiting protein

Cell division under control

Defective, nonfunctioning protein

Cell division not under control

11.17 Multiple genetic changes underlie the development of cancer

Usually four or more somatic mutations are required to produce a full-fledged cancer cell. One possible scenario is the stepwise development of colorectal cancer.
1. An oncogene arises or is activated, resulting in increased cell division in apparently normal cells in the colon lining. 2. Additional DNA mutations cause the growth of a small benign tumor (polyp) in the colon wall.

3. Additional mutations lead to a malignant tumor with the potential to metastasize.

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Figure 11.17A

An oncogene A tumor-suppressor DNA changes: is activated gene is inactivated Cellular Increased changes: cell division 1 Growth of a polyp

A second tumorsuppressor gene is inactivated

Growth of a malignant tumor 3

Colon wall

Figure 11.17B

1 Chromosomes mutation

2 mutations

3 4 mutations mutations

Normal cell

Malignant cell

11.18 Faulty proteins can interfere with normal signal transduction pathways
Proto-oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes often code for proteins involved in signal transduction pathways leading to gene expression. Two main types of signal transduction pathways lead to the synthesis of proteins that influence cell division.

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11.18 Faulty proteins can interfere with normal signal transduction pathways
1. One pathway produces a product that stimulates cell division.
In a healthy cell, the product of the ras protooncogene relays a signal when growth factor binds to a receptor. But in a cancerous condition, the product of the ras proto-oncogene relays the signal in the absence of a growth factor, leading to uncontrolled growth. Mutations in ras occur in more than 30% of human cancers.

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Figure 11.18A

Growth factor Receptor Target cell Normal product of ras gene Hyperactive relay protein (product of ras oncogene) issues signals on its own

Relay proteins

Transcription factor (activated)

CYTOPLASM

DNA NUCLEUS Transcription

Protein that stimulates cell division

Translation

11.18 Faulty proteins can interfere with normal signal transduction pathways
2. A second pathway produces a product that inhibits cell division.
The normal product of the p53 gene is a transcription factor that normally activates genes for factors that inhibit cell division. In the absence of functional p53, cell division continues because the inhibitory protein is not produced. Mutations in p53 occur in more than 50% of human cancers.

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Figure 11.18B

Growth-inhibiting factor
Receptor

Relay proteins

Nonfunctional transcription factor (product of faulty p53 tumor-suppressor gene) cannot trigger transcription
Normal product of p53 gene

Transcription factor (activated)

Transcription

Protein that inhibits cell division

Translation Protein absent (cell division not inhibited)

11.19 CONNECTION: Lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of cancer

After heart disease, cancer is the second-leading cause of death in most industrialized nations. Cancer can run in families if an individual inherits an oncogene or a mutant allele of a tumor-suppressor gene that makes cancer one step closer. But most cancers cannot be associated with an inherited mutation.

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11.19 CONNECTION: Lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of cancer

Carcinogens are cancer-causing agents that alter DNA. Most mutagens (substances that promote mutations) are carcinogens. Two of the most potent carcinogens (mutagens) are
X-rays and
ultraviolet radiation in sunlight.

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11.19 CONNECTION: Lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of cancer

The one substance known to cause more cases and types of cancer than any other single agent is tobacco.
More people die of lung cancer than any other form of cancer. Although most tobacco-related cancers come from smoking, passive inhalation of second-hand smoke is also a risk. Tobacco use, sometimes in combination with alcohol consumption, causes cancers in addition to lung cancer.

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11.19 CONNECTION: Lifestyle choices can reduce the risk of cancer

Healthy lifestyles that reduce the risks of cancer include
avoiding carcinogens, including the sun and tobacco products, exercising adequately, regular medical checks for common types of cancer, and

a healthy high-fiber, low-fat diet including plenty of fruits and vegetables.

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Table 11.19

Table 11.19_1

Table 11.19_2

You should now be able to

1. Describe and compare the regulatory mechanisms of the lac operon, trp operon, and operons using activators. 2. Explain how selective gene expression yields a variety of cell types in multicellular eukaryotes. 3. Explain how DNA is packaged into chromosomes. 4. Explain how a cats tortoiseshell coat pattern is formed and why this pattern is only seen in female cats.

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You should now be able to

5. Explain how eukaryotic gene expression is controlled. 6. Describe the process and significance of alternative DNA splicing. 7. Describe the significance of miRNA molecules. 8. Explain how mRNA breakdown, initiation of translation, protein activation, and protein breakdown regulate gene expression.

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You should now be able to

9. Describe the roles of homeotic genes in development.

10. Explain how DNA microarrays can be used to study gene activity and treat disease. 11. Explain how a signal transduction pathway triggers a specific response inside a target cell.
12. Compare the cell-signaling systems of yeast and animal cells.

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You should now be able to

13. Explain how nuclear transplantation can be used to clone animals.

14. Describe some of the practical applications of reproductive cloning and the process and goals of therapeutic cloning.
15. Explain how viruses, proto-oncogenes, and tumor-suppressor genes can each contribute to cancer. 16. Explain why the development of most cancers is a slow and gradual process.
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You should now be able to

17. Explain how mutations in ras or p53 proteins can lead to cancer.

18. Describe factors that can increase or decrease the risks of developing cancer.

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Figure 11.UN01

A typical operon Regulatory gene Promoter OperatorGene 1 DNA Encodes a repressor that in active form attaches to an operator RNA polymerase binding site Switches the operon on or off Code for proteins

Gene 2

Gene 3

Figure 11.UN02

Egg cell or zygote with nucleus Nucleus removed from a donor cell

An early embryo resulting from nuclear transplantation

Surrogate mother

Clone of the donor

Figure 11.UN03

Egg cell or zygote with nucleus removed

An early embryo Nucleus resulting from from a nuclear transdonor cell plantation

Embryonic stem cells in culture

Specialized cells

Figure 11.UN04

prokaryotic genes are often grouped into operons controlled by a protein called (b) in active form binds to (d) (e)

Gene regulation

(a)
is a normal gene that can be mutated to an

in eukaryotes when may involve abnormal may lead to

oncogene can cause

are switched on/off by

(c)

(f) are proteins that promote transcription

(g)

occurs in
female mammals

can produce multiple kinds of mRNA per gene