Lecture1: Basic Antenna Theory

Antennas lecture notes. By M. D.
Kabadi 1
LECTURE1: BASIC ANTENNA THEORY

ANTENNA
An antenna is a conductor or group of conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic
energy into space or for collecting it from space. Electromagnetic waves are often referred to as
radio waves. Most antennas are resonant devices, which operate efficiently over a relatively
narrow frequency band. An antenna must be tuned to the same frequency band that the radio
system to which it is connected operates in, otherwise reception and/or transmission will be
impaired.

A good antenna works. A bad antenna is a waste of time & money. Antenna systems can be very
inexpensive and simple. They can also be very, very expensive.
Antenna considerations
The space available for an antenna
The proximity to neighbours
The operating frequencies you will use
The output power
Money

Antennas lecture notes. By M. D. Kabadi 2
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS

As it has been defined, an antenna is a conductor or group of conductors used either for radiating
electromagnetic energy into space or for collecting it from space. Electrical energy from the
transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by the antenna and radiated into space. On
the receiving end, electromagnetic energy is converted into electrical energy by the antenna and
is fed into the receiver.
Fortunately, separate antennas seldom are required for both transmitting and receiving rf energy.
Any antenna can transfer energy from space to its input receiver with the same efficiency that it
transfers energy from the transmitter into space. Of course, this is assuming that the same
frequency is used in both cases. This property of interchangeability of the same antenna for
transmitting and receiving is known as antenna RECIPROCITY. Antenna reciprocity is possible
because antenna characteristics are essentially the same for sending and receiving
electromagnetic energy.

RECIPROCITY OF ANTENNAS
In general, the various properties of an antenna apply equally, regardless of whether you use the
antenna for transmitting or receiving. The more efficient a certain antenna is for transmitting, the
more efficient it will be for receiving on the same frequency. Likewise, the directive properties
of a given antenna also will be the same whether it is used for transmitting or receiving.
Assume, for example, that a certain antenna used with a transmitter radiates a maximum amount
of energy at right angles to the axis of the antenna, as shown in figure 1, view A. Note the
minimum amount of radiation along the axis of the antenna. Now, if this same antenna were used
as a receiving antenna, as shown in view B, it would receive best in the same directions in which
it produced maximum radiation; that is, at right angles to the axis of the antenna.


Figure 1 Reciprocity of antennas

BASIC PARAMETERS OF ANTENNA

RESONANT FREQUENCY:
The resonant frequency is related to the electrical length of the antenna. Electrical length is the
length or distance expressed in terms of wavelengths.
Typically an antenna is tuned for a specific frequency, and is effective for a range of frequencies
usually centered on that resonant frequency. Therefore, an antenna is a form of tuned circuit
consisting of inductance and capacitance, and as a result it has a resonant frequency. This is the
frequency where the capacitive and inductive reactances cancel each other out. At this point the
an antenna appears purely resistive, the resistance being a combination of the loss resistance and
the radiation resistance.
Resonant frequency is the frequency whereby antenna impedance is purely resistive.

Figure 2 Impedance of an antenna with frequency

The capacitance and inductance of an antenna are determined by its physical properties and the
environment where it is located. The major feature of the antenna design is its dimensions.
However, the other properties of the antenna (especially radiation pattern and impedance)
change with frequency, so the antenna's resonant frequency may merely be close to the center
frequency of these other more important properties.
Some antenna designs have multiple resonant frequencies, and some are relatively effective over
a very broad range of frequencies. The most commonly known type of wide band aerial is the
logarithmic or log periodic, but its gain is usually much lower than that of a specific or narrower
band aerial.
WAVELENGTH:
Wavelength: this is the length of one RF wave. It can be computed by either of the following
formulas, depending on the units required:


We often refer to antenna size relative to wavelength.
Note: The length of a half-wave dipole is slightly less than a half-wavelength due to end effect.
The speed of propagation in coaxial cable is slower than in air, so the wavelength in the cable is
shorter. The velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves in coax is usually given as a
percentage of free space velocity, and is different for different types of coax.

BANDWIDTH:
The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which it is effective, usually
centered around the resonant frequency.
The bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by several techniques, including using thicker
wires, replacing wires with cages to simulate a thicker wire, tapering antenna components (like
in a feed horn), and combining multiple antennas into a single assembly and allowing the natural
impedance to select the correct antenna.
RADIATION RESISTANCE:
Radiation Resistance R
A
is the equivalent resistance which would dissipate the same amount of
power as the antenna radiates.
Radiated energy is the useful part of the transmitter's signal. However, it represents as much of a
loss to the antenna as the energy lost in heating the antenna wire. In either case, the dissipated
power is equal to I
2
R. In the case of heat losses, the R is real resistance. In the case of radiation,
R is an assumed resistance; if this resistance were actually present, it would dissipate the same
amount of power that the antenna takes to radiate the energy. This assumed resistance is referred
to as the RADIATION RESISTANCE.
Mathematically Radiation Resistance is
2
i
P
R
r
=

Where:
r
R = radiation resistance
P = rms power radiated by the antenna.
i = rms antenna current at the feed point.
Radiation resistance varies at different points on the antenna. This resistance is always measured
at a current loop. For the antenna in free space, that is, entirely removed from any objects that
might affect its operation, the radiation resistance is 73 ohms.
A practical antenna located over a ground plane may have any value of radiation resistance from
0 to approximately 100 ohms. The exact value of radiation resistance depends on the height of
the antenna above the ground. For most half-wave wire antennas, the radiation resistance is about
65 ohms.
ANTENNA INPUT IMPEDANCE:
Radiation from an antenna is a direct result of the flow of RF current. The current flows to the
antenna through a transmission line, which is connected to a small gap between the conductors
that make up the antenna. The point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected is
called the antenna input terminal or the feed point. The feed point presents an ac load to the
transmission line called antenna input impedance and is simply the ratio of the antennas input
voltage to input current. The input impedance measured at the antenna input terminals. In general
it is complex and has two real parts and one imaginary part:
Radiation resistance: - represents conversion of power into RF waves (real)
Loss resistance represents conductor losses, ground losses, etc. (real)
Reactance represents power stored in the near field (imaginary)
Mathematically, input impedance is :
i
i
in
I
E
Z =

Where:
Z
in
=antenna input impedance.
E
i
= antenna input voltage.
I
i
= antenna input current
The input impedance is the sum of the radiation resistance and the dc resistance.
A half wave dipole presents a resistive impedance of 73 ohms to a transmission line. It also has a
small inductive reactance, of about 11 ohms. (The size of the reactive part depends on the
length/diameter ratio of the rods of the antenna). Now we see why coaxial cable is often
designed to have 75 ohms characteristic impedance.

ANTENNA EFFICIENCY:
Antenna Efficiency: is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power
dissipated by an antenna to the total input power. Mathematically, antenna efficiency is;

100 X
P P
P
d r
r
+
= q

Where:
= antenna efficiency in (%).
Pr= power radiated by an antenna.
Pd=power dissipated in antenna.

OR:
( )
d r
r
d r
rr
R R
R
R R i
R i
+
=
+
=
2
2
q

Where:
q = antenna efficiency
Rr= radiation resistance.
Rd= dc antenna resistance.

ISOTROPIC RADIATOR
An "isotropic radiator" has no preferred direction of radiation. It radiates uniformly in all
directions over a sphere centred on the antenna. It is a reference radiator with which other
antennas are compared. If the power supplied to the isotropic radiator is P watts, the energy
density (watts per square metre) at a distance R metres from the centre of the radiator is P/(4 pi
R^2). This is because we are spreading the power P uniformly across the area (4 pi R^2) of a
sphere of radius R.

ANTENNA GAIN G:
Gain is given in reference to a standard antenna. The two most common reference antennas are
the isotropic antenna and the resonant half-wave dipole antenna. The isotropic antenna radiates
equally well in "all" directions. Real isotropic antennas do not exist, but they provide useful and
simple theoretical antenna patterns with which to compare real antennas. An antenna gain of 2 (3
dB) compared to an isotropic antenna would be written as 3 dBi. The resonant half-wave dipole
can be a useful standard for comparing to other antennas at one frequency or over a very narrow
band of frequencies. To compare the dipole to an antenna over a range of frequencies requires an
adjustable dipole or a number of dipoles of different lengths. An antenna gain of 1 (0 dB)
compared to a dipole antenna would be written as 0 dBd.
Therefore, gain is the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of an antenna's radiation pattern in
the direction of strongest radiation to that of a reference antenna.
Simply Antenna Gain G: The ratio of the radiated power in the maximum direction to the
radiated power of an isotropic antenna. The gain of an antenna represents the ability to focus its
beam in a particular direction an isotropic antenna has a gain of 0 dB.

Note:
dBi indicates gain vs. isotropic antenna
Isotropic antenna radiates equally well in all directions, spherical pattern
dBd indicates gain vs. reference half-wavelength dipole
Dipole has a doughnut shaped pattern with a gain of 2.15 dBi

Directivity D:
Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular direction when transmitting
or to receive energy better from a particular direction when receiving.
The relationship between gain and directivity: Gain = efficiency/Directivity. An antenna with
increased directivity is hopefully implemented efficiently, is low loss, and therefore exhibits both
increased directivity and gain.
ef
P
D
Pr
=

Where:
D = directive gain.
P= power density at some point with a given antenna
Pref= power density at the same point with a reference antenna

RADIATION PATTERN:
The radiation pattern of antenna is a representation (pictorial or mathematical) of the
distribution of the power out-flowing (radiated) from the antenna (in the case of transmitting
antenna), or inflowing (received) to the antenna (in the case of receiving antenna) as a function
of direction angles from the antenna.

BEAM WIDTH (OR HALF-POWER BEAM WIDTH):
BEAM WIDTH: The angle between the two directions in which the radiated power is half of the
maximum value of the beam in an antennas radiation pattern. In general, the beamwidth of the
main lobe of the radiation pattern decreases as the directivity increases. Beamwidth measures
the directivity of antenna. High-gain antennas always have narrow beams

ANTENNA POLARIZATION:
Polarization: polarization is the orientation of the electric field vector of the electromagnetic
wave produced by the antenna. For most antennas, the orientation of the antenna conductor
determines the polarization.
Hence, the polarization of an antenna in a specific direction is defined to be the polarization of
the wave produced by the antenna at a great distance at this direction (The direction of the E-
field).
Polarisation catagories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a
category known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation.
This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the
effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that occur on
many satellites. Circular polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation.
However it can be imagined by visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is
rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as
it travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation can be seen to be either right or left
handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the transmitter.
Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of
linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field
vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew.

The diagram above shows vertical and horizontal polarization. If the radio wave's electric field
vector points in some other direction, it is said to be obliquely polarized. If the electric field
rotates in space, such that its tip follows an elliptical path, it is elliptically polarized.

EFFECTIVE ISOTROPICALLY RADIATED POWER (EIRP):
A frequently used concept in communication system is that of effective (or equivalent)
isotropically radiated power, EIRP. It is formally defined as the power gain of a transmitting
antenna in a given direction multiplied by the net power accepted by the antenna from the
connected transmitter. EIRP, effective radiated power, is similar to EIRP but with antenna gain
relative to that of a half-wave dipole instead of relative to an isotropic antenna. As an example of
EIRP, suppose an observer is located in the direction of maximum radiation from a transmitting
antenna with input power P
t
; then

t t
G P EIRP =


(a) directional antenna with (b)Isotropic antenna with input
Input power Pt and gain Pr

power PtGt and unity gain.

Effective isotropically radiated power is a parameter used in the broadcast industry. FM radio
stations often mention their effective radiated power when they sign off at night.

ANTENNAS IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Figure. Communication link

Power density
D
P at wave front 1 is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from its
source R in meters with respect to the originally transmitted power, Pt
2
1
R
P
D
=

An isotropic radiator is a theoretical, lossless, omni directional (spherical) antenna. That is, it
radiates uniformly in all directions. The power of a transmitter that is radiated from an isotropic
antenna will have a uniform power density (power per unit area) in all directions. The power
density at any distance from an isotropic antenna is simply the transmitter power divided by the
surface area of a sphere (4R
2
) at that distance. The surface area of the sphere increases by the
square of the radius, therefore the power density, P
D
, (watts/square meter) decreases by the
square of the radius.

Power density from an isotropic antenna
2
4 R
G P
P
t t
D
t
=

Where:
t
P = Average transmitter power
R= Range from the antenna

P
t
is either peak or average power depending on how P
D
is to be specified.
The Gain (G) of an antenna is the ratio of power radiated in the desired direction as compared to
the power radiated from an isotropic antenna, or:

2
4
tA
G =

Where: G= gain of antenna, A, physical aperture area of antenna, = wavelength
The power density at a distant point from a transmitter with an antenna gain of G
t
is the power
density from an isotropic antenna multiplied by the antenna gain.

Power density from transmitting antenna,
2
4 R
G P
P
t t
D
t
=

P
t
is either peak or average power depending on how P
D
is to be specified.
EFFECTIVE CAPTURE AREA
Effective capture area (A
e
) is the product of the physical aperture area (A) and the aperture
efficiency ( ) or:
t
q
4
2
G
A A
e
= =

GAIN AS A FUNCTION OF APERTURE EFFICIENCY
The Gain of an antenna with losses is given by:
2
4
tqA
G =

Where: q =efficiency, A= physical aperture area, = wavelength and
G= gain of an antenna
Since
A A
e
q =

Then 2
4
t
e
A
G =

Note that the gain is proportional to the aperture area normalized by the square of the
wavelength. For example, if the frequency is doubled, (half the wavelength), the aperture could
be decreased four times to maintain the same gain.

Communication links.
We are now ready to completely describe the power transfer in the communication link of. If the
transmitting antenna were isotropic, it would have power density at distance R of
2
4 R
G P
P
t t
D
t
=


Where
t
P the time-average input power is accepted by the transmitting antenna and has been
used. For a transmitting antenna that is not isotropic but has gain G
t
and is pointed for maximum
power density in the direction of the receiver, we have for the power density incident on the
receiving antenna.

2
4 R
G P
P
t t
D
t
=

Using this in given the available received power as

2
4 R
A G P
P
er t t
r
t
=

Where:
er
A is the effective aperture of the receiving antenna and we assume it to be pointed and
polarized for maximum response.
Now from
t
4
2
r
er
G
A =

so becomes

( )
2
2
4 R
G G P
P
r t t
r
t

=

This is called the Friis transmission formula.
The power transmission formula is very useful for calculating signal power levels in
communication links. It assumes that the transmitting and receiving antennas are matched in
impedance to their connecting transmission lines, have identical polarizations, and are aligned
for polarization match. It also assumes the antennas are pointed toward each other for maximum
gain. If any of the above conditions are not met, it is a simple matter to correct for the loss
introduced by polarization mismatch, impedance mismatch, or antenna misalignment. The
antenna misalignment effect is easily included by using the power gain value in the appropriate
direction.

Decibel forms for friis equation.

Starting with
( )
2
2
4 R
G G P
P
r t t
r
t

=
,

Solve for in terms of f and take logarithms of both sides. After manipulation and change to
more convenient units, the equation is

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Km R MHZ f dB G dB G dBx P dBx P
r t t r
log 20 log 20 44 . 32 + + =
Wher
e: dBx is a decibel level referred to any fixed reference power.

And
( ) ( ) Km R MHZ f log 20 log 20 44 . 32

Is the free space path loss

Where G
t
(dB) and G
r
(dB) are the transmit and receive antenna gains in decibels, R (km) is the
distance between the transmitter and receiver in kilometers, and f(MHz) is the frequency in
megahertz.

Summary
Bandwidth: describes the range of frequencies over which the antenna can properly
radiate or receive energy.
Radiation Resistance R
A
: The equivalent resistance which would dissipate the same
amount of power as the antenna radiates.
Input impedance Z
A
: The ratio of the voltage to the current at the antenna terminals.
Polarization: The polarization of an antenna in a specific direction is defined to be the
polarization of the wave produced by the antenna at a great distance at this direction (The
direction of the E-field).
Antenna Gain G : The ratio of the radiated power in the maximum direction to the
radiated power of an isotropic antenna. The gain of an antenna represents the ability to
focus its beam in a particular direction an isotropic antenna has a gain of 0 dB.
Beam width: The angle between the two directions in which the radiated power is half of
the maximum value of the beam.
Antenna Efficiency: The efficiency of an antenna relates the power delivered to the
antenna and the power radiated or dissipated within the antenna. The antenna efficiency
(or radiation efficiency) can be written as the ratio of the radiated power to the input
power of the antenna: e = P
rad
/ P
in

Radiation pattern: Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna is
depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Beam width (or half-power beam width)
Measure of directivity of antenna
High-gain antennas always have narrow beams


Types of antennas
Wire antennas
Dipole
Folded dipole
Beverage wave antenna
Aperture antennas
Horns antennas
Array antennas
Yagi
Phased arrays
Reflector antennas
Parabolic antennas( Dish)
Reflective Antenna ( Corner reflector)
Patch antenna
Microstrip antenna



LECTURE 2: PRACTICAL ANTENNAE
1. THE HERTIZIAN DIPOLE

The dipole antenna dates back to the early RF experiments of Heinrich Hertz in the late 19
th

century. It consists of a conductor that is broken in the center so that RF power can be applied to
it. One can think of the half wave dipole as an open circuited transmission line that has been
spread out, so that the transmission line can radiate a signal into space.

A dipole can be any length, but it most commonly is just under 1/2 wavelength long. A dipole
with this length, known as a resonant or half wave dipole, has an input impedance that is purely
resistive and lies between 30 and 80 ohms, which provides a good match to commercially
available 50 ohms coaxial cables as well as commercial transmitters and receivers, most of
which have 50 ohm output and input impedances. The length of a dipole can be approximately
determined from the following formula:

L = 300/2*f

where:
Lis the length in METER and
f is the frequency in MHz.


CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON AN ANTENNA
A current flowing in a wire whose length is properly related to the rf produces an electro
magnetic field. This field is radiated from the wire and is set free in space
Figure 2 shows the current and voltage distribution on a half-wave (Hertz) antenna. In view A, a
piece of wire is cut in half and attached to the terminals of a high-frequency ac generator. The
frequency of the generator is set so that each half of the wire is 1/4 wavelength of the output. The
result is a common type of antenna known as a DIPOLE.

Figure 2. - Current and voltage distribution on an antenna.

RADIATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

The radiation pattern of a /2 dipole in free space is shown below

The 3-dimensional radiation pattern in free space is a fat doughnut with the dipole piercing its
central hole. Notice that unlike an isotropic radiator that radiates equally well in all directions,
the dipole radiates more RF in some directions than others. This means that the dipole has a gain
or directivity over an isotropic radiator of approximately 2.1 dB. That means that the radiation
from the dipole is 2.1 dB stronger in the direction of maximum radiation than the radiation from
an isotropic radiator in the same direction, when both antennas are fed with the same amount of
RF power.

The input impedance
The input impedance of a dipole antenna also depends on its electrical length. When the antenna
is approximately an odd multiple of a half wavelength long, the input impedance is resistive and
lies between 50 and 200 ohms. For antennas that are an even number of half wavelengths long,
the input impedance is resistive and extremely high, between 1000 and 50,000 ohms.

The chart below shows the effect of ground on the input impedance of a dipole.

As a horizontal antenna is brought closer to the surface of the earth, its input resistance decreases
at first because the electric field is being shorted by the ground. As the antenna is brought closer,
the input resistance will rise again because increases in ground loss resistance overwhelm the
decrease due to shorting of the electric field. Over a good conductor such as sea water, the input
resistance drops steadily as the antenna is lowered, reaching a value of zero when the antenna
touches the water's surface.

As a horizontal dipole is raised above the ground, the input resistance increases until a maximum
value of approximately 90 ohms is reached at a height of 3/8 . As the antenna is raised even
higher, the input resistance slowly oscillates around the free space value of 73 ohms. Most
dipoles in actual installations show an input resistance of 50 to 75 ohms, depending on a
location.

Design curves for Dipole antenna


2. QUARTER-WAVE ANTENNAS (MONOPOLE ANTENNAS).

A 1/2 wavelength antenna is the shortest antenna that can be used in free space. If we cut a half-
wave antenna in half and then ground one end, we will have a grounded quarter-wave antenna.
This antenna will resonate at the same frequency as the ungrounded half-wave antenna. Such an
antenna is referred to as a QUARTER-WAVE or Marconi antenna.

A vertical antenna is used to launch a vertically polarized RF wave. Vertical antennas are most
often used in two areas:

1. Low frequency communications at frequencies below 2 MHz, it is difficult to use
dipole antennas because of their length and the requirement that they be mounted at least a half
wavelength above ground. For example: a 2 MHz dipole antenna is approximately 234 ft long
and needs to be approximately 234 feet above ground. Also, most communications at frequencies
below 2 MHz is via ground wave, which requires vertical polarization.

2. Mobile communications it is difficult to mount a horizontally polarized dipole on a
vehicle. A vertical antenna only has one mounting point and less wind resistance.

The most common vertical antenna is the Marconi antenna. It is a vertical conductor /4 high,
fed at the end near ground. It is essentially a vertical dipole, in which one side of the dipole is the
RF image of the antenna in the ground. This may sound strange, but remember that ground
reflects RF as a mirror reflects light

Simple Marconi Antenna

The image antenna formed in the ground under a Marconi antenna

This type of antenna, unlike the dipole, is an unbalanced antenna, and should be fed directly with
coaxial cable. The shield of the coax is connected to the ground at the base of the antenna and the
center lead of the coax is connected to the vertical radiator.

Because the ground under a vertical antenna is actually part of the antenna, it is necessary that
ground losses be minimized. To minimize the losses, the electrical conductivity of the ground
must be made as high as possible, or an artificial low loss ground must be provided.

Ground conductivity can be improved by using ground radial wires. These are wires buried just
under the earths surface or laid on the surface that provide a low resistance path for RF currents
flowing in the ground. The ground currents are greatest in the vicinity of the feed point of a
Marconi antenna, so the radials run out from the feed point, up to a distance of /4 from the
antenna, if possible. The ground radials do not have to be any specific length and the general rule
is that a large number of short radials is preferable to a few long radials. The diagram below
shows how current flows through the ground to the feed point of the Marconi antenna.

The radials should be laid out in a pattern that follows the ground current that is running radially
out from the feed point of the antenna. The diagram below is a bird's eye view of typical ground
radial layouts. Note that the radials do not all have to be the same length and those losses may be
decreased by adding extra radials near the feed point. These extra radials can be as short as /40
and still be effective.

When a Marconi antenna cannot be mounted on the ground, an artificial ground system, called a
counterpoise, is used. The counterpoise consists of /4 wires emanating radially from the
antenna feed point as shown below. The shield of the coax is connected to the counterpoise at the
feed point. The counterpoise is not connected to ground.

Ground losses affect the feed point impedance and antenna efficiency. A Marconi antenna
mounted on a perfectly conducting ground would have an input impedance that is the
impedance of a dipole, or approximately 36 ohms. When mounted on a real ground, the input
impedance can range from 38 ohms for a well designed AM broadcast antenna mounted over a
specially prepared ground, to over 100 ohms for a Marconi mounted above poor, unprepared
ground that has no radials.

Ground loss reduces the antenna's efficiency, because part of the power being delivered to the
antenna is being dissipated in the ground rather than being radiated. The efficiency can be
computed from the measured value of input resistance by using the following formula:

The radiation pattern of the Marconi antenna is a half doughnut as shown in the figure below.
There is no radiation straight up in the direction of the wire. The bulk of the radiation occurs at a
low elevation angle, which is what is needed to launch a ground wave.


3. FOLDED DIPOLE
The use of parasitic elements and various stacking arrangements causes a reduction in the
radiation resistance of a center-fed, half-wave antenna. Under these conditions obtaining a proper
impedance match between the radiator and the transmission line is often difficult. A convenient
method of overcoming these difficulties is to use a FOLDED DIPOLE in place of the center-fed
radiator. (See views A and B of figure
. - Folded-dipole antennas.

A FOLDED DIPOLE is an ordinary half-wave antenna that has one or more additional
conductors connected across its ends. Additional conductors are mounted parallel to the dipole
elements at a distance equal to a very small fraction of a wavelength. Spacing of several inches is
common.
The feed-point impedance can be further increased by using three or four properly spaced
parallel conductors. Standard feed-line SPREADERS are used to maintain this spacing when
required. In any folded dipole, the increase of impedance is the square of the number of
conductors used in the radiator. Thus, a three-wire dipole has nine times (3
2
) the feed-point
impedance of a simple center-fed dipole. A second method of stepping up the impedance of a
folded dipole is to use two conductors with different radii, as shown in view B.
The directional characteristics of a folded dipole are the same as those of a simple dipole.
However, the reactance of a folded dipole varies much more slowly as the frequency is varied
from resonance. Because of this the folded dipole can be used over a much wider frequency
range than is possible with a simple dipole.
There is a variation of the /2 dipole known as the folded dipole that is often used for FM and
TV reception. A diagram of the folded dipole is shown below.

The folded dipole is the same overall length as the /2 dipole, but has a second conductor
connected to the first only at the ends, and separated from it by approximately /400. The input
impedance of the folded dipole is approximately 300 ohms, which is a perfect match to TV twin
lead and to the input of the TV set. The folded dipole also has a larger bandwidth than the regular
dipole, which is important for proper TV reception.

LECTURE 3: ANTENNA ARRAYS

An antenna array is an antenna that is composed of more than one conductor. There are two
types of antenna arrays:
Driven arrays all elements in the antenna are fed RF from the transmitter
Parasitic arrays only one element is connected to the transmitter. The other elements are
coupled to the driven element through the electric fields and magnetic fields that exist in the
near field region of the driven element
There are many types of driven arrays. The four most common types are:
Collinear array
Broadside array
End fire array
Log Periodic Array
The most common type of Parasitic arrays is: Yagi-Uda Array
A COLLINEAR ARRAY is one in which all the elements lie in a straight line with no radiation
at the ends of the array. The direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of the
elements.
BROADSIDE ARRAY designates an array in which the direction of maximum radiation is
perpendicular to the plane containing these elements. In actual practice, this term is confined to
those arrays in which the elements themselves are also broadside, or parallel, with respect to
each other.
An END-FIRE ARRAY is one in which the principal direction of radiation is along the plane of
the array and perpendicular to the elements. Radiation is from the end of the array, which is the
reason this arrangement is referred to as an end-fire array.
Sometimes a system uses the characteristics of more than one of the three types mentioned. For
instance, some of the elements may be collinear while others may be parallel. Such an
arrangement is often referred to as a COMBINATION ARRAY or an ARRAY OF ARRAYS.
Since maximum radiation occurs at right angles to the plane of the array, the term broadside
array is also used

COLLINEAR ARRAY:
A broadside array because the axes of the elements are along same line.
Half wave sections are linked by wave transmission lines. They develop a phase reversal to
keep all dipoles in phase.
Usually vertical with an omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal plane with a narrow angle of
radiation in the vertical. What would be a good application for this system?
The collinear array consists of /2 dipoles oriented end-to-end. The center dipole is fed by the
transmitter and sections of shorted transmission line known as phasing lines connect the ends of
the dipoles as shown below.

Feed Line
Phasing Lines
Phasing Lines

The length of the phasing lines are adjusted so that the currents in all the dipole sections are in
phase.

The input impedance of a collinear array is approximately 300 ohms. The directivity of a
collinear array slowly increases as the number of collinear sections is increased.

BROADSIDE ARRAY
A broadside array consists of an array of dipoles mounted one above another as shown below.
Each dipole has its own feed line and the lengths of all feed lines are equal so that the currents in
all the dipoles are in phase.
BROADSIDE elements are spaced wavelength apart.(180 degree phase shift)
In order to maintain a broadside presentation of the field the elements are fed out of phase.

Radiation pattern

End fire array.

ENDFIRE elements are also wavelength apart Elements are fed in phase. Radiation from all
elements sum at the end.

Arrays can be described with respect to their radiation patterns and the types of elements of
which they are made.
BROADSIDE ARRAY designates an array in which the direction of maximum radiation is
perpendicular to the plane containing these elements. In actual practice, this term is confined to
those arrays in which the elements themselves are also broadside, or parallel, with respect to
each other.
A COLLINEAR ARRAY is one in which all the elements lie in a straight line with no radiation
at the ends of the array. The direction of maximum radiation is perpendicular to the axis of the
elements.
An END-FIRE ARRAY is one in which the principal direction of radiation is along the plane of
the array and perpendicular to the elements. Radiation is from the end of the array, which is the
reason this arrangement is referred to as an end-fire array.

YAGI-UDA AND LOG PERIODIC ANTENNAS
1 . YAGI-UDA ANTENNAS
Array antennas can be used to increase directivity. In the arrays all elements were active,
requiring a direct connection to each element by a feed network. Array feed networks are
considerably simplified if only a few elements are fed directly. Such an array is referred to as a
parasitic array. The elements that are not directly driven (called parasites) receive their excitation
by near-field coupling from the driven elements. A parasitic linear array of parallel dipoles is
called a Yagi-Uda antenna, a Yagi-Uda array, or simply Yagi. Yagi-Uda antennas are very
popular because of their simplicity and relatively medium gain.
To understand the principles of operation for a three element Yagi, a driven element (or
driver) is considered first and add parasites to the array. A driven element is considered that is
a resonant half-wave dipole. If a parasitic element is positioned very close to it, it is excited by
the driven element with roughly equal amplitudes, so the field incident on the parasite is

driver incident
E E = (1)

A current is excited on the parasite and the resulting radiated electric field, also tangent to the
wire, is equal to in amplitude and opposite in phase to the incident wave. This is because the
electric field arriving at the parasite from the driver is tangential to it and the total electric field
tangential to a good conductor is zero. Thus, the field radiated by the parasite is such that the
total tangential field on the parasite is zero, or
incident parasite
0 E E = + . Combining this fact with (1)
gives

parasite incident driver
E E E = = (2)

From array theory, it is known that two closely spaced, equal amplitude, opposite phase elements
will have an endfire pattern. The pattern of this simple two-element parasitic array for 0.04
spacing is shown in Figure 1.

The simplistic beauty of the Yagi is revealed by lengthening the parasite. The dual endfire beam
is changed to a more desirable single endfire beam. This effect is illustrated for the two-element
parasite array of Figure 2. The driver is a dipole of length 0.4781, which is a half-wave resonant
length when operated in free space. The parasite is a straight wire of length 0.49 and spaced a
distance 0.04 away from the driver. The H-plane pattern in Figure 2b obtained from the
numerical methods demonstrates the general trend of a parasite that is longer than the driver: a
single main beam occurs in the endfire direction from the parasite to the driver along the line of
array. Such a parasite is called a reflector because it appears to reflect radiation from the driver.

Figure 1 A two-element arrays of half-wave resonant dipoles, one a driver and the other a
parasite. The currents on both are equal in amplitude and opposite in phase.

x
0.04
z
(a) Array configuration
z
y
(b) H-plane pattern computed
from simple array theory.

Figure 2 Two-element Yagi-Uda antenna consisting of a driver of length 0.4781 and a reflector
of length 0.49 spaced 0.04 away. The wire radius for both is 0.001.

If the parasite is shorter than the driver, but now placed on the other side of the driver, the pattern
effect is similar to that when using a reflector in the sense that main beam enhancement is in the
same direction. The parasite is then referred to as a director since it appears to direct radiation in
the direction from the driver toward the director. The parasitic array in Figure 3a consisting of a
driver and a director has the pattern shown in Figure 3b.

Figure 3 Two-element Yagi-Uda antenna consisting of a driver of length 0.4781 and a director
of length 0.45 spaced 0.04 away. The wire radius for both is 0.001.
x
z
z
y
from numerical methods.
x
z
z
y

The single endfire beam created by the use of a reflector or a director alone with a driver
suggests that even further enhancement could be achieved with a reflector and a director on
opposite sides of a driver. An example of a three-element Yagi is shown in Figure 8.4a, which is
a combination of the geometries of Figs.2a and 3a. The pattern of Figure 8.4b is improved over
that of either two-element array. The E-plane pattern for the three-element Yagi is shown in
Figure 8.4c. It is essentially equal to the H-plane pattern multiplied by the element factor of the
array, which is that of a half-wave dipole. Again, these patterns were obtained by numerical
solution for exceptionally small element spacing (0.04).

Figure 4 Three-element Yagi-Uda antennas consisting of a driver of length 0.4781, a reflector
of 0.49, and a director of length 0.45, each spaced only 0.04 apart. The wire radius for each
is 0.001.

The general Yagi configuration is shown in Figure 5. The maximum directivity obtainable from
a three-element Yagi is about 9 dBi or 7 dBd. The optimum reflector spacing
R
S (for maximum
directivity) is between 0.15 and 0.25.

z
y
z
x
x
z
(a) Array configuration.
(c) E-plane pattern computed

Figure 5 General Yagi-Uda antenna.

Director-to-director spacings are typically 0.2 to 0.35 wavelengths, with the larger spacings
being more common for long arrays and closer spacings for shorter arrays. Typically, the
reflector length is 0.5 and the driver is of resonant length when no parasitic elements are
present the director lengths are typically 10 to 20% shorter than their resonant length, the exact
length being rather sensitive to the number of directors
D
N and the inter-director spacing
D
S .

The increase in gain of the Yagi is smaller as more directors are added to the array (if we assume
D
S is fixed) since the Yagi is not uniformly excited. In fact, the addition of the directors up to
about 5 or 6 provides a significant increase in gain expressed in dB, whereas the addition of more
directors is beyond the point of diminishing returns as Figure 6 shows. Figure 6 plots the gain
versus of number of elements N in the array (including one reflector and one driver) for an inter-
element spacing for all elements of 0.15
R D
S S = = . It should be noted that adding one director
to increase N from 3 to 4 gives about a 1-dB gain increase, whereas adding one director to
increase N from 9 to 10 yielded only about an additional 0.2-dB gain.

The addition of more reflector elements results in a fractional dB increase in gain and is usually
not done. The main effects of the reflector are on the driving points impedance at the feed point
and on the back lobe of the array. Pattern shape, and therefore gain, are mostly controlled by the
director elements. The director spacing and director length are interrelated, but the more
z
D
L
x
L
R
L
D
S

R
S
h
sensitive parameter is the director length, which becomes more critical as the boom length
increases.
Boom lengths from 0.2 to 4.2 are used. if a metal boom is used. A metal boom may be used
because the voltage distribution on the parasitic elements goes through a zero at the element
center. Ideally, an infinitely thin metallic boom down the center of the array would not change
the voltage distribution. However, metallic booms of practical size to have an effect that must be
compensated for by increasing the parasitic element lengths as shown in Figure 8.7.
Alternatively, the parasitic elements may be insulated from the boom, in which case no
compensation is required.

Figure 6 Gain of a typical Yagi-Uda antenna versus the total number of elements. The element
spacings 0.15
R D
S S = = . The conductor diameters are 0.0025.

G
a
i
n

(
d
B
)

Number of elements, N
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
3 2
1

Figure 7 Graph showing effect of supporting metal boom on the length of Yagi parasitic
elements.
The Yagi is one of the more popular antennas used in the HF-VHF-UHF frequency range. It
provides moderately high gain while offering low weight and low cost. It has a relatively narrow
bandwidth (e.g., a few percent), which may be improved somewhat by using feeds other than a
dipole, such as a folded dipole. The folded dipole also provides a higher input impedance than a
dipole even though the driving point impedance of both are usually reduced considerably from
their self-impedances by mutual coupling effects. Further, increased gain can be obtained by
arraying or stacking Yagi antennas. Maximum gain results for a separation of almost one
wavelength. Thus, for a given application, if a somewhat narrow bandwidth can be tolerated, the
Yagi-Uda antenna can provide good gain at low cost.

2 LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA

A log-periodic antenna is another form of frequency-independent antenna and has a structural
geometry such that its impedance and radiation characteristics repeat periodically as the
logarithm of frequency. In practice, the variations over the frequency band of operation are
minor.

Diameter-to-wavelength ratio of supporting boom
0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.006 0.002
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.025
0.030
The final phase in this metamorphosis of log-periodic antennas is the use of only parallel wire
segments. This is the log-periodic dipole array of Figure 11. The log-periodic dipole array
(LPDA) is a series-fed array of parallel wire dipoles of successively increasing lengths outward
from the feed point at the apex. Note that the interconnecting feed lines cross over between
adjacent elements.

A particularly successful method of constructing an LPDA is shown in Figure 2. A coaxial
transmission line is run through the inside of one of the feed conductors. The outer conductor of
the coax is attached to that conductor and the inner conductor of the coax is connected to the
other conductor of the LPDA transmission line.

As shown in Figure 1, a wedge of enclosed angle o bounds the dipole lengths. The scale factor T
for the LPDA is

1
1
n
n
R
R
t
+
= < (1)

Figure 1 Log-periodic dipole array geometry.

dn
n
R

1 n
R
+

1
L

o

Figure 2 Construction details of the log-periodic dipole array.

Right triangles of enclosed angle o/2 reveal that

1
1
/ 2 / 2
tan
2
n n
n n
L L
R R
o
+
+
= = (2)

Thus,

1 1
1 1
.... ....
n n N
n n N
L L L L
R R R R
+
+
= = = = = (3)

Using this result in (3) gives

1 1 n n
n n
R L
R L
t
+ +
= = (4)

The spacing factor for the LPDA is defined as

Array elements
Feed point

2
n
n
d
L
o = (5)

Where the element spacings as shown in Figure 2 are given by

1 n n n
d R R
+
= (6)
But

1
T
n n
R R
+
= , so

(1 ) T T
n n n n
d R R R = = (7)

From (6), / 2tan( / 2)
n n
R L o = . Using this in (8) yields

(1 )
2tan( / 2)
n
T
n
L
d
o
= (8)

Substituting this in (5) gives

1
2 4tan( / 2)
T
n
n
d
L
o
o
= = (9)
or

1
1
2tan
4
T
o
o
| |
=
|
\ .
(10)

Combining (4) with (8), we note that all dimensions are scaled by

1 1 1 n n n
T
n n n
R L d
R L d
+ + +
= = = (11)

There is an active region for the LPDA, where the few dipoles near the one that is a half-
wavelength long support much more current than do the other radiating elements. It is
convenient to view the LPDA operation as being similar to that of a Yagi-Uda antenna. The
longer dipole behind the most active dipole (with largest current) behaves as a reflector and the
adjacent shorter dipole in front acts as a director. The radiation is then off of the apex. The
wedge enclosing the antenna forms an arrow pointing in the direction of the main beam
maximum.

As the operating frequency changes, the active region shifts to a different portion of the antenna.
The frequency limits of the operational band are roughly determined by the frequencies, at which
the longest and shortest dipoles are half-wave resonant, that is,

1
2
L
L

~ and
2
U
N
L

~ (12)

where
L
and
U
are the wavelengths corresponding to the lower and upper frequency limits.
Since the active region is not confined completely to one dipole, often dipoles are added to each
end of the array to ensure adequate performance over the band. The number of additional dipoles
required is a function of T and o . But for noncritical applications, is sufficient.

The pattern, gain, and impedance of an LPDA depend on the design parameters T and o . Since
the LPDA is a very popular broadband antenna of simple construction, low cost, and light
weight, we will give the design details and illustrate them by examples. Gain contours are plotted
in Figure 3 as a function of T and o . It should be noted that high gain requires a large value of
T , which means a very slow expansion, that is, a LPDA of large overall length. Gain is only
slightly affected by the dipole thickness. It increases about 0.2 dB for a doubling of the
thickness. Gain is also affected by the feeder impedance and tends to decrease as the feeder
impedance is increased above 100 O.
The bottom portion of Figure 3 shoes a gain curve that is derived from the data in where N the
number of dipoles varies from 12 to 47. Notice that the value of
max
G is greater than the value of
the gain contour at the optimum o line in the top portion of Figure 3. The
max
G vs. T curve
probably represents an upper bound on the LPDA gain that can be achieved in practice for feeder
impedances of 100 O or greater.

Example 1: Optimum Design of a 54- to 216-MHz Log-periodic Dipole Antenna

It is desired to have an antenna that operates over the entire VHF-TV and FM broadcast bands,
which span the 54- to 216-MHz frequency range for a 4:1 bandwidth. Suppose the design gain is
chosen to be 6.5 dB. The corresponding values of T and o for a optimum design from Figure 3
are

0.822 T = and 0.149 o = (13)

Figure 3 Gain of a log-periodic dipole array. {corresponding (top) adapted from Carrel
maximum gain curve (bottom) derived from data in }.

Then from (2), we have


( )
1 0
1 0.822
2tan 33.3
4 0.149
o

| |
= =
|
|
\ .
(14)

The length of the longest dipole is determined first. At the lowest frequency of operation 54
MHz), the dipole length from (8.24) should be near a half-wavelength, so

1
0.5 0.5(5.55) 2.78
L
L m = = = (15)

The shortest dipole length should be on the order of 0.5 0.694
U U
L m = = at 216 MHz. the
LPDA element lengths are computed until a length on the order of 0.694 m is reached. To be
specific, element lengths are found from
1
L using
1 n
L
+
= T
n
L . For example,

2 1
(0.822)(2.78) 2.29 m T L L = = =
and

3 2
(0.822)(2.29) 1.88 m T L L = = =

Completing this process leads to

1
L = 2.78 m,
2
L = 2.29 m,
3
L = 1.88 m,
4
L = 1.54 m,

5
L = 1.27 m,
6
L = 1.04 m,
7
L = 0.858 m,
8
L = 0.705 m (16)

9
L = 0.579 m

The array was terminated with nine elements since
9
L = 0.579 m is less than the 0.694 m length
for the highest operating frequency. Elements could be added to either end to improve
performance at the band edges.

The elements spacing for this example are found as

2 2(0.149) 0.298
n n n n
d L L L o = = = (17)

Using the element lengths of d
n
are obtained as

1
d = 0.828 m,
2
d = 0.682 m,
3
d = 0.560 m,
4
d = 0.459 m,

5
d = 0.378 m,
6
d = 0.310 m,
7
d = 0.256 m,
8
d = 0.210 m (18)

The total length of the array is the sum of the spacings, which gives a 3.683 m. The outline of the
antenna fits into an angular sector of angle
0
33.3 o = .

Lecture1: Basic Antenna Theory

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture1: Basic Antenna Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Antennas lecture notes. By M. D.

You might also like