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4EST THE 3TRENGTH OF


3TRUCTURAL -EMBERS
Iearaiag Activity #2:
verview oI the Activity
Ih Ihis learhihg acIiviIy, we will IesI Ihe sIrehgIhs oI Ihe cardboard sIrucIural members we used ih our
model oI Ihe CrahI Road ridge. We will desigh a series oI experimehIs Io deIermihe Ihe sIrehgIhs oI Ihese
members ih boIh Iehsioh ahd compressioh. 1he experimehIs will be cohducIed wiIh a simple IesIihg machihe
IhaI uses a lever Io apply a cohIrolled Iorce Io a IesI specimeh.
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1o ahalyze Ihe experimehIal daIa obIaihed Irom Ihe IesIihg machihe, we will learh ahd apply Ihe principIe
ol the Iever. lihally, we will use a compuIer spreadsheeI Io graph Ihe resulIs oI our IesIs. 1hese graphs will help
us Io observe how various physical properIies aIIecI Ihe sIrehgIh oI a sIrucIural member. We will also use Ihese
graphs as a Iool Ior ahalyzihg ahd desighihg bridges ih Learhihg AcIiviIies #3 ahd #5.
Why!
1o desigh a sIrucIure, ah ehgiheer musI be able Io deIermihe Ihe sIrehgIhs oI Ihe sIrucIural members IhaI
comprise iI. Ih Learhihg AcIiviIy #1, we saw IhaI exIerhal loads cause ihIerhal Iorces Io develop ih a sIrucIure.
We also observed IhaI a sIrucIure cah successIully carry iIs exIerhal loads ohly iI Ihe ihIerhal member Iorces are
less Ihah Ihe correspohdihg member sIrehgIhs. 1hus ah ehgiheer cah'I evaluaIe Ihe load-carryihg abiliIy oI Ihe
sIrucIure wiIhouI IrsI beihg able Io deIermihe member sIrehgIhs.
Lhgiheers deIermihe Ihe sIrehgIhs oI members ih Iwo diIIerehI ways-Ihrough experimehIaIioh ahd
Ihrough Ihe applicaIioh oI sciehIiIc prihciples. 1he sciehIiIc sIudy oI sIrucIural members ahd maIerials is
called Ihe mechanics ol materiaIs. 1he mechahics oI maIerials is Iypically IaughI as ah ehIire uhdergraduaIe
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II is hoI ihIehded IhaI sIudehIs build Ihe IesIihg machihe as parI oI Ihis learhihg acIiviIy. 1he device is
quiIe simple, buI iI will require some woodworkihg skill Io build. DeIailed drawihgs ahd dimehsiohs are
provided Ih Appehdix C. Che device will be adequaIe Ior a class oI sIudehIs, however, ohe device per Iour
or Ive sIudehIs will greaIly ehhahce Ihe opporIuhiIies Ior hahds-oh parIicipaIioh ih Ihe learhihg acIiviIy.
Chce builI, Ihe IesIihg machihe cah be re-used ihdeIhiIely.

2-2
ehgiheerihg course ahd Ihus is beyohd Ihe scope oI Ihis book. Ih Ihis learhihg acIiviIy, we will deIermihe
member sIrehgIhs primarily Ihrough experimehIaIioh. However, by careIully examihihg Irehds ih our experi-
mehIal daIa, we will discover some oI Ihe IuhdamehIal prihciples oh which Ihe mechahics oI maIerials is based.
We will also learh how Io desigh a series oI experimehIs Io obIaih Ihe daIa required Io solve a problem. 1he
abiliIy Io desigh ahd cohducI experimehIs is hoI jusI imporIahI Io sIrucIural ehgiheers-iI is a criIical skill ih a
wide varieIy oI ehgiheerihg ahd sciehIiIc Ields.
Learoiog bjectives
As a resulI oI Ihis learhihg acIiviIy, you will be able Io do Ihe Iollowihg:
CalculaIe Ihe cross-sectionaI area oI a sIrucIural member.
Describe Ihe yieIding, rupture, ahd buckIing Iailure modes.
Lxplaih Ihe IacIors IhaI aIIecI Ihe tensiIe strength ahd Ihe compressive strength oI a sIrucIural member.
Desigh a IesIihg program Io deIermihe Ihe sIrehgIh oI sIrucIural members.
DeIermihe Ihe tensiIe strength ahd Ihe compressive strength oI sIrucIural members Ihrough experimehIaIioh.
Lxplaih Ihe principIe ol the Iever, ahd apply Ihis prihciple Io Ihe ahalysis oI experimehIal daIa.
Use a compuIer spreadsheeI Io ahalyze ahd graph experimehIal daIa.
key Iers
1o successIully compleIe Ihis learhihg acIiviIy, you musI uhdersIahd Ihe Iollowihg key Ierms ahd cohcepIs
Irom Learhihg AcIiviIy #1:
member Ioad tension strength
force internaI force compression faiIure
IoIoratioo
1. 6ross-8ectioo aod 6ross-8ectiooaI Area
Che oI Ihe mosI imporIahI characIerisIics aIIecIihg Ihe sIrehgIh oI a sIrucIural member is iIs cross-section.
A cross-section is Ihe Iwo-dimehsiohal shape you see wheh you look aI Ihe ehd oI a member. Ih Ihe
illusIraIioh below, Ior example, Ihe solid rod has a circuIar cross-section, ahd Ihe solid bar has a rectanguIar
cross-section.
6ross-8ectioo
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8oIid ar
hoIIow Iube
8hape
8oIid 8od 8oIid ar hoIIow Iube 8hape
IypicaI structuraI ebers aod their cross-sectioos.
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1he cross-sectionaI area is Ihe surIace area oI Ihe cross-secIioh. lor example, Ihe cross-secIiohal area oI Ihe
solid bar oh Ihe previous page is Ihe area oI Ihe black recIahgle. 1o calculaIe iI, you would mulIiply Ihe widIh w by
Ihe heighI h. 1he cross-secIiohal area is always expressed ih uhiIs oI lehgIh squared-Ior example, square
ihches or square millimeIers.
2. IeosiIe 8treogth
Ih Learhihg AcIiviIy #1, we deIhed strength as Ihe maximum ihIerhal Iorce a member cah carry beIore iI
Iails. 1he ihIerhal Iorce ih a sIrucIural member cah be eiIher tension or compression. ecause Ihe Iailure oI a
sIrucIural member ih Iehsioh is very diIIerehI Irom iIs Iailure ih compressioh, we musI cohsider Ihe tensiIe
strength ahd compressive strength separaIely.
TensiIe strength is Ihe maximum Iehsioh Iorce a member cah carry
beIore iI Iails. As Ihis deIhiIioh suggesIs, ohe way Io deIermihe Ihe Iehsile
sIrehgIh oI a member is Io load iI ih Iehsioh uhIil iI Iails-IhaI is, pull oh
Ihe member Irom boIh ehds uhIil iI physically breaks ih Iwo-Iheh mea-
sure Ihe amouhI oI Iorce IhaI caused Ihe Iailure.
Suppose we wahIed Io IesI Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI a carboh sIeel bar.
Carbon steeI is ohe oI Ihe mosI commoh maIerials used ih sIrucIures. II is
a mixIure oI iroh ahd a very small amouhI oI carboh-less Ihah 1%. lor
our carboh sIeel IesI specimeh, we will use Ihe bar showh here. II has a square cross-secIioh measurihg 1 ihch
oh each side. 1his cross-secIioh is Iypically desighaIed 1 x 1 (ohe ihch by ohe ihch), ahd iIs cross-secIiohal
area is 1 square ihch.
SIeel is quiIe sIrohg. 1o break a sIeel bar-eveh Ihis rela-
Iively small ohe-we will heed a special machihe like Ihe ohe
picIured below. 1his hydraulic IesIihg machihe is capable oI
sIreIchihg a IesI specimeh wiIh mahy Ihousahds oI pouhds. 1he
machihe cah measure boIh Ihe Ioad oh Ihe specimeh ahd iIs
correspohdihg deformation-Ihe ihcrease ih Ihe lehgIh oI Ihe
bar as iI is sIreIched.
Io deterioe the teosiIe streogth oI a
eber, puII oo it Iro both eods uotiI it
breaks io two.
A hydrauIic testiog achioe.
1o IesI Ihe bar, we will clamp iIs ehds ihIo Ihe machihe ahd gradually ihcrease Ihe load uhIil Ihe sIeel Iails.
As Ihe load is applied, Ihe machihe will cohIihuously measure ahd record boIh Ihe load ahd Ihe deIormaIioh oI
Ihe specimeh. II we ploI Ihese daIa oh a graph, Ihe resulI will look someIhihg like Ihis.
1"
1"
10"
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Load-deIoratioo curve Ior a 1" x 1" carboo steeI bar.
0.012 2.0
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1his graph is called a Ioad-deformation curve. II shows us how Ihe member deIorms-ahd ulIimaIely how iI
Iails-as Ihe load is ihcreased.
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A careIul examihaIioh oI Ihe load-deIormaIioh curve will Iell us a loI abouI
carboh sIeel. LeI's examihe Ihe curve Irom leII Io righI. 1he load-deIormaIioh curve origihaIes ih Ihe lower
leII-hahd corher oI Ihe graph, which Iells us IhaI Ihe deIormaIioh is zero wheh Ihe load is zero. 1his cerIaihly
makes sehse. 1he bar woh'I sIarI Io sIreIch uhIil we apply a Iorce Io iI. As we Iollow Ihe curve up ahd Io Ihe
righI, we hoIice IhaI Ihe curve is almosI perIecIly sIraighI Irom zero all Ihe way up Io abouI 36,000 pouhds. 1he
sIraighI lihe meahs IhaI Ihe delormation increases in direct proportion to the Ioad. lor example, Ihe deIorma-
Iioh aI 20,000 pouhds is exacIly Iwice as large as Ihe deIormaIioh aI 10,000 pouhds. Ih Ihis lihear parI oI Ihe
load-deIormaIioh curve, Ihe behavior oI Ihe sIeel bar is said Io be eIastic. Iastic behavior meahs IhaI, iI Ihe
load is removed, Ihe deIormaIioh will also reIurh Io zero. Wheh a member is elasIic, iI always reIurhs Io iIs
origihal lehgIh aIIer iI is uhloaded. 1his parIicular sIeel bar will remaih elasIic, as lohg as Ihe load oh iI is kepI
below 36,000 pouhds. Wheh Ihe load does reach 36,000 pouhds, Ihe deIormaIioh oI Ihe bar is jusI over 1/100.
1he IoIal lehgIh oI Ihe bar has ihcreased Irom 10 Io 10.012-a chahge oI ohly abouI ohe IehIh oI ohe percehI.
As Ihe load is ihcreased beyohd 36,000 pouhds, Ihe behavior oI Ihe bar chahges raIher abrupIly. 1here is
suddehly a huge ihcrease ih deIormaIioh, wiIh virIually ho chahge ih Ihe load. 1he sIeel is begihhihg Io Iail.
Wheh a maIerial uhdergoes large deIormaIiohs wiIh liIIle chahge ih load, iI is said Io be yieIding. 1he poihI oh
Ihe load-deIormaIioh curve where yieldihg begihs is called Ihe yieId point, ahd Ihe Iorce aI which yieldihg
occurs is called Ihe yieId strength. eyohd Ihe yield poihI, Ihe sIeel sIreIches like IaIIy. Ahd uhlike Ihe elasIic
behavior we observed earlier, ahy deIormaIioh IhaI occurs beyohd Ihe yield poihI will hoI disappear aIIer Ihe
load is removed. 1his permahehI elohgaIioh oI Ihe member is called pIastic deformation. NoIe IhaI, as Ihe
plasIic deIormaIioh ihcreases, Ihe bar evehIually begihs Io carry more load. 1he load peaks aI 5,000 pouhds,
which is called Ihe uItimate strength oI Ihe member. AIIer IurIher plasIic deIormaIioh, Ihe specimeh Ihally
breaks ihIo Iwo pieces. 1his Iailure mode is called a rupture.
So whaI is Ihe tensiIe strength oI Ihis sIeel member Is iI Ihe yield sIrehgIh or Ihe ulIimaIe sIrehgIh Sihce
Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh is Ihe Iorce aI which Ihe member Iails, Ihe ahswer Io Ihis quesIioh depehds oh how Ihe
sIrucIural ehgiheer chooses Io deIhe Iailure. lor mosI pracIical sIrucIural applicaIiohs, Ihe ehgiheer would
probably wahI Io ehsure IhaI Ihe member does hoI yield. Ih such cases, Iailure would be deIhed as yieldihg,
ahd Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh would be 36,000 pouhds-Ihe yield sIrehgIh. Ih some cases, however, Ihe ehgiheer
mighI ohly wahI Io ehsure IhaI Ihe member does hoI rupIure. Ih such cases, Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh would be
5,000 pouhds-Ihe ulIimaIe sIrehgIh. 1his laIIer deIhiIioh oI Iailure mighI be appropriaIe, Ior example, wheh
Ihe ehgiheer is desighihg Ior Ihe eIIecI oI ah exIraordihary evehI like a major earIhquake. Ih such cases, Ihe
ehgiheer mighI be willihg Io accepI some plasIic deIormaIioh oI Ihe sIrucIure, as lohg as iI does hoI collapse.
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1he IesI machihe measures Ihe load applied Io Ihe bar. WhaI we are really ihIeresIed ih, however, is Ihe
ihIerhal Iorce ih Ihe bar. lorIuhaIely, ih Ihis IesI, Ihe maghiIude oI Ihe load ahd Ihe ihIerhal member Iorce
are exacIly equal. Cah you explaih why
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1his is ah imporIahI ahd oIIeh misuhdersIood poihI-ih sIrucIural ehgiheerihg, Ihere is oIIeh ho sihgle uhi-
versally accepIed deIhiIioh oI Iailure. RaIher, Ihe ehgiheer musI exercise his or her proIessiohal judgmehI Io
deIermihe Ihe cohdiIiohs uhder which a sIrucIure (or a compohehI oI a sIrucIure) ho lohger will IuhcIioh as
ihIehded.
Che oIher characIerisIic oI Ihe load-deIormaIioh curve Ior Ihe carboh sIeel bar is worIh mehIiohihg. NoIe
IhaI, aI rupIure, Ihe bar has deIormed Iwo Iull ihches-20% oI iIs origihal lehgIh. 1his capaciIy Io uhdergo very
large plasIic deIormaIioh aIIer yieldihg is called ductiIity. DucIiliIy is ohe oI Ihe mosI beheIcial properIies oI
sIeel, ahd iI is ohe oI Ihe mosI imporIahI reasohs why sIeel is so widely used ih sIrucIures. Wheh a ducIile
member begihs Io Iail, iIs large plasIic deIormaIioh provides ah obvious warhihg IhaI someIhihg is wrohg wiIh
Ihe sIrucIure. 1his warhihg provides ah opporIuhiIy Io evacuaIe people ahd make emergehcy repairs beIore
Ihe sIrucIure collapses. lor Ihis reasoh, ducIiliIy greaIly ehhahces
sIrucIural saIeIy.
NoI all sIrucIural maIerials are ducIile. MaIerials IhaI do hoI
uhdergo large plasIic deIormaIioh prior Io Iailure are called
brittIe maIerials. A Iypical load-deIormaIioh curve Ior a briIIle
maIerial is showh aI righI. NoIe IhaI Ihe maIerial rupIures wiIh-
ouI yieldihg ahd Ihus wiIhouI givihg ahy warhihg IhaI a Iailure is
abouI Io occur. lor Ihis reasoh, briIIle maIerials are geherally
uhdesirable Ior sIrucIural members. CasI iroh is a briIIle maIerial,
which explaihs why casI iroh has beeh ehIirely replaced by sIeel
ih moderh sIrucIures. CohcreIe is a briIIle maIerial, which
explaihs (ih parI) why cohcreIe is always reihIorced wiIh sIeel
bars wheh iI is used as a sIrucIural maIerial.
We have seeh how ohe parIicular sIrucIural member made oI
ohe parIicular maIerial cah be IesIed Io deIermihe iIs Iehsile
sIrehgIh. II we were Io repeaI Ihis IesI wiIh mahy diIIerehI
members-diIIerehI sizes, diIIerehI cross-secIiohs, ahd diIIerehI
maIerials-some paIIerhs would begih Io emerge. A careIul
ahalysis oI Ihese paIIerhs would reveal Ihe Iollowihg IacIs abouI
Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI sIrucIural members:
4ENSILE STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE CROSSSECTIONAL AREA OF A MEMBER As Ihe cross-secIiohal area ihcreases,
Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh ihcreases ih direcI proporIioh Io Ihe area. II Ihe cross-secIioh oI our carboh sIeel bar
were chahged Irom 1 x 1 Io 2 x 2, Ihe cross secIiohal area would ihcrease Irom 1 square ihch Io 4 square
ihches, ahd Ihe yield sIrehgIh would ihcrease Irom 36,000 pouhds Io abouI 144,000 pouhds-Iour Iimes
greaIer.
4ENSILE STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF MATERIAL THE MEMBER IS MADE OF. Lvery maIerial has iIs owh charac-
IerisIic sIrehgIh, measured ih uhiIs oI lorce per area (Ior example, pouhds per square ihch or hewIohs per
square meIer). 1he yield sIrehgIh oI carboh sIeel is 36,000 pouhds per square ihch. CIher Iypes oI sIeel
wiIh yield sIrehgIhs oI 50,000 pouhds per square ihch ahd higher are commoh. 1he Iehsile sIrehgIh oI a
member cah be calculaIed by mulIiplyihg Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI Ihe materiaI by Ihe cross-secIiohal area oI
Ihe member.
4ENSILE STRENGTH DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE LENGTH OF A MEMBER II we used Ihe same 1 x 1 cross-secIioh buI
chahged Ihe lehgIh oI our specimeh Irom 10 Io 20, Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh would remaih exacIly Ihe same.
4ENSILE STRENGTH DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE SHAPE OF THE CROSSSECTION II we IesIed a hollow Iube or circular
rod wiIh a cross-secIiohal area oI 1 square ihch, we would Ihd IhaI iIs Iehsile sIrehgIh is exacIly Ihe same as
Ihe 1 x 1 square sIeel bar.
1hese observaIiohs will guide Ihe desigh oI our owh IesIihg program, laIer ih Ihis learhihg acIiviIy.
3. 6opressive 8treogth
Compressive strength is Ihe maximum compressioh Iorce a member cah carry beIore iI Iails. We cah
deIermihe Ihe compressive sIrehgIh oI a sIrucIural member by loadihg iI ih compressioh uhIil iI Iails, Iheh
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measurihg Ihe amouhI oI Iorce required Io cause Ihe Iailure.
1o uhdersIahd how a sIrucIural member Iails ih compressioh, Iry Ihe Iollowihg simple
experimehI. Hold a yardsIick or meIer sIick verIically, wiIh iIs boIIom ehd oh Ihe Ioor.
Now puI Ihe sIick ih compressioh by pushihg dowhward oh iIs Iop ehd. Cradually ihcrease
Ihe compressioh Iorce. AI some poihI, Ihe sIick will suddehly behd sideways-ih ehgiheer-
ihg Ierms, iI will buckIe. uckIing is a Iailure IhaI occurs wheh compressioh causes a
member Io suddehly behd sideways, perpehdicular Io Ihe direcIioh oI Ihe applied load.
ucklihg is Ihe mosI commoh Iailure mode Ior sIrucIural members ih compressioh. Wheh
a member Iails by bucklihg, iIs compressive strength is Ihe ihIerhal Iorce aI which bucklihg
occurs.
1ry repeaIihg Ihe same experimehI wiIh a 12-ihch woodeh ruler. Uhless you're really
sIrohg, you'll probably Ihd IhaI you cah'I push hard ehough oh Ihe 12-ihch ruler Io make iI
buckle. 1his observaIioh suggesIs ah imporIahI characIerisIic oI bucklihg Iailures: Shorter
members have greater compressive strength than Ionger ones.
Now suppose we wahIed Io IesI Ihe compressive sIrehgIh oI a 1 x 1 carboh sIeel bar.
Agaih, we would heed Io use our hydraulic IesIihg machihe Io load Ihe bar. II would Iake abouI 34,000 pouhds
oI compressive Iorce Io cause Ihe 10 lohg bar Io buckle. Recoghizihg IhaI Ihe compressive sIrehgIh oI Ihe bar
depehds oh iIs lehgIh, we would heed Io IesI a series oI 1 x 1 square bars, each wiIh a diIIerehI lehgIh. We
would Ihd IhaI ihcreasihg Ihe lehgIh oI Ihe bar Io 20 would cause a subsIahIial reducIioh ih iIs sIrehgIh-Io
abouI 2,000 pouhds. A 40 bar would Iail aI arouhd 13,000 pouhds. II we IesIed members wiIh lehgIhs up Io
100 ahd ploIIed Ihe resulIs oh a graph oI compressive sIrehgIh vs. lehgIh, Ihe resulI would look like Ihis:
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6opressive streogth vs. Ieogth Ior a 1"x1" carboo steeI bar.
1his graph vividly illusIraIes Ihe eIIecI oI member lehgIh oh compressive sIrehgIh. NoIe IhaI ah 0
member is less Ihah ohe-IehIh as sIrohg as a 10 member, eveh Ihough Iheir cross-secIiohs are idehIical.
How do Ihe size ahd shape oI Ihe cross-secIioh aIIecI compressive sIrehgIh Ih Learhihg AcIiviIy #1, we
observed IhaI hollow Iubes seem Io be more eIIecIive Ihah solid bars aI carryihg compressioh. LeI's IesI IhaI
observaIioh how wiIh ahoIher simple experimehI. Usihg Ihe same Ile-Iolder cardboard you used Io build Ihe
CrahI Road ridge, cuI ouI Iwo idehIical recIahgles measurihg 5 cehIimeIers wide ahd 10 cehIimeIers lohg. lold
ohe oI Ihe Iwo recIahgles ihIo a square Iube measurihg 1cm x 1cm. Clue Ihe edges IogeIher as we did wheh we
preIabricaIed Ihe square Iubes ih Learhihg AcIiviIy #1. 1he secohd recIahgle should remaih uhIolded-a
5cm-wide bar wiIh a lehgIh oI 10cm. We how have Iwo sIrucIural members-a bar ahd a Iube. oIh are Ihe
same lehgIh, ahd boIh use exactIy Ihe same amouhI oI maIerial. Place each ohe wiIh iIs ehds beIweeh your
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Ihumb ahd IoreIhger, ahd squeeze. You'll Ihd
IhaI Ihe IaI recIahgular bar buckles wiIh ohly
Ihe slighIesI compressive Iorce. Ch Ihe oIher
hahd, Ihe Iube is amazihgly sIrohg-almosI
impossible Io buckle wiIh ohe hahd. 1his simple
IesI clearly demohsIraIes ahoIher imporIahI
characIerisIic oI bucklihg Iailures: A hoIIow tube
has signihcantIy higher compressive strength than
a soIid bar using the same amount ol materiaI.
Now leI's do Ihe same sorI oI experimehI wiIh
acIual sIeel sIrucIural members. Cur goal is Io
ihvesIigaIe how Ihe cross-secIiohal area ahd
cross-secIioh shape aIIecI Ihe compressive
sIrehgIh. We cah accomplish Ihis goal by IesIihg
a series oI sIeel specimehs wiIh various areas ahd
shapes, Iheh comparihg Ihe resulIs. Sihce we will be sIudyihg Ihe eIIecIs oI Iwo diIIerehI variables-cross-
secIiohal area ahd shape-we will heed Io desigh Ihe experimehIs careIully. II is imporIahI IhaI successive IesIs
chahge ohly ohe variable aI a Iime, so we cah logically compare Ihe resulIs ahd deIermihe Ihe eIIecI oI each
variable.
lor example, cohsider Ihe Iollowihg Ive carboh sIeel IesI specimehs:
A cardboard bar buckIes with
ooIy a sIight Ioad.
A cardboard tube is aatiogIy
stroog io copressioo
Specimen A is Ihe same 1 x 1 solid square bar we
have beeh usihg IhroughouI Ihis learhihg acIiviIy.
1he IesI resulIs Ior Ihis bar will provide a basis Ior
comparisoh wiIh Ihe oIher specimehs.
Specimen is a hollow Iube measurihg 2.125 x
2.125. 1he Ihickhess oI Ihe Iube walls is 0.125
(1/). 1hese dimehsiohs resulI ih a cross-sec-
Iiohal area oI exacIly 1 square ihch-Ihe same as
Specimeh A. ecause Iheir cross-secIiohal areas
are equal, we cah compare Ihe IesI resulIs Irom
Specimehs A ahd Io deIermihe Ihe eIIecI oI
cross-secIioh shape oh compressive sIrehgIh.
Specimen C is a 0.707 x 0.707 solid bar. 1hese
dimehsiohs resulI ih a cross-secIiohal area oI 0.5
square ihches-exacIly halI Ihe area oI Specimeh
A. Sihce Specimehs A ahd C have Ihe same shape,
we cah compare Ihe Iwo seIs oI IesI resulIs Io
deIermihe Ihe eIIecI oI cross-secIiohal area oh
sIrehgIh.
Specimen D is a 1 x 0.5 solid bar. Like Specimeh
C, Ihis bar has a cross-secIiohal area oI 0.5 square
ihches, however, Ihe cross-secIioh oI Specimeh D
is recIahgular, raIher Ihah square. 1hus we cah
compare Ihe IesI resulIs Irom Specimehs C ahd D
Io IurIher examihe Ihe eIIecI oI cross-secIioh
shape oh sIrehgIh.
Specimen is a 1.35 x 1.35 hollow Iube wiIh walls
0.1 Ihick. IIs cross-secIiohal area is exacIly 0.5
square ihch. We cah compare Ihe IesI resulIs Irom
Specimehs C ahd L Io deIermihe Ihe eIIecI oI
cross-secIioh shape. We cah compare Ihe resulIs
Irom Specimehs A ahd L Io deIermihe Ihe eIIecI oI
cross-secIiohal area.
6arboo steeI test specieos used to deterioe how cross-sectiooaI
area aod shape aIIect copressive streogth.
1"
1"
Leogth

1"
Leogth
0.5"

0.101"
Leogth
0.101"

2.125"
2.125"
0.125"
Leogth

Leogth
0.1"
1.35"
1.35"

1"
1"
Leogth

1"
1"
Leogth

1"
Leogth
0.5"

1"
Leogth
0.5"

0.101"
Leogth
0.101"

0.101"
Leogth
0.101"

2.125"
2.125"
0.125"
Leogth

2.125"
2.125"
0.125"
Leogth

Leogth
0.1"
1.35"
1.35"

Leogth
0.1"
1.35"
1.35"

2-8
1
1
1
6ao you caIcuIate the cross-sectiooaI areas oI these ebers!
Show that the cross-sectionaI area is exactIy 1 square inch for Speci-
mens A and and exactIy 0.S square inch for Specimens C, D, and .
II we do a series oI compressioh sIrehgIh IesIs oh each oI Ihese Ive specimehs usihg a varieIy oI diIIerehI
lehgIhs, Ihe resulIs will look like Ihis:
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
0 20 40 60 0 100 120 140
Leogth (ioches}
(2.125" x 2.125" tube)
A (1" x 1" bar)
6 (0.707" x 0.707" bar)
(1" x 0.5" tube)
E (1.35" x 1.35" tube)
A careIul comparisoh oI Ihese Ive sIrehgIh vs. lehgIh curves will cohIrm several oI our earlier observaIiohs
abouI compressive sIrehgIh ahd will lead us Io several hew ohes as well:
#OMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE LENGTH OF THE MEMBER. lor all Ive specimehs, ihcreasihg Ihe lehgIh
causes a subsIahIial reducIioh ih Ihe compressive sIrehgIh.
#OMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE SHAPE OF THE CROSSSECTION A comparisoh oI Ihe resulIs Ior Speci-
mehs A ahd clearly shows IhaI a hollow Iube has a subsIahIially higher compressive sIrehgIh Ihah a solid
bar, Ior a giveh lehgIh ahd cross-secIiohal area. 1he resulIs Ior Specimehs C ahd L cohIrm Ihis observaIioh.
1he resulIs Ior Specimehs C ahd D ihdicaIe IhaI a square bar has somewhaI higher sIrehgIh Ihah a recI-
ahgular bar wiIh Ihe same area.
#OMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE CROSSSECTIONAL AREA OF THE MEMBER 1he resulIs Ior Specimehs A ahd
C ihdicaIe IhaI ihcreasihg Ihe cross-secIiohal area oI a member ihcreases iIs compressive sIrehgIh. 1he
resulIs Ior ahd L ihdicaIe IhaI Ihis same cohclusioh is valid Ior Iubes. NoIe IhaI, uhlike Iehsile sIrehgIh,
Ihe compressive sIrehgIh is not proporIiohal Io Ihe cross-secIiohal area. (lor example, doublihg Ihe area
geherally will hoI double Ihe sIrehgIh.)
#OMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE MATERIAL THE MEMBER IS MADE OF 1his series oI IesIs uses ohly
carboh sIeel, however, iI we repeaIed Ihese experimehIs wiIh specimehs made oI oIher maIerials, we would
Ihd IhaI sIrohger, sIiIIer maIerials have higher compressive sIrehgIh Ihah weaker, more Iexible ohes.
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2-9
1
1
2
What cao we Iearo Iro a coparisoo oI 8pecieos A aod E!
Compare the compressive strength vs. Iength curves for Specimens
A and on the graph above. What concIusion can you draw from this
comparison!
4. Ihe FriocipIe oI the Lever
Wheh acIual sIrucIural members are IesIed ih a laboraIory, powerIul hydraulic machihes are used Io per-
Iorm Ihe IesIs. We doh'I have hydraulic power available Ior Ihis projecI, buI we do have Ihe power oI Ihe Iever
Io help us apply a large, cohIrolled, measurable Iehsioh or compressioh Iorce Io a cardboard sIrucIural
member. 1he simple IesIihg machihe we will use ih Ihis learhihg acIiviIy is based oh Ihe prin-
cipIe ol the Iever, Ihus, Io uhdersIahd how Ihe machihe works, you will heed Io uhdersIahd
how a lever works.
Suppose you are doihg a lahdscapihg projecI, ahd you ehcouhIer a 200-pouhd rock IhaI
musI be moved. 1he ohly Iools available are a 6-IooI lohg sIeel pipe ahd a shorI
log. How cah you move Ihe rock As Ihe picIure suggesIs, you cah
move Ihe rock quiIe easily by usihg Ihe sIeel pipe as a Iever
ahd Ihe log as a luIcrum. A Iever is a simple machihe, cohsisI-
ihg oI a bar or rod IhaI roIaIes oh a pivoI. 1he pivoI is called
a fuIcrum. Wheh you apply a dowhward Iorce Io ohe ehd oI
Ihe lever, Ihe lever pivoIs oh Ihe Iulcrum ahd applies ah
upward Iorce Io Ihe rock aI Ihe oIher ehd.
1he diagram below shows Ihe Iorces acIihg oh Ihe lever. I
2
represehIs Ihe dowhward Iorce you are applyihg
Io ohe ehd oI Ihe lever, ahd I
1
represehIs Ihe weighI oI Ihe rock pushihg dowh oh Ihe oIher ehd. Sihce Ihe
lever is liIIihg Ihe rock, I
1
also represehIs Ihe upward lorce appIied by the Iever to the rock. I
1
is Ihe disIahce
Irom Ihe Iorce I
1
Io Ihe Iulcrum. I
2
is Ihe disIahce Irom Ihe Iorce I
2
Io Ihe Iulcrum.
1he principIe ol the Iever sIaIes IhaI:
Ih our example, we khow IhaI Ihe weighI oI Ihe rock, I
1
, is 200 pouhds. LeI's place Ihe log (Ihe Iulcrum) ohe
IooI away Irom Ihe rock. Sihce Ihe sIeel pipe (Ihe lever) is six IeeI lohg, Iheh I
1
is 1' ahd I
2
is 5'. WhaI Iorce do
you heed Io apply Io Ihe lohg ehd oI Ihe lever Io liII Ihe rock II you subsIiIuIe Ihe khowh values oI I
1
, I
2
, ahd
I
1
ihIo Ihe equaIioh above, ahd solve Ior I
2
you will Ihd IhaI you can Iilt the 200-pound rock with a lorce ol onIy
40 pounds.
siog a Iever to ove a heavy rock.
I
1
I
2
I
2
I
1
I
1
I
2
I
2
I
1
2-10
1
1
3
siog this Iever, how uch weight couId you IiIt with 50 pouods!
Suppose you need to move another rock with this Iever. Using the
same bar and fuIcrum Iocation, you push downward with a force of
S0 pounds to Iift the rock. How much does the rock weigh!
1his simple example shows how a lever cah be used Io sighiIcahIly ihcrease Ihe amouhI oI Iorce IhaI cah be
applied Io ah objecI. II also shows how we cah use Ihe prihciple oI Ihe lever Io precisely calculaIe Ihe amouhI
oI Iorce applied Io ah objecI. 1he IesIihg machihe we will be usihg Io cohducI sIrehgIh IesIs is a direcI applica-
Iioh oI Ihis prihciple.
5. 6oovertiog Mass to Weight
Weight is a lorce, Ihus, we express Ihe weighI oI ah objecI ih uhiIs oI Iorce. Ih Ihe lever example above, Ihe
weighI oI Ihe rock ahd Ihe Iorces applied Io Ihe lever are expressed ih pouhds-Ihe sIahdard measure oI Iorce
ih Ihe U.S. CusIomary sysIem oI uhiIs.
1he experimehIs cohducIed ih Ihis learhihg acIiviIy use meIric uhiIs, also called SI uhiIs. (SI sIahds Ior
Systeme |nternationaI.) DeIermihihg Ihe weighI oI ah objecI ih SI uhiIs is a biI more complicaIed Ihah doihg iI
ih U.S. uhiIs. Wheh youweigh ah objecI oh a meIric scale, Ihe humber you read Irom Ihe scale is usually ih
grams or kilograms, which are uhiIs oI mass, hoI Iorce. 1hus, wheh youweigh ah objecI oh a meIric scale,
you acIually do hoI measure iIs weighI. You measure iIs mass.
1o deIermihe Ihe weighI oI Ihis objecI, you musI cohverI iIs mass Io a Iorce, usihg Ihe equaIioh
Ih Ihis equaIioh, W is Ihe weighI oI Ihe objecI, m is iIs mass, ahd g is Ihe acceleraIioh oI graviIy. Ih SI uhiIs, g
= 9.1 meIers/sec
2
. II you express Ihe mass m ih kilograms, Iheh Ihe weighI W will be ih hewIohs.
1
1
4
What is the weight oI a 5-kiIogra ass!
ln Learning Activity #1, we used a S-kiIogram stack of books to Ioad
the Grant koad ridge. How much did this stack of books weigh!
We will use Ihis mass-Io-weighI cohversioh exIehsively wheh we ahalyze Ihe experimehIal daIa collecIed as
parI oI Ihis learhihg acIiviIy.
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2-11
Ihe FrobIe
Ihe Need
1he 1owh Lhgiheer oI HaupIville, New York, has decided Io cohducI a sIrucIural evaluaIioh oI Ihe CrahI
Road ridge, Io ehsure IhaI iI cah saIely carry Ihe required highway loads. eIore he cah begih ahalyzihg Ihe
sIrucIure, he will heed Io obIaih ihIormaIioh abouI Ihe sIrehgIhs oI Ihe various sIrucIural members used ih Ihe
maih Irusses. He decides Io hire a maIerials IesIihg laboraIory Io desigh ahd cohducI ah experimehIal IesIihg
program Io provide Ihe hecessary ihIormaIioh.
our Job
Your maIerials IesIihg compahy, Uhiversal SIrucIural MaIerials AssessmehI, Ihc., has beeh hired by Ihe
HaupIville 1owh Lhgiheer Io provide experimehIal daIa ih supporI oI his sIrucIural evaluaIioh oI Ihe CrahI Road
ridge. Your job is Io desigh ahd cohducI a program oI experimehIaIioh Io deIermihe Ihe sIrehgIhs oI all
sIrucIural members used ih Ihe maih Irusses oI Ihe bridge. As a Iechhical specialisI, you are respohsible Ior
providihg your cliehI wiIh compleIe, accuraIe daIa ahd presehIihg IhaI daIa ih a mahher IhaI is boIh uhder-
sIahdable ahd usable.
Ihe 8oIutioo
Ihe FIao
Cur plah Io provide Ihe HaupIville Lhgiheer wiIh Ihe ihIormaIioh he heeds is as Iollows:
lamiliarize wiIh Ihe IesIihg machihe IhaI we will use Ior our experimehIs.
Desigh a IesIihg program.
Make Ihe IesI specimehs.
CohducI Iehsioh ahd compressioh sIrehgIh IesIs.
Ahalyze ahd graph Ihe experimehIal daIa.
1he producI oI our work will be a series oI graphs IhaI Ihe HaupIville Lhgiheer cah use as Ihe basis Ior his
sIrucIural evaluaIioh.
Ihe Iestiog Machioe
escriptioo
1his simple lever-based IesIihg machihe will allow you Io apply a cohIrolled Iehsioh or compressioh Iorce Io
a IesI specimeh ahd measure IhaI Iorce wiIh reasohable accuracy. 1hough you do hoI heed Io build Ihe
machihe, you should uhdersIahd how iI works, ih order Io use iI properly ahd Io achieve accuraIe resulIs.
1he cohIguraIioh ahd compohehI parIs oI Ihe IesIihg machihe are illusIraIed ih Ihe drawihg below. 1he
Ioading arm is IasIehed Io Ihe posts wiIh a sIeel bolI, which serves as a pivoI. 1he 1-Iine ahd C-Iine are verIical
marks oh Ihe loadihg arm, ihdicaIihg Ihe poihIs where Ihe Iehsioh ahd compressioh specimehs will be IasIehed
Ior IesIihg. IeIt pads are IasIehed Io Ihe uhderside oI Ihe loadihg arm ahd Ihe Iop side oI Ihe base aI Ihe C-Lihe.
1hese pads will ehsure IhaI compressioh IesI specimehs are uhiIormly loaded. 1he temporary support is a
woodeh posI IhaI is used Io supporI Ihe loadihg arm while a Iehsioh specimeh is beihg clamped ihIo posiIioh.
Tke Iearaiag Activity
2-12
6opooeot parts oI the testiog achioe.
1he phoIo below shows everyIhihg you will heed Io cohducI Ihe Iehsile ahd compressive sIrehgIh experimehIs.
Fivot
Loadiog Ar
Notch
Ieporary
8upport
ase
Fost
6 -Lioe
I-Lioe
FeIt
Fads
Fivot
Loadiog Ar
Notch
Ieporary
8upport
ase
Fost
6 -Lioe
I-Lioe
FeIt
Fads
Ihe testiog achioe.
Iwo saII cIaps
(" uick-rip cIaps are
recoeoded}.
oe additiooaI cIap to attach
the achioe to a tabIetop.
A pIastic bucket (with haodIe}.
About 5 kg oI saod
(showo here io a secood bucket}.
A scoop (a saII gardeoiog
shoveI works weII}.
A etric scaIe capabIe oI
easuriog the ass oI ao object
accurateIy, to the oearest gra.
Ihe scaIe shouId have a capacity
oI at Ieast 5000 gras.
A saII sheet oI 1/1"-
thick baIsa wood.
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2-13
how the Machioe Works
Wheh you IesI Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI a cardboard sIrucIural member, you will clamp Ihe Iop oI Ihe IesI
specimeh Io Ihe loadihg arm aI Ihe 1-Lihe. 1he boIIom oI Ihe specimeh will be clamped Io Ihe base. You will
hahg Ihe plasIic buckeI Irom Ihe hoIch aI Ihe ehd oI Ihe loadihg arm, Iheh slowly Ill iI wiIh sahd uhIil Ihe
specimeh rupIures. AIIer Ihe Iailure, you will weigh Ihe buckeI ahd sahd, ahd apply Ihe principIe ol the Iever Io
deIermihe Ihe ihIerhal Iorce ih Ihe specimeh aI Ihe ihsIahI oI Iailure. 1he prihciple oI Ihe lever says IhaI:
Ih Ihis equaIioh, T is Ihe ihIerhal Iorce ih Ihe IesI specimeh ahd W is Ihe weighI oI Ihe buckeI ahd sahd.
Sihce I
1
ahd I
2
cah be measured direcIly Irom your IesIihg machihe, ahd W is deIermihed experimehIally, we cah
solve Ihis equaIioh Ior Ihe uhkhowh ihIerhal Iorce T. 1he resulI is:
1he procedure Ior IesIihg compressioh members is Ihe same, excepI IhaI Ihe specimeh will be placed aI Ihe
C-Lihe ihsIead oI Ihe 1-Lihe. Wheh we apply Ihe prihciple oI Ihe lever Io Ihd Ihe uhkhowh ihIerhal compres-
sioh Iorce 0 ih Ihe specimeh, we geI:
NoIe IhaI Ihe prihciple oI Ihe lever applies eveh wheh boIh Iorces are oh Ihe same side oI Ihe Iulcrum.
esigo the Iestiog Frogra
Now IhaI Ihe IesIihg machihe is ready Io go, you are probably ahxious Io sIarI doihg some experimehIs. uI
beIore we cah sIarI IesIihg, we IrsI heed Io desigh Ihe IesIihg program. 1he objecIives oI Ihis plahhihg process
are Io:
Lhsure IhaI we geI accuraIe daIa,
Lhsure IhaI we geI Ihe righI kihds oI daIa Io supporI Ihe projecIs we will be doihg laIer, ahd
Lhsure IhaI we do hoI wasIe Iime or maIerial by doihg uhhecessary IesIs.
1o accomplish Ihese objecIives, we musI apply some oI Ihe observaIiohs we made earlier abouI Ihe Iehsile
sIrehgIh ahd compressive sIrehgIh oI sIrucIural members. SpeciIcally, we heed Io look aI each oI Ihe IacIors
oh which Ihe Iehsile ahd compressive sIrehgIh depehd, ahd vary Ihese IacIors sysIemaIically ih our IesIs. As a
mihimum, Ihe rahge oI values Ior each IacIor musI be adequaIe Io ahalyze every member ih Ihe CrahI Road
ridge.
1he logical IhoughI process leadihg Io Ihe desigh oI our IesIihg program is as Iollows:
4ENSILE STRENGTH DEPENDS ON THE CROSSSECTIONAL AREA OF A MEMBER 1hereIore, we musI creaIe IesI speci-
mehs wiIh a varieIy oI diIIerehI cross-secIiohal areas. 1he cross-secIiohal area oI a recIahgular member is
simply iIs widIh Iimes iIs Ihickhess. Sihce all oI our specimehs will have Ihe same Ihickhess (Ihe Ihickhess
oI Ihe cardboard), we heed Io creaIe IesI specimehs wiIh a varieIy oI diIIerehI widIhs.
4ENSILE STRENGTH DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE LENGTH OF A MEMBER 1hereIore, all oI our Iehsioh IesI specimehs
cah be Ihe same lehgIh. We will use 20 cehIimeIers, because Ihis lehgIh IIs Ihe IesIihg machihe hicely.
4ENSILE STRENGTH DOES NOT DEPEND ON THE SHAPE OF THE CROSSSECTION 1hereIore, all oI our Iehsioh IesI
specimehs cah have Ihe same Iype oI cross-secIioh. We will use a simple recIahgular bar.
2-14
3 c
20 c
3 c
width
3 c
20 c
3 c
width
#OMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEPENDS OF THE SHAPE AND SIZE OF THE CROSSSECTION 1hereIore, we musI creaIe
compressioh IesI specimehs Ior each oI Ihe diIIerehI cross-secIiohs we plah Io use ih our sIrucIure. We will
IesI recIahgular Iubes wiIh Ihe same dimehsiohs as Ihe Iubes used ih Ihe CrahI Road ridge model.
#OMPRESSIVE STRENGTH DEPENDS OF THE LENGTH OF THE MEMBER 1hereIore, we musI creaIe IesI specimehs
wiIh Ihe Iull rahge oI diIIerehI lehgIhs we plah Io use ih our sIrucIure. We will use lehgIhs Irom 5 Io 16
cehIimeIers.
4ENSILE AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH BOTH DEPEND ON THE MATERIAL THE MEMBER IS MADE OF 1hereIore, Io do a
Iruly comprehehsive IesIihg program, we would heed Io creaIe IesI specimehs oI various diIIerehI maIeri-
als. Sihce our projecIs will all use Ihe same Iype oI cardboard, however, we will ohly IesI Ihis ohe maIerial.
Ih desighihg Ihe IesIihg program, we musI also cohsider Ihe eIIecIs oI experimehIal error ahd Ihe haIural
variabiliIy oI Ihe properIies we are aIIempIihg Io measure. 1here are mahy possible sources oI experimehIal
error ih our IesI seIup. (We will discuss Ihem ih deIail laIer.) Some oI Ihese cah be cohIrolled by cohducIihg
Ihe IesIs very careIully, buI ho maIIer how careIul we are, our experimehIal daIa will exhibiI some haIural
variabiliIy. lor Ihis reasoh, we should repeaI each oI our experimehIs several Iimes ahd average Ihe resulIs.
RepeaIihg each experimehI several Iimes is especially imporIahI Ior Ihe compressioh IesIs, which are ihherehIly
more variable Ihah Ihe Iehsioh IesIs.
1akihg all oI Ihese IacIors ihIo accouhI, our IesIihg program will cohsisI oI Ihe Iollowihg experimehIs:
Make the Iest 8pecieos
1he cohIguraIioh oI a Iypical Iehsioh IesI specimeh is showh below. 1he member iIselI is a sIrip oI card-
board 20 cehIimeIers lohg, sliced Irom a Ile Iolder jusI as we did ih Learhihg AcIiviIy #1. Clued ohIo each ehd
oI Ihe member is a 3-cehIimeIer square oI cardboard, which provides a surIace Ior Ihe clamps Io grip wheh Ihe
specimeh is placed ih Ihe IesIihg machihe.
Iest
#
6ross-8ectioo Leogth Nuber oI
8pecieos
11 4 mm-wide bar 20 cm 3
12 6 mm-wide bar 20 cm 3
13 mm-wide bar 20 cm 3
C1 10 mm x 10 mm Iube 5 cm 3
C2 10 mm x 10 mm Iube 10 cm 3
C3 10 mm x 10 mm Iube 16 cm 3
C4 6 mm x 10 mm Iube 5 cm 3
C5 6 mm x 10 mm Iube 10 cm 3
C6 6 mm x 10 mm Iube 16 cm 3
Ieosioo test specieo.
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2-1b
Makiog a teosioo test specieo.
8eioIorciog the eods oI a copressioo test specieo.
1o make a Iehsioh IesI specimeh, apply glue Io
ohe oI Ihe cardboard squares. Place Ihe member ohIo
Ihe glue, ahd hold iI ih posiIioh uhIil Ihe glue seIs.
RepeaI Ior Ihe opposiIe ehd oI Ihe member, as showh
aI righI.
1o make Ihe compressioh IesI specimehs, sIarI by
layihg ouI ahd IabricaIihg cardboard Iubes oI Ihe
required sizes, exacIly as we did ih Learhihg AcIiviIy
#1. 1heh reihIorce Ihe ehds oI each member by
coaIihg a 6mm-wide sIrip oI cardboard wiIh glue, ahd
wrappihg Ihe sIrip arouhd Ihe ehIire perimeIer oI Ihe
member aI each ehd. 1his procedure is illusIraIed ih
Ihe phoIo aI righI. 1he purpose oI Ihis reihIorcemehI
is Io ehsure IhaI Ihe ehds oI Ihe member do hoI crush
wheh Ihey are compressed by Ihe IesIihg machihe.
1he picIure aI righI shows ohe compleIe seI oI IesI
specimehs-Ihree bars oI diIIerehI widIhs ahd Iwo
Iubular cross-secIiohs, each ih Ihree diIIerehI lehgIhs.
2-1b
6ooduct the Ieosioo Iests
Use Ihe Iollowihg procedure Io IesI each oI your
Iehsioh specimehs:
1} 1o prepare Ior your IrsI IesI, clamp Ihe IesIihg
machihe Io Ihe edge oI a Iable, wiIh Ihe lohg ehd
oI Ihe loadihg arm overhahgihg as showh. Place
Ihe Iemporary supporI uhder Ihe loadihg arm, ahd
hahg a buckeI Irom Ihe hoIch aI Ihe ehd oI Ihe
loadihg arm. PuI a chair or sIool below Ihe buckeI
ahd, iI hecessary, sIack books oh Ihe chair so IhaI
Ihe space beIweeh Ihe Iop oI Ihe sIack ahd Ihe
boIIom oI Ihe buckeI is ohly abouI Iwo ihches.
Wheh a IesI specimeh breaks, Ihe buckeI will Iall,
we doh'I wahI iI Io Iall very Iar.
2} Place ohe oI Ihe 4mm Iehsioh specimehs (1esI 11)
ihIo posiIioh, cehIered oh Ihe 1-Lihe.
3} Clamp Ihe Iop oI Ihe specimeh Io Ihe loadihg arm
ahd Ihe boIIom oI Ihe specimeh Io Ihe base.
Lhsure IhaI Ihe specimeh remaihs sIraighI ahd
verIical. 1he clamps musI be IighI, so Ihe speci-
meh woh'I slip.
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2-17
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Is cardboard ductiIe or brittIe!
Did your test specimen faiI in a ductiIe or brittIe manner! What does
this characteristic teII you about the suitabiIity of cardboard as a
structuraI materiaI!
4} Remove Ihe Iemporary supporI, ahd gehIly allow
Ihe weighI oI Ihe buckeI Io pull Ihe specimeh
IighI. Now begih Ihe loadihg process. lill Ihe
scoop wiIh sahd, Iheh slowly pour Ihe sahd Irom
Ihe scoop ihIo Ihe buckeI. WaiI 5 secohds, Iheh
add a secohd scoop oI sahd. WaiI 5 secohds, ahd
add a Ihird scoop. CohIihue Ihis process, always
waiIihg 5 secohds beIweeh scoops, uhIil Ihe
specimeh breaks.
5} 1he Iailure oI Ihe specimeh will happeh suddehly,
wiIhouI warhihg-oIIeh durihg ohe oI Ihe 5-sec-
ohd pauses ih Ihe loadihg process. However, iI
Ihe Iailure does occur while you are addihg sahd,
sIop immediaIely. 1he sahd ih Ihe buckeI should
be Ihe exacI amouhI IhaI caused Ihe Iailure Io
occur.
4
b
} LiII Ihe buckeI oII oI Ihe IesIihg machihe, place iI
oh Ihe scale, ahd record Ihe mass.
Now empIy Ihe buckeI, ahd repeaI Ihe process Ior
each oI your Iehsioh specimehs. lor each IesI, keep
careIul records oI Ihe specimeh size ahd Ihe mass oI
Ihe buckeI ahd sahd.
b
2-18
1
1

Why is it oecessary Ior the Ioadiog ar to be baIaoced!


When the testing machine was buiIt, the Ioading arm was baIanced
on the pivot (see Appendix C). lf the Ioading arm had not been
baIanced, how wouId it affect your experimentaI resuIts!
AoaIyte aod raph the Ieosioo ata
1o ahalyze our experimehIal daIa, we heed Io calculaIe Ihe acIual tensiIe strength IhaI we measured ih each
IesI, Iheh creaIe a graph oI Iehsile sIrehgIh vs. member widIh. 1his graph will give us Ihe capabiliIy Io deIer-
mihe Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh Ior any member widIh, hoI jusI Ihe speciIc widIhs we IesIed. 1he ahalysis ahd graph-
ihg cah be perIormed mosI easily ahd accuraIely by usihg a compuIer spreadsheeI.
6aIcuIate the IeosiIe 8treogth
lor each Iehsioh IesI, you deIermihed Ihe mass oI Ihe buckeI ahd sahd IhaI caused Ihe specimeh Io Iail. Ih
order Io deIermihe Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh, you musI:
(1} CohverI Ihe mass Io weight, usihg Ihe equaIioh:
where g is 9.1 meIers/secohd
2
ahd m musI be expressed ih kilograms.
(2} Apply Ihe prihciple oI Ihe lever Io deIermihe Ihe Iorce ih Ihe specimeh aI Iailure, usihg Ihe equaIioh:
ecause Ihese calculaIiohs musI be perIormed Ior each ihdividual IesI, Ihe ahalysis cah be dohe very eII-
ciehIly wiIh a spreadsheeI. 1he resulIs should look someIhihg like Ihis:
Iest Meber Mass oI Weight oI IeosiIe
Nuber Width ucket & 8aod ucket & 8aod 8treogth
(} (g} (N} (N}
11 4 942 9.2 25.1
11 4 996 9.8 21.2
11 4 92 9.1 25.3
12 6 1497 14.1 40.8
12 6 1424 14.0 38.8
12 6 139 13.1 38.1
13 10 18.4 51.3
13 1909 18.1 52.1
13 132 18.0 50.0
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2-19
Ih Ihis spreadsheeI, Ihe black cells are headihgs, Ihe whiIe cells are Ior ehIry oI experimehIal daIa, ahd Ihe
gray cells are calculaIed auIomaIically. 1he cell Iormulas required Io creaIe Ihis spreadsheeI wiIh MicrosoII
Lxcel look like Ihis:
NoIe IhaI Ihe spreadsheeI is seI up Io allow any values oI I
1
ahd I
2
Io be ehIered. 1his is imporIahI, because
Ihe acIual measuremehIs I
1
ahd I
2
Ior your IesIihg machihe are likely Io be diIIerehI Irom Ihese values. NoIe
also IhaI Ihe mass was recorded ih grams, so iI had Io be cohverIed Io kilograms (divided by 1000) as parI oI Ihe
weighI calculaIioh.
1
1
1
6ao you veriIy these spreadsheet caIcuIatioos!
Whenever you use a computer to soIve a numericaI probIem, you
shouId verify that the caIcuIations are being done correctIy. One way
to verify computer resuIts is to perform one compIete set of caIcuIa-
tions by hand and compare your answer with the one the computer
caIcuIated. SeIect any one of the tension test resuIts above, caIcuIate
the tensiIe strength by hand, and compare your resuIts to the com-
puter soIution. Are the computer resuIts correct!
6reate a raph oI IeosiIe 8treogth vs. Meber Width
Chce Ihe spreadsheeI is seI up, iI is a relaIively simple Iask Io creaIe a graph oI Iehsile sIrehgIh vs. member
widIh. 1he besI Iype oI graph Ior Ihis Iype oI daIa is ahx-y scaIIer ploI, wiIh ho lihe cohhecIihg Ihe daIa
poihIs. Use member width Ior Ihe x-axis ahd tensiIe strength Ior Ihe y-axis. 1he procedure Ior creaIihg Ihis
graph depehds oI Ihe spreadsheeI soIIware you are usihg. Check Ihe program's Help mehu Ior ihsIrucIiohs.
1he resulI should look someIhihg like Ihe graph oh Ihe Iollowihg page . Lach+ symbol represehIs ohe IesI.
2-20
IeosiIe 8treogth vs. Meber Leogth Ior cardboard ebers (experieotaI data}.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
Meber Width (}
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0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
Meber Width (}
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Ireod Lioe
IeosiIe 8treogth vs. Meber Leogth Ior cardboard ebers (experieotaI data with treod Iioe}.
As you mighI expecI, Ihere is some scaIIer ih our experimehIal daIa-a clear ihdicaIioh oI boIh experi-
mehIal error ahd haIural variabiliIy ih Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI a maIerial. NoheIheless, Ihe daIa poihIs all appear
Io lie alohg a sIraighI lihe. 1his observaIioh suggesIs IhaI Ihere is a lihear relaIiohship beIweeh member widIh
ahd Iehsile sIrehgIh. We cah represehI Ihis lihear relaIiohship by drawihg a besI II sIraighI lihe direcIly oh
Ihe x-y scaIIer ploI. Mahy spreadsheeI programs cah do Ihis auIomaIically, usihg a IuhcIioh calledIrehd lihe
or lihear regressioh. Agaih, check Ihe Help mehu oI your spreadsheeI program Io see iI eiIher oI Ihese
IuhcIiohs is available. II hoI, you cah prihI a copy oI Ihe graph you jusI creaIed, Iheh use a pehcil ahd ruler Io
draw a sIraighI lihe IhaI besI IIs your daIa. WheIher you draw Ihe lihe yourselI or use Ihe spreadsheeI Io do iI,
you musI ehsure IhaI Ihe Irehd lihe passes Ihrough Ihe poihI (0,0). We khow IhaI a member wiIh zero widIh
must have zero sIrehgIh, so Ihe poihI (0,0) must lie oh Ihe Irehd lihe. Ih a spreadsheeI program, Ihis is hormally
accomplished by seIIihg Ihe y-intercept oI Ihe Irehd lihe Io zero. 1he resulI should look like Ihis:
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2-21
NoIice IhaI Ihis charI cah be used as a powerIul desigh Iool. Lveh Ihough you ohly perIormed IesIs oh
specimehs oI Ihree diIIerehI widIhs, you cah how easily deIermihe Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI a member wiIh any
widIh beIweeh 0 ahd mm. 1o use Ihe correcI maIhemaIical Ierm, you cah interpoIate ahy poihI oh Ihe graph.
You could also guess aI Ihe sIrehgIh oI a member wiIh a widIh larger Ihah mm, ih oIher words, you could
extrapoIate Irom Ihe graph. uI be careIul! LxIrapolaIioh cah be dahgerous. JusI because our daIa appear Io
be highly lihear ih Ihe rahge Irom 0 Io mm doesh'I meah IhaI Ihe relaIiohship beIweeh member widIh ahd
Iehsile sIrehgIh will cohIihue Io be lihear Ior larger widIhs.
1
1
8
6ao you use the graph to deterioe teosiIe streogth!
What is the tensiIe strength of a cardboard member S miIIimeters
wide! What is the strength of a doubIe 4-miIIimeter bar, Iike the ones
we used in the Grant koad ridge modeI!
o ao ActuaI ridge Froject
howdo eogioeers obtaio data Iro
experieotaI streogth testiog!
4HE SORT OF STRENGTH TESTING WE HAVE BEEN DOING IN THIS LEARNING
ACTIVITY IS GENERALLY NOT PERFORMED AS PART OF THE DESIGN PROCESS FOR INDIVIDUAL
STRUCTURES 2ATHER TESTING IS DONE BY RESEARCHERS IN UNIVERSITIES IN GOVERNMENT
LABORATORIES AND IN INDUSTRY 4HE RESULTS OF THESE TESTS ARE INCORPORATED INTO BOOKS
CALLED DESIGN CODES WHICH ARE PUBLISHED BY PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES AND MADE AVAIL
ABLE TO ENGINEERS &OR EXAMPLE THE !MERICAN )NSTITUTE OF 3TEEL #ONSTRUCTION PUB
LISHES A DESIGN CODE FOR STEEL STRUCTURES 4HE !MERICAN #ONCRETE )NSTITUTE PUBLISHES A
DESIGN CODE FOR CONCRETE STRUCTURES 4HESE CODES ARE UPDATED FREQUENTLY SO THAT
PRACTICING ENGINEERS CAN HAVE ACCESS TO THE MOST CURRENT RESEARCH RESULTS WITHOUT
ACTUALLY HAVING TO DEVELOP AND CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS FOR EACH PROJECT
2-22
Iest the 6opressioo 8pecieos
1} 1o cohducI Ihe compressioh IesIs, seI up Ihe
IesIihg machihe ih Ihe same way you did Ior Ihe
Iehsioh IesIs. Place ohe oI Ihe 16 cm-lohg speci-
mehs (1esI C3) aI Ihe C-Lihe, beIweeh Ihe
loadihg arm ahd Ihe base. oIh Ihe Iop ahd
boIIom oI Ihe specimeh should be resIihg oh Ihe
IelI pads.
Chce Ihe specimeh is ih place, apply load jusI as
you did Ior Ihe Iehsioh IesIs. Add sahd Io Ihe
buckeI ohe scoop aI a Iime, pausihg 5 secohds
beIweeh scoops.
2} Wheh Ihe specimeh buckles, remove Ihe buckeI,
place iI oh Ihe scale, ahd record Ihe mass.
LmpIy Ihe buckeI, ahd repeaI Ihe process Ior each
oI your compressioh specimehs. lor each IesI,
keep careIul records oI Ihe specimeh size ahd
lehgIh ahd Ihe mass oI Ihe buckeI ahd sahd.
3} 1o mouhI Ihe 10cm-lohg ahd 5cm-lohg specimehs,
a mihor adjusImehI Io Ihe IesIihg machihe will be
required. II is very important IhaI Ihe loadihg arm
be exacIly horizohIal aI Ihe sIarI oI each IesI,
oIherwise, Ihe Iour sides oI Ihe Iube will hoI be
loaded equally. lor Ihe shorIer specimehs, iI is
hecessary Io block up Ihe base oI Ihe member
wiIh books or pieces oI wood uhIil Ihe loadihg
arm is level. Use Ihe 16 cm-lohg Iemporary
supporI as a gage. Use shims made oI 1/16 balsa
wood Io make Ihe adjusImehIs Io Ihe heighI oI
Ihe specimeh. ecause balsa is soII, Ihese shims
will also perIorm Ihe IuhcIioh oI Ihe lower IelI
pad, which is how covered up.
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2-23
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1
9
What are soe possibIe sources oI error io these experieots!
Now that you have compIeted the tension and compression tests,
think about some of the factors that might cause your resuIts to be
inaccurate. List at Ieast ve possibIe sources of experimentaI error in
these tests. Which sources of error do you think have the greatest
effect on your resuIts! How can you minimize them!
AoaIyte aod raph the 6opressioo ata
1o ahalyze our experimehIal daIa, we will IrsI calculaIe Ihe acIual compressive sIrehgIh measured ih each
IesI, Iheh use Ihese daIa Io creaIe a compressive sIrehgIh vs. lehgIh graph Ior each cross-secIioh. Agaih, Ihese
Iasks are besI perIormed wiIh a compuIer spreadsheeI.
6aIcuIate the 6opressive 8treogth
As lohg as Ihe disIahce Irom Ihe C-Lihe Io Ihe pivoI oI your IesIihg machihe is exacIly equal Io I
1
, we cah
calculaIe Ihe compressive sIrehgIh 0 usihg Ihe equaIioh:
We cah use a slighIly modiIed versioh oI our Iehsioh spreadsheeI Io do Ihe daIa ahalysis. 1he resulI should
look like Ihis:
Iest 8ite Leogth Mass oI Weight oI 6opressive
Nuber ucket & 8aod ucket & 8aod 8treogth
(} (c} (g} (N} (N}
C1 10 x 10 5 194 19.1 53.1
C1 5 2014 19.8 54.9
C1 5 116 11.8 49.5
C2 10 1755 11.2 41.9
C2 10 121 11.9 49.1
C2 10 1940 19.0 52.9
C3 16 1531 15.0 41.8
C3 16 1572 15.4 42.9
C3 16 149 14.1 40.9
C4 x 10 5 1776 11.4 48.4
C4 5 1704 1.1 4.5
C4 5 1663 1.3 45.4
C5 10 16 1. 4.0
C5 10 1572 15.4 42.9
C5 10 1701 1.1 4.4
C6 16 1404 13.8 38.3
C6 16 1432 14.0 39.1
C6 16 1305 12.8 35.
2-24
6opressive 8treogth vs. Leogth Ior a x 10 cardboard tube (experieotaI data}.
6opressive 8treogth vs. Leogth Ior a 10 x 10 cardboard tube (experieotaI data}.
6reate a raph oI 6opressive 8treogth vs. Leogth
1he compressive sIrehgIh oI a Iube is aIIecIed by boIh Ihe size oI iIs cross-secIioh ahd Ihe lehgIh oI Ihe
member. 1hus we heed Io creaIe a series oI sIrehgIh vs. lehgIh graphs, ohe Ior each diIIerehI cross-secIioh.
Agaih, we will use Ihe x-y scaIIer ploI, wiIh member Iength as Ihe x-axis ahd compressive strength as Ihe
y-axis. 1he resulIihg graphs Ior Ihe 10mm x 10mm ahd 6mm x 10mm cross-secIiohs should look like Ihis:
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
0 2 4 6 10 12 14 16 1
Leogth (c}
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0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
0 2 4 6 10 12 14 16 1
Leogth (c}
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6ao you use the graph to deterioe copressive streogth!
What is the compressive strength of a 6mm x 10mm tube that is
12cm Iong! What is the compressive strength of an 8mm x 10mm
tube that is 6cm Iong!
2-2b
6opressive 8treogth vs. Leogth Ior cardboard tubes (experieotaI data with poIyooiaI treod Iioes}.
NoIe also IhaI Ihe experimehIal daIa ploIIed oh Ihe compressioh sIrehgIh graphs do hoI seem Io be as
sIrohgly lihear as Ihe Iehsioh sIrehgIh daIa were. Ihdeed, Ihe relaIiohship beIweeh compressive sIrehgIh ahd
lehgIh is not lihear, so iI would be ihcorrecI Io represehI Ihem wiIh a lihear Irehd lihe. IhsIead, we should use a
besI II curve Io represehI Ihe daIa. 1he graph below shows boIh seIs oI daIa, wiIh polyhomial Irehd lihes
added. Agaih, iI you're spreadsheeI does hoI have Ihis capabiliIy, you cah prihI Ihe Iwo graphs above, ahd
skeIch ih Ihe besI II curves by hahd.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2 4 6 10 12 14 16 1
Leogth (c}
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10mm x 10mm Iube
6mm x 10mm Iube
Like Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh graph you developed earlier, Ihis is ah imporIahI desigh Iool. CI course, Ihis graph
is ohly useIul Ior Iwo parIicular member sizes-Ihe 6 mm x 10 mm Iube ahd 10 mm x 10 mm Iube. II you wahIed
Io use a diIIerehI size member ih a desigh, you would heed Io ruh ahoIher series oI IesIs ahd produce a cor-
respohdihg charI Ior IhaI cross-secIioh.
6oocIusioo
Ih doihg Ihis projecI, you had ah opporIuhiIy Io learh abouI sIrucIural members, how Ihey Iail, ahd how
Iheir various characIerisIics aIIecI Iheir sIrehgIh. You learhed abouI desighihg experimehIs, ahd you saw IhaI
Ihe daIa obIaihed Irom well-desighed experimehIs cah be used Io predicI Ihe sIrehgIhs oI sIrucIural members
wiIh reasohable accuracy. MosI imporIahI, you produced a series oI graphs IhaI we will sooh use Io ahalyze ahd
desigh model Iruss bridges.
Aoswers to the uestioos
1} 6ao you caIcuIate the cross-sectiooaI areas oI these ebers! Ih Ihe case oI solid square or recIahgular
members, Ihe cross-secIiohal area is Ihe widIh Iimes Ihe heighI oI Ihe member.
lor Ihe 1 x 1 bar (Specimeh A), Ihe area is
lor 0.707 x 0.707 bar (Specimeh C), Ihe area is
lor Ihe 1 x 1/2 bar (Specimeh D), Ihe area is
Ih Ihe case oI hollow Iubes, Ihe easiesI meIhod is Io calculaIe Ihe cross-secIiohal area as iI Ihe bar were solid,
Iheh subIracI Ihe area oI Ihe hole.
lor Ihe 2.125 x 2.125 Iube (Specimeh ), Ihe area is
NoIe IhaI Ihe hole ih Ihe cross secIioh measures 1.75, which is deIermihed
by subIracIihg Iwo Iimes Ihe wall Ihickhess (0.125) Irom 2.125.
lor Ihe 1.35 x 1.35 Iube (Specimeh L), Ihe area is
2} What cao we Iearo Iro a coparisoo oI 8pecieos A aod E! lor ahy lehgIh greaIer Ihah abouI 40, Ihe hollow
Iube L is sIrohger Ihah Ihe solid bar A-eveh Ihough Ihe Iube uses ohly halI as much sIeel. 1his observaIioh
clearly demohsIraIes IhaI hollow shapes are geherally much more ecohomical Ihah solid ohes Ior sIrucIural
members ih compressioh.
3} siog this Iever, how uch weight couId you IiIt with 50 pouods! 1he principIe ol the Iever sIaIes IhaI I
1
I
1
= I
2
I
2
.
Ih Ihis case, we khow I
2
is 50 pouhds, I
1
is 1' ahd I
2
is 5'. II we solve Ior I
1
ahd subsIiIuIe Ihese khowh values,
we geI
NoIe IhaI Ihe prihciple oI Ihe lever cah be used Io deIermihe Ihe maghiIude oI either Iorce acIihg oh Ihe lever.
2.125"
0.125"
1.815"
2.125"
0.125"
1.815"
2-2b
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4} What is the weight oI a 5-kiIogra ass! 1o Ihd Ihe weighI oI a 5-kilogram mass, use Ihe equaIioh
5} Is cardboard ductiIe or brittIe! Cardboard Iails suddehly, wiIh ho warhihg ahd wiIh ho evidehce oI yieldihg
beIore rupIure. 1hereIore, iI is a briIIle maIerial ahd would hoI be appropriaIe Ior use ih acIual sIrucIures.
} Why was it oecessary to baIaoce the Ioadiog ar! II Ihe loadihg arm were hoI balahced, Iheh Ihe weighI oI
Ihe arm iIselI would aIIecI Ihe Iorce ih Ihe specimeh. lor example, iI Ihe lohg side oI Ihe loadihg arm were
heavier Ihah Ihe shorI ehd (eveh wiIh Ihe clamp aIIached), Iheh Ihe weighI oI Ihe loadihg arm would add Io
Ihe ihIerhal Iorce ih Ihe specimeh. uI IhaI Iorce would hoI be accouhIed Ior ih our ahalysis oI experi-
mehIal daIa, because Ihe equaIioh T=WI
2
/ I
1
assumes IhaI W ahd T are Ihe ohly Iorces acIihg oh Ihe loadihg
arm. 1hus ah improperly balahced loadihg arm could be a sighiIcahI source oI experimehIal error.
1} 6ao you veriIy these spreadsheet caIcuIatioos! 1he Iollowihg calculaIiohs are a mahual veriIcaIioh oI Ihe IesI
resulI Ior Ihe IrsI specimeh:
Given:
L
1
= 2S cm
L
2
= 69.S cm
Mass of bucket and sand = 942 grams = 0.942 kiIogram
Convert mass to weight:
AppIy the principIe of the Iever:
1his ahswer maIches Ihe spreadsheeI resulI exacIly.
8} 6ao you use the graph to deterioe teosiIe streogth!
A cardboard member 5mm wide should have a Iehsile sIrehgIh oI abouI 32 hewIohs.
A sihgle 4-mm bar should have a Iehsile sIrehgIh oI abouI 26 hewIohs. 1he doubled 4-mm bar has Iwice
Ihe cross-secIiohal area ahd IhereIore Iwice Ihe sIrehgIh-abouI 52 hewIohs.
9} What are soe possibIe sources oI error io these experieots! Some possible sources oI error ihclude:
IhaccuraIe IabricaIioh oI Ihe IesI specimehs.
IhaccuraIe posiIiohihg oI Ihe specimehs ih Ihe IesIihg machihe.
IhaccuraIe measuremehI oI I
1
ahd I
2
.
IhaccuraIe measuremehI oI Ihe weighI oI sahd ih Ihe buckeI.
Improperly calibraIed scale.
Loadihg arm hoI balahced.
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Poor experimehIal procedure, such as addihg sahd Ioo rapidly, addihg sahd aIIer Ihe specimeh has
Iailed, or hoI ehsurihg IhaI Ihe loadihg arm is horizohIal aI Ihe sIarI oI Ihe IesI.
lricIioh aI Ihe pivoI oI Ihe loadihg arm.
CI Ihese sources oI error, ihaccuracy ih Ihe IabricaIioh ahd posiIiohihg oI IesI specimehs is probably mosI
criIical. II a 4 mm Iehsioh specimeh is acIually ohly 3 mm wide, Ihe measured Iehsile sIrehgIh will be Ioo
small by 25% percehI. II a compressioh specimeh is hoI placed exacIly verIically ih Ihe IesIihg machihe, all
Iour sides oI Ihe Iube will hoI be loaded uhiIormly, Ihe member will Iail premaIurely, ahd Ihe measured
compressive sIrehgIh will be much Ioo low. Nohe oI Ihese sources oI error cah be elimihaIed, buI Ihey cah
be mihimized by IabricaIihg IesI specimehs as precisely as possible ahd by careIul aIIehIioh Io proper
experimehIal procedures.
10} 6ao you use the graph to deterioe copressive streogth!
1he compressive sIrehgIh oI a 6mm x 10mm Iube wiIh a lehgIh oI 12cm is approximaIely 43 hewIohs.
1here is ho sIrehgIh vs. lehgIh graph Ior ah mm x 10mm Iube. NoheIheless, because Ihis member size
Ialls beIweeh Ihe 6mm x 10mm Iube ahd Ihe 10mm x 10mm Iube, we cah reasohably ihIerpolaIe
beIweeh Ihe Iwo curves. 1he compressive sIrehgIh oI ah mm x 10mm Iube wiIh a lehgIh oI 6cm could
be esIimaIed aI approximaIely 49 hewIohs.
8oe Ideas Ior Eohaociog this Learoiog Activity
Chce sIudehIs have compleIed Ihe basic sIrehgIh IesIs described above, have Ihem develop ahd perIorm
experimehIs Io ahswer quesIiohs like Ihese:
Are diIIerehI cross-secIioh shapes-Iriahgles, -shapes, ahd circular Iubes, Ior example-more or less
eIIciehI Ihah square Iubes ih carryihg compressioh
Do Iwo 4 mm bars really have Ihe same sIrehgIh as ohe mm bar
Cah Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI a cardboard member be improved by coaIihg iI wiIh glue
WhaI is Ihe Iehsile sIrehgIh oI a piece oI licorice 1he compressive sIrehgIh oI a preIzel sIick
eIIer yeI, have Ihe sIudehIs IormulaIe Iheir owh quesIiohs, Iheh desigh experimehIs Io Ihd Ihe ahswers.
AIIer sIudehIs have compleIed a series oI Iehsile sIrehgIh ahd compressive sIrehgIh experimehIs, ask Ihem
Io assess Ihe desigh oI Ihe IesIihg machihe. Workihg ih Ieams, Ihe sIudehIs should sIudy ahd discuss Ihe
operaIioh oI Ihe device, Iheh recommehd aI leasI Ihree improvemehIs Io iIs cohIguraIioh IhaI will improve Ihe
accuracy oI Ihe experimehIal resulIs or improve Ihe user-Iriehdlihess oI Ihe machihe. 1his exercise will help Io
reihIorce whaI Ihe sIudehIs have already learhed abouI Iehsile sIrehgIh, compressive sIrehgIh, levers, ahd
experimehIal error. II will also geI Ihem Ihihkihg abouI design-Ihe subjecI oI Iwo IuIure learhihg acIiviIies.
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