I

BASIE Ep.*Afifi F EJRC$TT$

Op-ampt are uted in sucha wide varietyofapplicauon that it n impo$ible to (over rll ofthem in one chapteror even in one book.Iherefore, in thn chapterwe examinerome of the mo.e fundamentaI applic.tionr to illuirate the ve6atility ofthe op-amp and to giveyou a foundation in bartcop-amp circuitJ-

l9-1 l9-2 l9-3 19-4 l9-5 19-6

Comparator SummineAmplifieri Integratorsand Differentiator Orcillator ActiveFiltefi VoltageRegulators Application A$ignrnenb PuttingYourKnowledge

Aplatn the baric operatrioD of a compator.irclit ADaryze iumminSahplifie6, avera8rng ampJifier,.nd lcrting Explain tne opeDtion ofop-amp integrator and differeotiator Dncu$the operation of rveral typr ofop-amp olci rtor Recotni& and evaluatebzricop amp fitteB Dercrtbe the operation of baic rerer and rhunrvottage

A faul9 FM {ereo receiver n the topic ofthir application agignmenLAfter a preliminarycheck,you decidethatthe duaFpolarib/po!r'errupply that provider112 Vto altthe op-ampr in both channeLofthe receive.ir fautty.The powerrupply use'poritive aDd negativintegratedci.cuit voltage regulator. After rtudyingthn chapte, yo! rhoutd b( able to complete the applicationasignment.

study aidr for thir chapter are availabtat

I
"r 5ummingamplifier ,r Averaging amplifier

httpJ/\,w.prenhall.com/f loyd

r" Wien-bridgeo(illator ir TriangulaFwave oJciliator ' Relaxation o(illator

t03

904 r

BAS|C CtRCUtrS OP-AMP

ffiggvonl

ATORS
Operationalamplifiers are o{len usedto comparethe amplitudeof one voltagewith configuration,with another In this application,the op-ampis usedin the open_loop voltageon the other. the input voltageon one input and a reference After completingthis section,you shouldbe able to . Ex?lain the basic operation of s comparator circuit r Discusszerolevel detection r Discussnonzerclevel detection

Detection rZero-Level
whenan input Oneapplicationofthe op-ampusedasa comptr.tor is to determine exceeds a ceriainlevel.Figure 19 I (a) showsa zero-leveldetector Notice that the input ( ) is grcundedandthe input signalvoltageis appliedto the noninvertinginput (+) the Because of the high open-loopvoltagegain,a very smalldiffercncevoltagebetween causingthe output voltageto go to its limit. For inputs drivesthe amplilier irto saturation, A voltagedifferenceof only 0.25mv example.consideran op-amphavingAd : 100,000. betweenthe inpuls could producean output voltageof (0.25 mVX100,000) = 25 V iftlE haveoutput voltagelimitations of less Howevet sincemostop_3mps op-ampwerecapable. For manyconparison applications' than a 15Y the devicewould be driven into saturation. are selected. specialop-ampcomparalors

u,,

(b)

,t frGUtE tt-t
The op-amp ar a zero-lryel detector

Figure 19 I (b) showsthe resultof a sinusoidalinpui voltageappliedto the When the sine waveis negative,the output is at its maxi. input of the zerc-leveldetector. 0, the anplifier is ddven to its opposite mum negativelevel. when the sine wavecrosses positive level, as shown. stateandthe outputgoesto its ma\imun As you can see,the zero-leveldetectorcan be used as a squaringcircuit to producea squarewavefrom a sine wave. 'Non2ero-lvel Detection otherthanzeroby in Figure 19-1 canbe modifledio detectvoltages The zero-leveldetector voltageto the invertinginput (-). asshownin Figlre 19-2(a). connecting a fixed rcference

col,tPARATORS r

tO5

moreFactical arrangement is shownin paft (b) using a voltagedivider to setthe refer

voltageas iollows: ence

u* =ujt l*u;
where+vis the positive op-ampsupply voltage.As long asdre input voltase (va) is less
rmF, the output remains at the maximum negative level. W}len the input voltage ex-

Equationl9-1

the referencevoltage, the output goes to its maximum positive state,as shown in inputvoltage. Figure 19 2(c) ith a sinusoidal

! F T G U R Et 9 - 2 No.ze@-l*l detector.

vt,

V*t 0

EXAMPLE I9-1
The input signalin Figure 19-3(a) is appliedto the comparator circuit in pan O). DIaw the output showingits Foper relationshipto the input signal.Assumeihat lhe maxinurn outputlevels ol the op-ampare :t 12V

906 r

B A 5 | CO P - A M PC | R C U | T S

r! FIGURE l9-!

Sol.dton

The reference voltageis setby Rr andR . = 1*" , , R R, l0 ' -l o -= I.bl\ ,+Y = - { + 1- 5 V J R, 8 . 2 t Qr r . 0 t Q

As shownin Fieure 19-4, ea.h time the input exceeds + 1.63Y the output voltage switchesto its + 12V level, andeachtime the input goesbelow +1.63 Y the output switches backto its 12V level.
:. FIGURE I9-4

1.6V 3

RelatedPrcblem- Determine in Fjgure| 9 3 if Rl = 22 kO andR, : 3.3 kO. thereference voltage

Openfile E19-01on your Multisim CD-ROM. Measue the output voltage waveformanddetermineif it matches the waveformin Fiqure 19-4.
*Answers are at the end of the chapter

S U M M I N GA M P L I F I E R 5 T

907

SECT|ON | 9-r REYIEW

AnM6 are rt th end of the

1. Whatii the reference voitage for th compa.:tor in FiSure I 9-5? 2. Draw the outputwa\form for Fi8ure l9-5 whena rinewa\with a 5 V peakn applied to the inpuL

.'frGuRE rt-5

]].1?-2 5UMMING A MP L I F I E R s
The sumrninganplifier is a variationof tbe inveningop-ampconfigurarion covered in ChapterI 8. The summing ampliffer hastwo or moreinpuls,andits outpurvolragei. ffi propor'lional to the negaiiveof the algebraic sumof irs input voltages. ln rhis secrion. you will seehow a summingamplifier works.andyou will leam aboutrhe averaging amplifer anddrescalingamplifier,which arevariationsof thebasicsxmmingampUfier. Aftercompleti.gthis section, you should be ablero . Anslyze summing amplifiers, avraging amplifiers, and scaling amplifiers r Calculate summing amplilieroulputvolrage for giveninprtsfor bothunirygainand gainconditions nonunity r Calculaiethe outpur voltagefor an averaging anplifier . Calculaae the output vollage for a scalingadder r Explain how a scalingaddercan be usedin a digital-ro,analog convefter yJNr Figure19-6 shows a 1woinputsumming arnplifier. Two vohages, xnd yrNr, areappliedto theinputsandproduce cunents 7rand4, asshown. Usingrheconcepts of infinire jnputimpedance andviftualground, you canseetharthein\ erringinputof the op-amp is approximately 0Y andthereis no curent from theinpur.Therefbre.theroralcuffent,which is lhe sun of 1ra.d 1r.is duoughRr lt: lt + 12
Rl F I G U R E1 ' - 6

Two-input,tnvedingrumming

rirL

908

BAS|C OP-AMP C|RCU|T5

Since

vour= 1r&, vorr (/ / . ) R/v.", l-:\^r

+)"'

areequal(R- & : RJ= R), then UJlrhree ofrherc.i.ro'"

. ".
l9-2

'\^ / Y1 ^, a . v "_= ' ^n l

vom: -(vrN,+ vN,)

A Equation19 2 showsthat the oulput voltageis ihe sumof the two input voltages. eral expression is given in Equation 19 3 for a summingamplifier with,i inputs,as aft equal in value. in Figure19 7, whereall theresistors

Equasonrr-,
* F T G U R El 9 - 7

voln:

(yrNr +.. + ylN,+ vrNr

+ %N,)

summint amplifier with , inpuB-

h,

%ur

,i,*-'dl-jj]j
Determinethe ouiput voltasein Figure 19 8.
! ' F T G U R Ei 9 - a

10K)

l0lo
= +8 v l,iN3

vou:

(vNl+ vnu + vrm): (3v

rV+8V)=-10V

whatis the If a fouth input of +0.5 v is addedto Figure 19-8 with a 10kfl rcsistor. output voltage?

Openfile E 19-02on your Multisim CD-ROM. Measurethe output voltageand verify that it is the sum of the inpui voltages.

5UMMING AMPIIFIER5 T

90

Amplifierwith GainGreaterThanUnity [isumming

WhenRris larger than ihe input resistors.ihe amplifier hasa gain ofR//& whereR is the valueof eachinput resistor The generalexFessionfor the output is v-r= -F(y,,, +yrN,+ ., + yN,,) Equationl9-4

As you cansee, theoutputis thesumot'all rheinputvoltages nulripliedby a constant determinedby the ratio R//R

EXAMPLE Detemine the output voltagefor the sunming amplifier in Figule 19 9.

l ' i N= r o2v

r.0ko

R/ = 10kA and R : Rr = R, : 1.0 kO.Therefore, R, r 'o - r.-o --.n.\'_0.5\I_ tv. . . _ v "- . \ v.-' ' R' 1.0to

t0{0.7vl 7v

Determine theoutput voltage in FigureI 9 9 if thetwo inputresisrors are2.2kO and thefeedback resistor is 18kO.

Openfile El9-03 on your Multisim CD-ROM. Measurethe output voltageand verify that it matches rhecaiculatedvalue.

Amplifier ::Averaging
An averagingamplifter,which is a variation of r sunrming amplifier. cdn prcduce rhe I malhemarical average oi |he inpul volrage,. Thi. is doneb] ,erringrheralioR,/Requatlo the reciprocalof the numberof inpurs.You know that rhe average of severalnumbersis obtainedby first addingthe numbersandthendividing by ihe quanrityof numbersyou have. Examinationof Equation l9-4 and a liule thoughtwill convinceyou that a summingamplifier wil do thesane.Example 19-4will illustate.

910 I

B A 5 | CO P - A M PC | R C U | T 5

in Figure19 l0produces an outputwhose magnitude is the Showthatthe amplifier average of the input voltages.
r FtGUnE tt-to = lv I'lNr

r00to

areeqwl, R - 100kO. Theoutput voltage is Solufion Sincetheinputresistors v-r: R. t(v^, + ylN1) + vN, + vrN3 2\-J\'1V)0.5V

25tQ. ,t t0oklr

;(2vl

of the four input valuesis the sane as A simple calculationshowsthat the average Yourbut ofopposite sign.

-lV+2V

3V+:lV

2V 4

--

Related Prcbkm

requiredin the averaging amplifier in Figure I 9 I 0 in orderto Specify the changes handle fiveinpurs.

Openfile E19-04on your Multisim CD ROM. Measurethe output voltageand verify that it is the average of the input voltages.

5calingAdder

I Equation 1e-5

A different weight canbe assigned to eachinpui of a summingamplifier.foming a adder by simply adjustingthe valuesof the input resistors.As you haveseen,the voltage canbe expressed as

""",: -(f ^, *.&u,* *

f,u,-)

for that The weighi of a parricularinput is setby the ratio of Rr to the resistance For example,if an input voltageis to havea weight of I, then R : Rr Or, ifa weight of R, the greaterthe is requhed,R = 2Rl The snaller fte valueof the input resistance

5 U M M I N G A M P L I F I E R S.

:r.1

.I9-5 EXAMPI.E
For the scaliDg adderin Figurc l9-11, determinethe weight of eachinput voltageand l lind the output voltage.
> F I G U R EI ? - I !

YN1= +3v = +2v r4N, YN=+8v

R. Weightof input 1:& = ^ werenr o npur r: R/

10ko l0 ko

E
R,

= -i0 kO , 0.1
47ko

*"'"",^.,"",,,,.& = lglq = 0,213 --" '' - '-'Theoutpur voltage i. / R , & & \ y.- = -\4y^, -11(3v) + 0.1(2v)+ 0.213(8v)l + + nryrN, 4yN3,/= - ( 3 V+ 0 . 2 V + 1.7V):4.9V Related P,oblem Detemine theweight of each inputvoltage in Figure19-I I if Rr = 22kn, R, : 82K), = your. Rr 56kO, andRr: 10kf). Alsofind

Openfile Ela-05 on )our MuhisimCD-ROM.Measure rollageatrd theourpur comDare to the calculatedvalue.

912 r

BA5|C OP-AMP C|RCUTT5

Sffi

q rq\D ENTIATORS D!F-q-E & ure,g-c41g

integration,which is basically a An op-ampintegratorsimulatesmathematical summingprocess that detemines the aotalareaunderthe curve of a function. An opdifferentiation,which is a processof ampdifferentiatorsimulatesmathematical rate of changeof a function. The integratoNand determiningthe instantaneous differntiatorsshownin thjs sectionare idealizedto showbasicpdnciples.Practical integratorsoften havean additionalresistoror other chcuity in parallel with $e feedbackcapacitorto preventsaturatior.Practicaldifferentiatorsmay include a seies rcsistor to reducehish ftequencynoise. After completingthis section,you shouldbe ableto r Explaitr the operation of op-amp integrato$ and differentiators . Recognize an integrator . Detemine the rate of changeof ihe integratoroutput voltage . Recognize a differentiator r Determinethe differentiatoroutput voltage

The Op-Amp Integrator

An ideal integrator is shown ir Figure I 9 I 2. Notice that the fedbackelementis a capacitor that forms an RC circuit with the input resistor Although a large-valueresistoris it doesnot nomally usedin parallel with the capacitorto linit the gain at low tuequencies, at'fectthe basicoperationandis nor shownfor purposes ofthis analysis. :rFTGUR t9 E- t 2
An idealop-amp integratoi

how the integmtorworks, it is impo ant to reHow a Capacitor Charya To understand view how a capacitorcharges. Recallthat the charge0 on a capacitoris proportionalto the chargingcuffent andthe time. Q:IC Also, in termsof the voltage.the chargeon a capacitoris Q:CVC as From thesetwo relationships. the capacitorvoltagecanbe expressed

v, - \;.F
hasthe form of an equationfor a straightline beginningat zerowith a conThis expression from algebrathat the generalformula for a straight line ,s start slopeof 1y'C Remember : = b = o. ) ru + h Tnthiscase,l, Vc, n - IclC, x : t, ar|,d Recall that the capacitorvoltagein a simple RC circuit is not linear but is exponential. as the capacitorcbargesand This is because the chargingcurent continuouslydecreases The key dling aboutuscauses the rate of changeof the voltage1ocontinuouslydecrease.

INTEGRATOR5 T AND D I F F E R E N T I A T O R S

913

ing an op-ampwith an RC circuit to form an inte$ator is rharthe capacitor'schargingcurrent is madeconstant,thus producinga straightline (iinear) voltagerather than an exponentialvoltage.Now lefs seewhy this is true. In Figure 19- 13,the inverting input of the op-ampis at virtual ground(0 V), so rhe voltageacrossRrequalsI4,. Therefore,the input curent is

v,"

t sf t G U R Et t - 1 3
Cudentr in an intetratoi

If yi, is a consiantvoltage,then/i, is also a constantbecause the inverting input always remainsat 0 V keeping a constantvoltage affoss Ri Because of the very high inpur imledanceof the op-amp,thereis negligiblecunenr from rhe invertinginpur. A1l of the inpur cuffent is throughthe capacitor.as indicatdin Figure ]9 13, so

Capacitot VoLtaEe Since4. is constant,so is 1.' The constant Ic charges the capaci tor linearly andproduces a Linear voltageacross C The posirivesideof rhecapacitoris held at 0 V by the virtual groundof the op amp.The voltageon rhe negarive side of rhe capaci tor decreases linearly fiom zero as the capacitorcharges, as shownin Figurc 19 14.This \olt ee is calleda negativ nmp. TheOutput Voltage V,/ is ihe sameasthe voltageon the negariveside of the capaciror Whena constantinput voltagein the form of a srepor pulse (a pulsehasa constantampli tudewhenhigh) is applied,the ouDut mmp decreases negativelyunril rheop-ampsarurates at its maximum negative level.This is indicated in Figure19-15.

'Ihe

A F I G U R EI 9 - ' 4

, : .F T G U R E i9-i5 A co.rtlnt input @ltage producer a

A rinear rampwltage n poduced aco$ C by th conrtant chaint

tl4

aAstc OP-AMP C|RCU|T5

anddEreforethe Rate of Chan4eofthe Odfpat The rate at which the capacitorcharges, slopeof the output ramp, is setby the ratio /./C, as you haveseen.Since1c = v,,/Ra the is A%,//Ar rateof change or slope of theintegmtor's outputvoltage Equationt9-6
LV."t _ Vi"

Ar

RrC

(a) Determinethe rate of changeof the outpui voltagein response to the first input pulsein a pulsewaveform,as shownfor the integratorin Figlre 19-16(a).The output voltageis iniiially zero. (b) Describethe output after the first pulse.Draw the output waveform.
,- FTGURE tt-16

;:"_f--l__J

,,;i
t0v

-l-_--J-lts-+i<_100 lls .+i

;<! 100/6 --,'r-t00

Solution

(^) The rate of changeof the outputvoltageduring ihe rime that the input pulseis HIGH is

LV",,

Y,,
R,C

5v - -50 kv/s = -50 mv/ps (10kOX0.01pF)

(b) The rate ofchange was found to be 50 mv&s in paft (a). when the input is at +5 V the output is a negative-going ranp. when the input is at 0 Y the output is a constant level.In 10O,us, thevoltage decreases. 4y'., = (-50 mv&9(100!s) = -5 V Therefore,the negative-going rampreaches 5 V at the end ofthe pulse.The output voliage thenremainsconstantat -5 V for the time that the input is zero. when the next pulseoccurs,dle ouFut againbecomes a negative-going ramp pulse.The output will remainat which reaches- 10v at the endof the second - 10 V thereafter because it hasreached its maximumnegativelimit. The wayefo ns areshown in Figue 19-16(b).

T I N T E G R A T O RA 5ND DIFFERENTIATORS

9I5

Related Prcblen

Modiry the integator in Figure 19-16 to makethe oulput change from 0 to -5 V in 50 "s with thesame inDut.

Openlile E19-06on your Multisim CD-ROM. Observethe ourputvoltage wavefbrmandcompareto the wavefom in Figure 19 l6(b).

The Op-Amp Differentiator

An idealdifferntiatoris shown in Figure19 17.Noticehow theplacement ofthe capac- * itor andresistordiffers from their placementin the integrator.The capacitoris now the input element.A differentiatorproducesan output that is propo ional to the rate of change of the input voltage.Although a small-valueresistoris normally usedin serieswith the capacitorto limit the gain at high frequencies, ii doesnoi affeci the basicoperationandis noi shownfor DurDoses of this analvsis.

! F I G U R EI ' - I 7 An ide.l oP-amP differenbator.

. i ,F t G U a E t 9 - l E

A differentiatorwith : ranp input.

To seehow the differentiatorworks,let's apply a positive-goingrampvoliage to the input as indicatedin Figure t9 18.In this case.lc = 4^ andthe vohageacross the capacitor is equalto yl^ at all times (vc : vr,) because of virtual groundon the invertinginput. FIom the basicforrnula, yc = (/c/Or, the capacitorcu[ent is

u:(+)'
Sincethe cunent ai the inverting input is negligible,1F: Ic Both cunentsareconstantbecause the slopeof the capacitorvoltage (ycl, is constant. The output voltage is also con stantandequalto the voltageacross Rr because one side of the feedbackresistoris always 0 V (vifual ground).

v,",: rRRr=hRl

v".': (v'\Rc
Theoutput is negativewhen fte input is a poliiive-going ramp andpositivewhenthe input is a negative-going lamp, asillustraGd in Figure19 19.Duringthispositive slopeoftbe input, the capacitoris chargingfrom the input sourceand ihe constantcunent thrcughthe feedback resistoris in the direciion shown.Dudng the negativeslopeof the input, the current is in the oppositedirection because the capacitoris dischalging.

Equation I 9-7

915 r

BAS|C O P - A M PC | R C U | T 5

!. FIGURE I9.I9 Outplt of ! differentiatorMth a rerierot poritive and ngatiw rampr (tliangle waw) on th input.

;a,'\,-l
Notice in Equationl9-7 thatthe term yc, is the slopeof the input. lf the slopeincreases, If the slopedecreases, So, the output voltageis proportional %,, decreases. %d increases. to the dope (rate of change)of tbe input. The constantof Foponionality is the time con' stant, RP.

Determinethe output voltageof the op-ampditrerentiatorin Figure I 9 20 for the trianqular-wave inDutshown.
_ )a l G U R El t - 2 0

Solutlb'

Iamp rangingftom -5 V to +5 V Startingaft : 0, the input voltageis a positive-going (a + l0 V change)in 5 rls. Then it changesio a negative-goingramp ranging from +5 V to -5 V (a -10V change) in 5 lrs. The time constantis R/a: (2.2kO)(0.001lrD: 2.2/^ Determinethe slopeor rateof change(ycl, of the positive-goingramp andcalculate the output voltageasfollows:

v . : 1 0 v= ^ - . , ty/u.s -

v.,,:

(!t)n,c :

(2vtt!s)2.2 t s:

-4.4v

Lil(ewise,fie slopeof the negative-going ranp is voltage.

2 V/ts. Calculatethe output

1+

',c : - (-2 v p.s)2.2 s = 4.4v 1t /

oSG|LLATORS r

t17

Finally,Figure19-21shows theoutpuivoltage wavefomrelative to theinput.

F I G U n El 9 - 2 1

v , 0

Related Prcblem

What would the output voltagebe ifthe feedbackresistorin Figure 19 20 is changed t o 3 . 3k O ?

sEctroN
NEytEW

1. What n the feedbackelement in an op-amp intglator? 2. For a con'tant inputvoltage to an integrator, lvhy ii the voltaS a.rclr the 3. Whdt ii the feedbackelement in an op-amp differenbi.tor? 4, How ir the ouqut ofr diffrnuatorrelatedto the input?

l9-4

0SCtLLATOR5

Feedback oscillatorswere introducedin Chapter17 andthe principlesof operation were discussed. AIso, severaltypesof oscillator circuits were coveredusing discrete transistors.In thissection, several types of leedback oscillators implernented with op ampsare intrcduced.The Har{ey andColpitis oscillatorsdiscussed in Chapter17 can also be implementedwith op-alnps.The relaxarionoscillator is anothertype which is introduced in thissection. you should After complering thissection, be ableto ! Discussthe operation of several types of op-amp oscillators . Identifi a Wien-bridgeoscillator and analyzeits operation t ldentify a trianguiar-wave oscillator andanalyzeits operation r Identifi a relaxa.ionoscillator and analyzeils operation

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

Onetypeof sinusoidal pan of rhe oscillator is theWedb.ldge osillator. A fundamental Wien-bddge osci llatoris a lead-lag circuitlike thaishown in FigurcI9 22(a). Rl andCl to getherfbrm the lag porlion of the circui! R, and C, form the leadportion-The operationof lhiscircultis asfollows. At lowerfrequencies, rheleadcircuitdominates dueto thehighre aciance of C:. As the frequency increases. Xc decreases, thusallowing theoutputvoltage

ffi

918 r

8 A 5 t CO p - A M P C | R C U | T 5

i - a I G U A Er 9 - 2 2 A lead-lag cncuitand itsrponre

ll,

:i

I
to increase. At somespecifiedfrequency, rheresponse of the lag circuit takesover.andthe decreasing valueof Xcr causes fte ouFut voltageto decrease. The response cuNe for the leadlag circuir shownin Figxre 19 22(b) indicatesthar th output voltagepeaksat a frequencyt At rhis point, rhe au,enuation (y,a,/y,,) of rhe circuil is J4 if Rr = R?andXrI = X., as staredby dre following equarion: Equationl9-8

v.,,, I V," 3
Ihe fomula for the resonantfrequencyis 1 ", _ zonc To summarize, the lead-lagcircuit hasa resonant ftequency, t at which the phase shift tbrough the circuit is 0' and the attenuationis 14. Belowt the leadcircuir dominares andtheoutputleads theinput.Abovet the lag circuirdominates andtheourputlags rhe input. TheBatk Ci,cuit The leadlag circuit is usedin the positivefeedbackloop of an op-amp, asshown in Figure19 23(a). A voltage divideris used in thenegative feedback loop.The Wien-bridgeoscillator circuit canbe viewedasa noninvertingamplifier configurationwith the input signalfed backtuomihe outputthroughrheleadlag circuit. Recallthatthe closedloop gain of the anplifier is detemined by the volragedivider.
, 1

EquatjonI 9-9

R 1+ R '

R,/(& + R)

R,

Thecircuitis redrawn in Figure19 23(b)ro showtharrheop,amp i s connected across the bridgecircuit.Oneleg ofthe bridgeis the leadlag circuit, andthe otheris the vohagedivider. Potitive FeedbackConditont fot O'ci ation As you know, for the circuit ro producea sustainedsjnusoidaloutpui (oscillate),the phaseshifr aroundthe positive feedbackloop must be 0' anddre gain aroundthe loop musrbe uniiy (1). The 0' phaseshift condition is met when the frcquencyis , because the phaseshifr tkough the lead lag circuit is 0o and thereis no inversionfrom the noninvertinginput (+) of rhe op-anp to the ourput.This is shown in Figure19 24(a). The unity gain condition in the feedback loop is mer when

This offsetsrhe N attenuation of the leadlag circuit, rhusmaking rhe toial gain aroundthe positive fedback loopequalto1,asdepicted in Figure19 24(b). To achieve a closedloop gainof3, &=2Rz

osc[rAToRS r

919

O) Wien bridge ciruir conbins a voltagedivider and a lead-lagcircuit

it-2:t /|lFrGuRE TheWien-bidte orcillatorr.hemati. rhown in hrc eguivalentform!. < FtGUtE l9-24 Conditrbnrfor o$illet on in the wien-bnld$ clrcuit

v"'
3(.J= 1
(a) The pn6e shift dound the loop is 0', gainmund the toopis I Lb)Thevolraee

R r+ R ,

2R" + R,

3R.

Stad-Up Conditiont Initially, the closedloop gain of the amplifier itself must be more than three(Ad > 3) until the output signalbuilds up to a desiredlevel. The gain of the amplifler mustthen decrease to 3 so that the total gain aroundthe loop is I andthe output signal staysat the desiredlevel, thussustainingoscillation.This is illustratedin Figure 19-25. A JFET stabilizedWien-bridgeoscillator is shownin Figur 19 26. The gain of the opampis controlled by drc components shownin the blue box, which include the JFET.The resistance depends on the gatevollage.With no output signal,the gate JFBTh drain-source resistance to be at the minimum. With this condiis at zerovolts, causingthe drain-source tion, the loop gain is greaterthan l. Oscilations begin and rapidly build to a large output signal. Negativeexcu(sionsof the output signal forward-biasrr, causingcapacitorC3to the &ain-sourceresistance of the JFET chargeto a negativevoltage.This voltageincreases fedback at work. With andreduces the gain (andhencethe outpuo.This is classicnegative the gain canbe stabilizedat the requiredlevel. the proper selectionof components,

920 r

S A 5 | CO P - A M PC | R C U | T S

' , , I n r ' a l l ) .o o p e , r A r i r c r r b ' | ! a J s e . o u , p b ub ' u ldLp. i. FIGUtE l9-2 5

(b) Loop gain oi I causs a sustai.edcon$ant oulput.

Oicillator ltart-upcondiuonr.

, . F T G U R El t - 2 6

selfitartingwin-b dgeorcillator uing!JFETinthe negative feedback

Determinethe frequencyof oscillationfor the JFET stabilizedWien bridge oscillator in Figure19-27.

* F T G U RtE 9-27

10ko

10tQ

t0to

o5ctLtAToRs I

921

Jorufior

For the leadlag circuit, Rr : R, : R : l0 kQ ard Cr = C: = C = 0.0011FThe resonanthequencyis

J,
Relabd Problem

I = 15.9kIIz pF) 2r(10ko)(0.001

If Cr and C?are changed to 0.01/rF, what is the liequency of oscillation in Figure 19-211

Oscillator ::ATriangular-Wave
Onepracticalimplemeniation ofa triangular-ware oscillator utilizesan op ampcomparat:r !' .hownin FiCure lq-28. Ite operarion i. a. follows. To begin. \olr a.sume fiar theourpul ageof the comparator is at its maximumnegative level.This outputis connected to the inverting input of the intgratofthroughR , Foducing a positive,going rampon the oueui of the integrator. When the ramp voltagercachesthe upper trigger point (JTP), the comparator switches to its ma{imumpositivelevel.This positivelevelcauses theintegator rarnpto change !o a neganve-going dircction.The rdmpcontinues iD thisdirectionunril dle lowertriggerpoint (tjIP) of the cornparator is reached. At this point, the compamtor outputswitches back to the naximum negative level andthecyclerepeats. This actionis illustraiedin Figure19,29.
' . :F T G U R E tt-28 A trian8ulatsw&eorcill.tor urint

. . a t G u R Et 9 - 2 ' Wawfomr for th circuit in FituE l9-28.

vrre produces Sincethe comparator a squarewaveoutput,the circuit in Figure 19-28 canbe usedasboth a triangllar-wave oscillator anda square-wave oscillator.Devicesof this type arc corunonly known as/t ction generatorsbecnnse they producemore than one output function. The output anplitude of the squarewaveis set by the output swing of the comparator,and the resistorsR, andR3setthe amplitudeof the tdangularoutput by establishing the UT? andLTP voltagesaccording:to the following formulas: /R.\ : +r1_,1; v!.rP l Equafionl9-10

".-:

".-("")

Equationl9-11

9 2 2 . BASIC OP-AMPCIRCUIT5

where the comparatorouipur levels, +y,ea and -I"_ are equal.The frequencyof borl waveforms depends on iheRLCtime constanr as.rJell asrheanptirude-setting resisrors, n, and R3.By varying Rr. the frequencyof oscilaiion can be adjustedwidour changingihe ouFurarnpl'tude. Equaton 19-12 ., r /R^' ) " l ^i: .'",/ -" .

Deteminetheftequency of thecircuitin Figure19-30 To what valuemust Rr be changedto makethe frequency20 kHz?

i FtGUtE tr-30

10Kl

'

"

| (R,\ lRrC \Rrl

|\

L4( (oo; roko)

= (3r!l1o kJ s's krr'

To make/ - 20 kHz,

t t | \/l3kn\ ^ R o1cln./to,rnu",,rr.or *nJ nttuo ur-,/li,

RelatedPrcblem What is the amplirudeof the rriangularwavein Figure 19-30 if the conparator output is:tl0V?

(a'\

A Square-Wave Relaxation OJcillator Fl The basicsquare-wave oscillator shownin Figue 19-31 is a type of relaxation oscillator because its operationis basedon ihe chargingand dischargingof a capacitor.Norice thar
r: FIGUiE l9-!l A ryuarc-waverela\ation orctllator.

A C T I V EF I I T E R S I

923

h t,

theop amp'sinvedng input is the capacitorvoltageandthc noninvertinginput is a portion resistors RzandRr. Whenthecircxit is first tumedon, the oftbe oulpulfed backthrough is uncharged, andthus the inveriing input is at 0 V This mates the output a posrcapacitor v,,,,through Rr.Whenthecapactoward be$nsto charge livemaxinum,andthecapacitor itor voltagereachesa value equal 1()the feedbackvoltage on the noninveting inpul, the to disbegins siate. At thispoint,ihe capacitor io the maxinulnnegalive op ampswitches -vj the op amp voltagereaches charge from +Vr toward vr When the capaciior jn 1orepeat, asshown positive This aclioncortinues statc. swirches backto themaximum is obiained. outputvoltage Figuret9 32.andr square-wave
l9-32 FTGURE Wavefom, fo. the rqlare-wave

u,,,

oN l9-4
REVIEW

Whati' th purpdeofeach? loop!in a Wien-bridge orcillator twofeedba(k 1 . Thercare whatdoeritdo? andbatically 2. Whatii a tunctiongenator, orcillator operate? does a.elaxauon t. Uponwhatpdnciple

I9-5

A C T I V EF I L T E R S

by the mannerin which fie output voltageMries with Filiers are usually categonzed examine of activefilteff that we $'i11 the liequency of the input voltage.The categories thata The|ermdclit means high-pass, andband-pass. ;n thisseciion arelow pass, gainelement an op-amp is used: in thiscase, you should be ableto After completing this section, r Recognizeand evaluatebasic op-amp fflten r Evaluate filters low-pass singlepoleandtwo-pole t Evaluate flters single-pole andtwo polehigh-pass i Determinethe resonant fi1ter frequencyof a cedaintype of band-pass

Low-Pass Active Filters cu e. Noticethatthe inputcirI basicactiveffltor andits response Figure19-33shows provided by theop ampwi& a rcga RCcircuit,andunity ga is cuitis a singlelow pass the followerwith an nC filler belween thisis a voltage iive feedback loop.Simplystaied. input. inputsignal andthe noninverting

tz4

BA5|C OP-AMP C|RCU|TS

i F I G U R EI t - 3 3

single-pole, actrtve loy-pasfilter andrerponre cure. The voltageat the noninverringinput, V+. is asfolows:

x. -. v+ ' =/ | ;...:: .\,,

\\/el4)''"
v

Sincethegainoffte op-amp is l. theoutpuivoltage is equal ro y+.

Equation re-13

v". ' - ( !-\v rtn _xil,,,

A filter with oneRC circuir that produces a 20 dB/decade roll-off beginningatt is said tobeasi gle-pole orfnt-o er Jiker. The term "- 20 dB/decade"meansthat the volrage gain decreases by ten times(-20 dB) whenrheftequencyincreases by ten times(dcad). Low-Patt Two-Poteftlterr Therc are severalrypes of active lilrers and they can haye varying numben of poles, bur we will use a rwo-potefilter ro illusrrare.Figure 19 34(a) showsa two-poie (second-order) low-passfilrer. Since eachRC circuit in a filter is consideredto be one-pole,the two,pole filrer usestwo RC circuits to producea roll off rate of 40 dB/deade, as indicaredin Figure 19 34(b). The activefilrer in Figure 19 34 has unity gainbelowL because theop-amp is connecred asa voltage-follower
Ar(dB)

! F T G U R Et 9 - ! 4 Tvo-pole, .ctte lov-pa$ filter rnd itr ideal rerponre curve.

One of the RC circuits in Figwe 19-3zl(a)is forned by Rr and Cr, and rhe other by X, and Cr. The critical hequencyof this lilter canbe calculatedusing rhe following fomula:

Equatlon 19-t4

2"\/ R"RC,c,

A C T I V EF I L T E R S T

925

Figure 19-35(a) showsan exampleof a two-pole low-passfilter with valueschosento a response with a critical frequencyof 1 kHz. Note that Cr - 2C, andRl : R, betheserelationshipsrcsult in a gain of 0.70? (-3 dB) ati For cdtical ftequencies valuescanbe scaledinverselywith the hequency For exthan I kIIz, ihe capacitance 19-35(b) and(c), to get a 2 kHz liltet halvethe valuesofCr and ample, asshownin Figurc the values. c,: for a 500 Hz filter. double c,= 2 0.0075,uF

cl

1 5k O

15kO

t 5k o

15r<o 2C2=0.0l 1 5 F

r
rt-45 ]| FtGURE
E:ample,of low-pa$ tiltts (hvo-pole/.

(c)t=500ll2

EXAMPLE 19-T O
low-pass filter ofFigue 19 36.
3. flGUlE l9-16

r
Solatton The resistor valueshavealready beenset at 22 kC)each.Sincethesediffer from the the scalingmethodto get the capacitance filter, you canDot Lrse I kllz reference 19-14. values. UseEquation

2.\/R'R.,CC"
Thensquare bothside(.
I

J7
SinceCi: 2C, andR, = R I : R , , ',, :

41t'RtRzcP,

AnrR \2c3)

t26

BAS|C O P - A M PC | R C U T T J

Solve for Cr, and then detemine Cj

8.'Rl:
I cz : - = v22nRf, pF cl : 2C2 : 2\0.001'7pF) = 0.0034 Relatpd Problem

o.'70'7 = 0.'70'7 0.0017 ,,F 2nQ2ka)Q kJtz) znxt'

Determinei in Figure 19-36 for R, = R, : 27 kO, C, : 0.001pR and C: = 500 pF.

Openfile El9-10 on your Multisim CD ROM.Verily thatthe criticalfrequency is 3 kHz.

High-Pass Acb've Filtert roll-off is shown Noln Figure 19 37(a),a high-passactivefilter with a 20 dB/decade RC circuit andthat unity gain is providedby rice that the input circuit is a singlehigh-pass The response cuve is shownin Figue 19-37(t). the op-ampwith negativefeedback.

cain (dB)

3 t,,,

vre---l

20
(a)

i FTGURE I t-37 5ingle-pole, active high-pa$ fi ltd rnd rcrponre c!re.

all frequencies abovet without Limit. as indicatedin Ideally, a high-passfilter passes practice, course, such is not the case.All op-ampsitrierently have Figlre l9-38(a): In of Suchis the case amplifier's response at high frequencies. intemal RC circuits that linit the its response, which, in is an upper frequency lirnit to with the aciive highipassfilter There ndrer than a fllter with a very wide bandwidth effect, makesthis type of filter a band-pass the intemal in Figure 19-38(1r). In many applications, rue high-passfilter. as indicated high-ftequencycutoff is so muchgeater thanthe filter's critical Fequencythat the intemal high-frequency cutoff can be neglected.

ACTIVE FILTERS T

927

l FIGURE i9.38
High-pa$ fflte. lPonre.

Thevoltageat the noninvering inpui is as follows:

v+:l-;-_j]] lv," \ vR' + xil

the op-ampis connectedas a voltage-followerwith uniry gain, rhe output yoltageis

n ,, ),, ' - ' :r \^'F+ x',1 '^

If tle internalcritical flequenciesof theop-amparc assumed ro be muchgrcaterthanrhe asshown in Figue l9-38(b). ; ofthe filter thegainwil roll offat 20 dB/decade is is a single-polefilter because it hasoneRC circuii. Two-PoLe Filte6 Figure 19-39 showsa two-poleacrivehigh-pass fiLter.Notice it is identicalto the corresponding low-passtype, exceptfor ihe positionsof the resisandcapacitors. This filter hasa roll-offrate of 40 dB/decade belowt and the critiAequency is the sameasfor the low-passfllrer given in Equation 19-14 Figure19 40 showsa two-polehigh-pass filter with values chosen to produce a resewitha criticalfrequency of 1kHz. NotethatR, : 2RrandCr = C, because these

Equat'lon l9-15

*l

Y--l

a FIGURE lt-40 Trc-pole, hith-pa$lilter (f" = I kHz)-

92E r

BAS|C O P - A M PC | R C U T T 5

otherthan I kHz, relationships resultin a gain of0.707 ( 3 dB) ali. For frequencies in the lowinversely, aswasdonewlth thecapacitors theresistance values canbe scaled

EXAMPLE
a values required to prcduce thercsistance For thefilter of Figure19 41, calculaie criticalftequency of5.5 kHz.
I F I G U R EI 9 - 4 I

v''-l
4.0422l1F

Jotution

to be 0.0022/lF each.Sincetheseditrer The capacitorvalueshavebeenpreselected get the resistor from the I kHz reference filter, you cannotusethe scalingmethod1{) bothsides. values. UseEquation l9 14andsquare

'

f : = An'RB{C,
Since R, = 2Rt and C, : C? C

r, z"\/R,R,, |

ft Solve for Rr, andthen deternine Rr.

4r'(2R?)c'

^, ''

1 8"'C:/,' o.'70'7

\/t2ncl

pF)(5.5 kHz) 2ncf" 2z(0.0022

= 9.3kO

R2: 2R' = 2(9.3kO) = 18.6kO kO if Cr andC, aI RelatedPrcblen Determine,in Figure19 41 for Rr = 9.3kQ andR, : 18.6 changed to 4700 pF

is Verifythatihe criticalfrequency Openfile 819-11on yourMuliisimCD-ROM. 5.5kHz.

A C T I V EF I L T E R j T

'29

FilterUling a High-Pass/Low-Parr CombinaUon l,Band-Pars

Oneway to implementa band passfilter is ro usea cascaded anangement of a high passfi I ter folowed by a low-pass filter, asshownin Figwe 19-42(a).Eachof the filters shownis a two-poleconligurationsothat the roll-offrates ofthe response cuNe are 40 dB/decade, as indicatedin the composite response curveof part (b). The critical frequencyof eachfilter is chosen so that the response curvesoverlap,asindicated.The critical frequercyof the high passfilter is lower thanthat of the low-passfilte/ The lower frcquency, is setby the critical frequencyof the high-pass Lr , of ahepassband filter The upperfrequency,tz, of fte passband is the critical ftequencyof the low-passfilter ldeally. the centerfrequency,r, of the passband is the geonetric average oftr andIr. Thefollowing formulasexpress thetkee tuequencies of the band passfilter in Figure t 9-42.

z"',/n,nc,c,
t

Equation 19-16

z"t/ n.acj

Equationlt-17 Equation19-18

\,'EJ"

vr, --l
c4

: FtGUnE tt-42 Eand-pagfilter fomed by conbintng a t*o-pole, hith-pa$ filter with a two-pole loe-pas fflter (lt dos not matterin whichodd the filter.rc c,caded.)

930 r

B A 5 | CO P - A M PC T R C U | T 5

(a) Determinethe bandwidthandcenterfrequencyfor the filter in Figure 19,43. (b) Draw tbe rcsponse curve.

Y,o 1
0.01tF

15kO

15kO

I
, r .f r G u R E | 9 - 4 3

SoLution (a, The critical frcquencyofthe high-pass filter is i

2"{25 kox5okf)XoJrpFXo0t/,F)
The critical hequencyofthe Iow passfilter is

= 450Hz

= r-, ""

z-:/44c"ct

L=

z'{rs

--:==_L=r.ss*n,
450Hz : l.l kHz

BW = f,z - f.' = 1.s5 kHz

rr4lr: roylo.or pF) i,F)(0.00a7

H,1rss tn4 : ezz n, .t - \En" : r,{+so

(b) Theresponse cuNeis shown in Figure19 44.
i ' F r G u R E1 9 - 4 4

Related Problem

Describehow you cin increasethe bandwidrhof the filter in Figure 19-43 wirhour changingrr.

VOLTAGE REGUIATOR5 I

931

sEcTtoN t9-5 REVIEU/

1 , In termr ofcircuit componenB.what doe! the term pole .efer to?

What 9pe of rrponrecharacterizer the ringl-poliow-pan filter?

3 . Howdoe'a hieh-pa$ filter differ in itr implmentationfiom a corerponding lowl{ the reinrance value( ofa hieh-pa$filter dre doubled, whai happen!to the

I9-6

VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Two fundamental lypesoflinear vollage reguiators rrc inlroduced in thissection. One is the series rcgulator xndthc otheris theshuntreglrlaior. you should After completing thissection, be ableto r Descdbe th operation of basic seriesand shunt voltage regulators . Explainhow abasicop-amp series regulator works r Discussshol1circuit andoverloadprotection r Explain how a basicop ampshuntregulatorworks

Baric Series Regulator A simplercprcsentation of a lineaf seriesrgulator is shownin Figufe 19 45(a), tnld the ba Effi siccomponents ,re shown in theblolk diagram in pan(b).Notice is thatthecontrol element in sedcs withtheloadbetween inputandoutput. in Theoutput sample circuitlenses achange the output voltage.The enor detector compares the samplevoltagewith a rcfercncevoltage andcauses the contrcL elementto compensate in oder to maintaina constant outputvoltage.

F I G U R EI 9 - 4 5 Block diagi!d of a three-terdinal, rder voltage regulatol

Abas;copampse esregulator RegulatingAction circuiiis shown in Figu 19+6.Itsop erationis illustratedir Figurc I9 47 andis asfollows.Thercsistirvoltagedividerformedby R, andRr scnscs anychange in theoutputvoltage. Whenthe outprittriesto decrease, asshown

r' FTGUtE l9-46 Baricop-amp lerier regulator

(a) When vrNor lS. dercds. voE aitcmplsto decre.se.The feedbackvoltaee.vru, xho altenpts b datlse, and$ a rc$nt, the op mp\ ourput voxaec vB attenpl! to inoeasei thusconpensanng in vour by increasinglhc 0r enitter for the auempteddccrease vollage.Cha.ecs in vour aF exagger.tedlbr illustation

(b) WhenVr\ (or Rr) sabilizes voltages at is newloNervalne,lhe E1ufr io their orignralv.lues, thusl*ping vom constlnt asa esDlt ol thc negalivefeedback.

(c) When VrNor n. incredts, vour ateDpts to incFase.Tbe fedb.ck voltage.vFB,ako alteDptsto jncEase,and asa rerult, vB appliedto lhe b.se of lhe conhl transistoi ltcmps ro dccrease, thus conpensaiinelor the anenpted increAe in vour by d*reasi.g thc gr eniner voltage,

{d) When vN (or R.) {xbilizes a1its new higher taluc, tne voltages !s a values, thusleepingvoul const.nl Eturnto theiroriginal fedbac(. Fsultol ihe nceative

i3z

: FIGURE r t-47
jilurvation o{ rerierrtulator action that keP3yorconrtantwhen yN o, Rr change,

I 933 VOLTAGE REGULATORS

in ./L(decrease in R.), a proin part (a), because of a deqease in vN or because of an incrcd-se portionalvoltagedecrease is appliedio the op-amp'sinveting input by the voltagedivider referencc voltage Sincethe zenerdiode,Dr, holdsihe oiherop-ampinput at a nea y constant (vRF),a smalldifierencevoltage(enor voltage)is developed This acrcss theop itmp'stupurs. This increase difrerence voltageis amplilied,andthe op-amp'soutputvoltage(y, incrcr.ses. undl the voltageto is appliedio the baseof Cr, causing the emittervoltage.vour, to incrcase (zener) theinveninginput againequals *le retbrence voltage. This actionolTsets theattempted in outputvollage,thuskeeping it nearlyconstant, asshown in pad (b).Thepowertran decrea-se it musthandleall of the loadcurnt. sistor 01, is usuallyusedwilh a heatsink because as illustrated in Figure The opposite iction occurswhenthe outputtries to increase, regulation wrs discussed in Chapter 16. 1947(c) and(d). Percent connected asa noninvertins amplifier in which Theop-amp ir FigureI9 .16is actuxlly is the input xt the noninverlingteflninal. andthe RzlRl voltage the referencevoltage,yREF, gainis feedback circuit.Theclosedloop voltage divider foms thenegative R. A,,::+l Therefbre,lhe regulatedoutput voltageis /R. \ Yo|r : l; + I lvEF \^r / From this analysisyou canseethat the outputvoltageis determined by the zenervoltage reg n, .nd Rr. It is relativelyindependeni of theinput voltage.andtherefore. andthe resistors (as long as$e inprt voltageandloadcurrentarewithin specified limits). ulationis achieved Equauon19-20 E q u a t i o1 n9 - 1 9

Detcrmincthe outputvoliage fbr the regulatorin Figure 19 48

T'-48 FTGURE

Jolatto,

vsr, = 5.1 Y the zenervoltage.Therefore,

v''
RebkAtuoblen

/R

ln'

\ '/u"'

/loko

\'uo"

: {z)s.r + r)s.rv v = ro.zv

replaces aremadein thecircniiofFiglre 19-48:A 3.3V zener The.following changes : 22 kO, and& = 18kf,).Whatis theoutput the5.1V zener, fir : 1.8kO,,R? voltage'1

amourt of load crnenl is drawn, Shot-Citcuit or Ove oad PrcEction lf an excessiye the series-pass tansisior can be quickly damaged or destroyed. Most regulatorsuse some typeof protection fiom excess cunentin thefolm of a cufrentlimiting nechanism.

914 r

B A 5 | CO P - A M PC I R C U I T 5

Figufe 19-49 shows one method of current iimiiing to prcvent overloads called co,?rrdrtcutent limiting. The cuJrcnt.limiting circuit consisis of tlansistor O and resisiance Ra - F T G U RtC 9-4t 5eierregulator with conrtant-

a voltagefrom baseio emitterof Or. When4-reaches The loadcunentthroughRacreates maximum value, ihe voltage drop acrcssRais sufiicient to forward-bias a predetermined it to conduct. Enough cunentis diot' 02, thuscausing the base-efitterjunction 0r base veded into the collector of 0, so that 1Lis lim;ted to its maximum value IL(,.-r Sinceihe about0.7 V for a silicon transistor the voltage base-io-emitter voltageof A cannotericeed andtheloadcunntis lim;tedto across Rais heldto this value, Equation19-21

v , = 0.7 rq^*.t & BaricShuntRegulator

transistor A As you haveseen,the control elementin the seriesrcgulatoris the series-pass simple representation of a shunttype of linear regulator;s shownin Figure 19-50(a),and the basiccomponents are shownin the block diagramin pa( (b).

: frGUtE |9-50
Block diatGfl ofa the-terhinal ,hunt rgulatoi

In the bas;cshunt regulator, the contlol elementis a transistor(Or) in parallel with the (Rr)is in series wift theload.Theoperain Figure19 sl. A series resistor load.asshown tion of the circuit is similar to ihat of the seriesregulator.exceptthai regulation;s achieved through dreparallel transistor by controlling thecurrent 0!. in input voltageor loadcurent, dueto a change Whentbe outputvoltagetries to decrcase is sensed by Rr andRaandappliedto decrease as shownin Figue 19 52(a),the aftempted

VOI.TAGEREGULATORs T

935

a F|GURE t9-5t vN Baric op-amprhut regulator

1,
)0,

t,s

l',
ti.
;l:i ' |::

,!liisanple
tjrl

{ F T G U RtE 9-52 segue.ce ofrerponrer whenYour trie to dec@re ar a Erult of a

9J6 T BAsIC OP-AMP CIRCUITs

the op amp's noninveninginput. The resultingdifferencein voltagereducesthe op-amp's output (yB), diving Or less,thus reducingits colector curent (shuntcurrent)and increas.... Sincer'.?actsasa voltagedivider with Rr, resistance, ing its intemal collector-to-emitter your levl in andmaintainsit at analrnostconstant the atiempted decrease this actionoffsets in FiSure as shown the output tries to increase, action occurs when The opposite 19 52(b). With IL and volr constant,a changein the input voltageproducesa changein shuntcunent (1s)as follows: ^. AVul

an opposjtechangein shunt Wirh a constantyL\ and Vo!r, a changein load currentcauses A/s : N'

1sdedeases, andviceversa. This fbrnula says thatif 1Lincreases, The shuntregulatoris lessefficient than ihe seriestype but offers inherentshof-circuit protection.If the output is shorled(your = 0), dre load cunent is limited by the seriesresistor,Rl, to a maximum value(Is : 0). y,"

In Figure 19-53,whatpowerratingmustRl haveif the maximuminput voltageis 12 5 V?

: ' F I G U R El 9 - 5 3

sofuabn

powerdissipationin Rl occurswhenthe output is shofi-circuitedand The worst-case : dropped across Rr is Vour 0:when vrN= 12.5 Y thevoltage yIN- vour = I2.5V in Rl is Thepowerdissipation

P4='J-'i"Jt-''*
Therefore,a resistorof at teast 10w shouldbe used. 19 53,Rrischangedto33Q.wharmusibethepowerratingofRrifihe Retated Prcblem InFigure marimum input voltageis 24 V?

938 T

B A 5 I CO P - A M PC I R C U I T 5

'19],2

;M

F t G U t Et 9 - 5 5

In d op ampcompealor whenthe inlut voltagoexceeds a specjfiedreferencevoltage,the The output voltageof a summlnganplifier is proportional10the sum of the inlut voltages. AD avraging mplitier is a sunning amplifier wilh a closedloop gain equalto the reciprccalof In a scaLing adder,a diftierentweight cu be assigned to eachinpu! rhusmatirg the inpul condbute moreor conlribuleleli to the output. The integralol a stepis a ramp. The derivaliveof a rdp is a step. In a Wien-biidge osclllatoa lhe closedloop gain nust be equalto 3 in order to haveunlty Sain dound lhe positnr feedback loop. In fitter tmiDolog), a sjngle nC cicuit is called a l',ld. Eachpole in a filter causes the output to roll olT (de.rease)at a rareof -20 dB/decade. Tso pole f,lteB rclI otr at a m.ximum Ete of 40 dB/decad. h a serieslohage regulator,the control elemeri is a tlosistor jn seneswith the load. In a shuntvollageregulator, thecontrolelement is a tdsistof (or ener diode)in par"llel wii,'ra load. The teminals on a *nee-teminal voltageregulatorde lnput voltage,ourputvoltage,andground.

@Keytemlandotielboldtelnlinthe.haPteraredefinedinthend-of-bookg|o$ary

Active tilter A frequencyselecnve circuit consislingof activedvicessuchasbanslsron or op amls combinedwilh rcacnve(RC) circuits. Averaging amplifier An amplifier wilh severalinputs thlt producesan ourpul \'olrage that is tle malhematicalareraSe of the input voltages.

FORMUIA5 I

939

Comparator A circuit thatcompms two input volta8es dd produces anoulpul in eitherof two stales indicating the Brarer or les thanrelationshipof the inluts.

DiITerentiator A cjrcuit that produces an output thal app.oachcs lhe mathenatical derivanveof lhe inlut, whlcb is rherate of chdge.

Integmtor A circuit that p.oduceran output that approaches thc nathemrical integralof rheinput. Relaxation oscillator A type of oicillatoa generauynonsinusoidal, whoseonerarionis basedon the chargingand discha.Sing of a capaciror ScalingadderA specialtype of summing anplifierwirh welghred inpurs. Srisregulator A typeof voltageregDlalorwith the conrrol elemenrin seriesbetween rheinpurdd output.

Shunt regulator A typeof voltageregulatofwith the control etementbetween theoutput andgrcund. Summing ampliffer A! anpliner wilh several inpuls that produces ar ourpurloltage prcporional ro theatgebraic sun of theinputvolrages. Tliangular rvaveosciUator A type of oscillator that p.oducesa tiangular waveoutput voltage. Wien-bridge oscillalor A sinusoldaloscillator that enploys a leadlag circuir h the fee.lbacl loop.

@
19-l

r,"""=a,*^q{+r,)
-(vNr + vrrt

Compamtorreference vohage

r9-2
l9-3 19-.1 l9-5 l9-6

- ( v r N 1 + % N :+ y r N 3 +...+

y,N,)

n input adder

= -f,tu,* + u,* * u"- = -(.!u,. *"&u,*LV,tu _ _ VL, AI R,C

* u^,1 .f

Adder gdn with n") Adder with gain

Rateof changein irtegrator

t9-7 l9-a 19-9 l9-10 l9-lt t9-12 l9-13 19-14 l9-15

/ v-\ v",,, _!
y',, 3

Difterertialor output with mmp iryDt LeadJag gdin(alterualion) alt Le.d lag resonant lrcquency Upler trigger poinl, fiangular'wave oscillator

I _ ".' 2 nR c

"*="-(t)
Y . , " =- v ^ l : l

Lo\rer r.igger point. trianSuldrvave oscillator Frequency of osciliation, biangula.waye oscillator Outpul of one pole filler (low-pas only) Crilical fteque.cy of two potefiller (low-pass) Oulputofone-polefilter (high passonlt)

_ 1 /r,\ " ,rxrc \x'l / x - \ \ vR'- xi/

I ztYRB,C1C'

-'\vf:+\2/'

940 r

B A 5 | CO P - A M PC l R C U l r 5

t9-16 t9-17 19-r8 l9-19 t9-2tl t9-21

z.'/na,ca
'., I

Lower criticnl frequencyof a band passfilter Upper cntical frequencyof a bmd_pas filter filter ofa bandpass centerftequency grin, voltage regulator loopvoltaSe Closed Seriesregulatoroutlut voltage For coNtet-cuftent limiting

z"^,/fA"c,c,

1,=xji
R. A"r= +1 tR. \ volr=\j+rJvns " 0.7v

!EE![

"na or.r..r'"p,"" an,."o-.,.,r'"

is to of a comParator 1. The Puryose (a) amPIry an inpur voltage (b) delectthe occurence of a changinginput voltage (c) prodDce a chege in output whenan input \oltage equalsa reierencevoltage (d) maintalna constant ouFut when the dc input voltagechanges for zeroletel detection.the inverting input is comectedto 2 To usea compararor (b) the dc s!'pply vouage (d) a nesatile reference voltdge (c) a lositve refercncevolrase 3. In a 5Vleve] deleclorcircuit. (a) fte noninveninginlut is connected 10+5 v +5 (b) the invenjng input is connected 10 v (c) the lnput signal is linited to a 5 V peakvalue (d) !hinputsiSnal mustberidingona +5 dc lelel 4. In a certainfourinput summinganplifier, al1the input resislon de 2.2 kO and the feedback esistor is 2.2 kO. r all the input \ollages are2 Y the output voltageis (a) 2v (b) 10V (c) 2.2Y (d) llv 4 is 5. Thegainof theanplifierin Question (.) (d) (b) mknosn (a) I 4 2.2 6. To converta snmmingamplif,er to an avengine amplifier (a) all input resistos mustbe a ditrerent lalue (b) the ratio R/R must equalthe reciprocalof tle numberof inpurs (c) the mtio 4n must equalthe nunber of inplts (d) answeK(a) and (b) (a) the inpul resisto6 de all the sme value G) rhe input resislorslre all diflerert laluos weight of eachinpul (c) the input rcsistoNhavevalueslhal dependon the assiSned (d) the rado R/ mustbe rhe sme fbf eachinlut .f palhln anop-anpinteSrator consisrs 8. Thefeedback (d) a rcsistorand a caPaciror in pafallel (c) a resislor and a capacitoriD series of consjsls 9. The feedbackpath in an op dp diilerentiator (c) a resistoranda capacitorin series {d) a esistor ed a capacitorin FraUel

PROBIEMs '

94I

10. Theop-up compdator ctcun uses (c) resenerarive (d) no feedback feedback Unily gain and zerophaseshift aroundlhe feedbackloo! are conditiors that desoibe (a) an activefilter (b) a comldator (c) e oscillalor (d) d irtegrator or ditreenllalor

ll.

12. Theinpulftequency ofa single'pole, low-pass active fi1ter increases flom 1.5kHz to 150kHz.
ff the critical freqDency n L5 kHz, rhe gain defe$es by (a) 3dB (b) 20dB (c) a0dB (d) 60dB

@AnJwe4toodd-nUmbeedPob|eml.Gattleendofthebook'

BASIC tROBtE\,rs
s E c T l o N1 9 -|
l. Detemine the output level (maximumlositivc or maximumnegative)for eachcompeator in FlgDre l9-56.

> FTGUIE 19-56

-'"*{\-'(a)

-.,--4,..'-"' +-.2-" I
__L (b) (c)

+f--''-

2. A certajno! mp hasan openioop gainof 80,000.The ndinum saturated outputlevelsof this paticuld deviceaE 1 12V whenthe dc supplyvoltages e I 15V If a differentialvoltageof 0.t5 mV ms is alplied betwee! tle inputs.what is the peak-to-peak valueof lhe outpul? 3. Draw the output voltagewavefom for eachcircuit in Figure 19-57 sirh respectto the input. Showvoltage levels.
F F T G U R Et 9 - 5 t

(a)

s E c T t o N1 9 - 2
F flGUtE tt-58

Summing Amplifirj 4. Derernine theoutpnt vollage for each circuitin Figure1 9 5 8 .

t 0k o

+15 v

10ko

(b)

942 r

B A 5 | CO P - A M PC I R C U T T 5

Determinethe following in Figure 19 59: (a) v^r md vp (b) curent diough &

(c) vdr

to goduc an oulput that is 5 times the sum of the inputs in Fin.l the valueof Rr. necessary Figm 19 59.
r F T G U R E1 9 - 5 9

22kA

7. Fjnd the oulput volbge when rhe input voltagesshownin Figure I 9-60 de appliedlo the scalingadder what is the curent through1i /
: FTGURE tt-60

vr=+2v
l0ko

33kO

91kO

adder solhalthe in a six_point scaling resistorrcquned thevalues of theinpDt 8. DelerDine oneUse inpulhas a weigbl t{r? theprevious each successjve weiShted input is I and lowest Rr: 100kc). SECTION | 9-3 rntegrator and Diffrentiaton inPutto theideal voltage in response to thestep therateof clangeof theoutput 9, Detemine integrabr h Figue19-61.

. FtGUnE t9-6r

10. A tliangular waveformis appliedto the inPut of the ideal ditre@ntialorin FiSue 19 62as shown.Determinewhat the outlut shouldbe, and draw its waveforn in relaiion 10the inpur'

t44

BAS|C O P - A M PC | R C U | T 5

20. De,enine lhe bandwrLlth and.enrer fi equen.)of edchlilrer in FiSure la 60

9 F T G U R Et 9 - 6 6

r
56tO c3 2200pI

c
'^

ll
t 500pF
l50O p!

l5kQ

l5to

I
SCTION t 9-6 Voltage Rgulators

c1 I000pF

21. Detemine the output voltagefor the seies rcgulatorin Figure i9 57. 22. If nr in Figure 19-67 is doubled.what haplers to the output voltage? 23. If the zenrvoltageis 2.7 V insteadof 2 V in Figure 19 57, whal is the ouDDtvoltage? 24. A series voltage re8ulator wirh constant-cunent linidngis shown in Figure19-68.Determine the valueof nl if the load curent is to be limiled io a maxinud valueof 250 nA. whal power ranng mustRabave? 25. ff Xi (delemined in Pioblem 24) is halved,wharis the na{inum load curent?

4.7kO

,i FIGURE i9-67

r FTGURE tt-68

ANSWERS r

945

26. In the shDnt gulator of Fjgure 19 69, when the load curent increases, doesCr condudmol 27. Assune that 1LrenaiDsconstdl and yN increases by Mn in the colletor c!rcnt of 0r ? Figure 19-69. What is the chage

28. With a conslanl inlut voltage of 18Y the load resisrancein Figure 19,69 is varied frcn 1.0 kfi to 1.2kO. Negl@ringdy chdge in oulput voltage,how muchdoesrh shut curert thronghOr changel
' F T G U R Et t - 6 9

.iiMU_LXtSllruispuFlGiHoonNG'PRo.BtEll|5 ;
CD-ROM lib cncuiB r ihownin FEu 19-70. 29. Olen file Pl9-29 anddetemine if th@ is a faDlt.r so, identifr it. 30. Openfile P19-30ard delermire if thee is a fault. n so, identify it. 3r. Openfile P19-31dd determineif thereis a fault. lJ so,identify it. 32. Openfile P19 32 md detemine if thereis a fault. IJ so,identify it.

Pt9-29
. . .F t G U t E

P19-30

t46

8 A 5 t CO P - A M PC t R C U T T 5

-lrlr
0.5v 1000 Ez

Pt9-31
:. FIGURCl9-70 (Cont.)

Ptg 32

SECTION REVIEWS
sEcTroN | 9-t
r. ( 10k,cyl l0 kO)15v - 1.36v 2. Se Figue19 71. r -F T G U R t tE -tt

sEcTtoN | 9-2

Sum.Ding Amplifi6ru pointis lheterminal l. Thesumnary of theop-amp rhere theinputresisrors tre comonly = 1/5= A.2 2. Ry'R 3.5kO

S E C T I O N1 9 - 3

IntogratoB and Dt#rentiator

l. The feedbackelementin an integratofis a capacilor 2. The capacitorvolrageis lined because the capacitorcurent is constant. 3. Tlle feedbackelenent in a difiereltialor is a resistor 4. The outpu! of a diferentiator is proporrionalto rherate of chrnge of rhe inpDt.

sEcTroN | 9-4

Orcillator' r. The negative feedbackloop selsthe closedloop gain: the posltivefedbackloop s1s the 2. A tuction generator is an oscillator inslrumert that produ.esftore rhe one type of oulput 3. The basisof a relaxationoscillatoris the chdgine and discharging of a calacitor

AN5WERS.. .9"4,7

SECTION

| 9-5

Active FiltE 1. A Poleis a singleISCcir'nir is flat ftom dc to the criltcal frcquency 2, A single-polelow-passfrequencyresponse positiols de intrchdged. 3. Th n and C 4. Tte critical frequencyis halved

SECTION

19-6

Voltags Rgulttort 1. I! a shuntreguhtd, the conirol elementis tu Pdallel with ihe load rather thd in srieswith the load. rcgutator 2. A shuntregulatorhasinherentconnt limitin8, but it is lessefftciert thana Sries pal1of the load orent must be bwased though the @ntrol element b@ause

Appllctuon

A$ignnGnt

l. The tuse rating shouldbe I A 2. Thesede optionalcapacito6 that prevert oscillations rgulator' 3, The 7912 is a negative-voltage

l9-l

1.96V 19-2 -10.5V 19-3 -5.73V 1+-4 l9-5 19-6 l9-7 19-a Rr,to20 kO. Add a 100kO input resisbr andchaDge 3 0 3 V Yro u = 0 . 4 50 1. 1 2 ; 0 . 1 8 Chdge C lo 5000!F. Sme waveformbur with dplitude of 6.6 V

1.59kIIz 19--9 6.06v peak to-leak

r9-r0 8.34lHz
19-11 2.57 YJlz 19-12 Increaset: by reducingthe resistora Voi capacilorvalues. 19-13 7.33V 19-14 17.5W

r. (c) 8. (b)

2, (^\ e. (a)

3. (b) r0. (d)

4. (d) 11. (c)

6. O)
12. (c)