Aircraft Design I

Design Methodology
EAS 3703: Lesson-3

Surjatin Wiriadidjaja
Department for Aerospace Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Introduction

Philosophical Background

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Airplane design is both an art and science, it is therefore difficult to learn from a book.
It must be started, experienced and practiced, so that good intuition can be developed. Airplane design is an intellectual engineering design process of creating engineering products on paper, which meet certain specification, requirements, and often some limitations.

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Design Process

Motivation in Design Process

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There is a goal to design and airplane based on

Request of Proposal: o Established or Potential Customers o Government o Development Pioneering Ideas and Exploitation of new technologies.

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Design Process

Other issues in the design process

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1. Market/Mission

2. Airworthiness/other standards
3. Environment/Social

4. Commercial/Manufacturing
5. Systems and equipment

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Design Process

Other issues in the design process

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Market/Mission issues, in form of:

o Point performance values (field length, turn rates),

o Description of the mission profile(s),

o Operational issues (payload, equipment to be carried, offensive threats, etc.),

o The market analysis might produce requirements that are associated with commonality of equipment or engines, aircraft stretch capability, multi-tasking, costs and timescales.

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Design Process

Other issues in the design process

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Airworthiness and other standards

It is essential to know the appropriate airworthiness regulations;

Each country applies its own regulations for the control of the design, manufacture, maintenance and operation of airplane;
Obviously all the legal requirements are mandatory and must be met by the aircraft design; Notes:
o o European Joint Airworthiness Authority (JAA) and US-Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)rules, DCA in Malaysia. Airworthiness regulations always contain conditions that affect the design of the aircraft . Separate regulations apply to military aircraft.
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Design Process

Other issues in the design process

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Environmental and social issues

Social implications on the design and operation of the aircraft arise mainly from the control of noise and emissions which are increasingly significant to aircraft design.

Commercial/manufacturing considerations

Politics affect manufacturing issues, by an individual company or a consortium of companies and governments.

Systems and equipment requirements

Aircraft manufacture depend on aircraft / engine, and operational systems that are supplied elsewhere. They have significant influence in the overall design philosophy. Thus should be included in the aircraft requirements.
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Design Phases
Flow of Works

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Design Frozen
Conceptual Design

Preliminary Design Detail Design

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Design Phases
Cost, Time an Process

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Process I : Conventional Process II: Analysis Intensive

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Design Phase

Conceptual Design (Feasibility Study)

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Expected is a document of summary of technical and geometric details as the baseline design, and in a LAYOUT of the airplane configuration, but in a drawing with flexible lines. Some fundamental aspects are determined: the overall shape, size, weight, and performance, including also size of wing, location, shape and location of tail planes, engine size and placement. The major drivers during this process are aerodynamics, propulsion, and flight performance. The first question: can the design meet specification, Is it the best solution and optimized?

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Design Example

Conceptual Design : P39 Airacobra

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Design Example

Conceptual Design : P39 Airacobra

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Design Phase
Preliminary Design

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Minor changes are made to the configuration layout. Detailed analysis to improve confidence, in structural and control system. Wind tunnel test and CFD-analysis, stability/control analysis and simulation, mass and balance analysis, operational factor (cost, maintenance) and Manufacturing processes. The drawing process (lofting) is carried out which mathematically models the precise shape of the outside skin of the airplane. At the end of this phase , the configuration is frozen and precisely defined. This process will end with decision of go or not go to manufacture of the airplane.
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Design Phase
Detail Design

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Decision to build the aircraft has been taken.

This phase is the nuts and bolts phase of airplane design. All details are translated into drawings, and the precise design of each individual rib, spar, and skin takes place. The size, number, and location of fasteners (rivets, welded joints, etc.) are determined.
Manufacturing tools and jigs are designed and fabricated. Manufacturing instructions and supply requests (subcontractor agreements and purchase orders) are started The flight simulators for the airplane are developed. Prototypes are assembled. Flight testing may commence for certification. At the end of this phase, the aircraft is ready to be fabricated.
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Design Phase

Preliminary Design as Assignment in Universities

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A. Design project as assignment concentrates Preliminary Conceptual Design (Feasibility Study);

on

B. Commonly implemented by a multi-disciplinary teams. This would require interpersonal dynamics, enhancing design experience, communication ability, management and interpersonal interaction;

C. Individuals are recommended to assess design requirements, study comparable aircraft, make initial size estimate and produce an initial concept sketch. D. It is best to apply first principles, fundamental understanding and concept, before applying detailed and advanced design codes, since there are no offthe-shelf computer software that will automatically design an aircraft.
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Design Phase

Preliminary Design as Assignment in Universities

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It is best to start the design tasks, by knowing appropriate regulations, and existing similar aircraft data. Possible basic questions would be, for example, for a two-seat light aircraft could be: side-by-side or tandem seating, high or low wing, tractor or pusher engine, canard or tail stabilized, nose or tail wheeled, conventional or novel plan-form. Two options for engine selection: fixed (specified / existing projected engine), or open design (rubber engine).

Note:
Rubber engine offers best combination of airframe-engine parameters for a design specification. It can be used to assess the penalties of selecting an available engine. Aircraft-Engine configuration is often compromised at the initial design stage to allow for aircraft growth. Most projects start with a single operational purpose but over time develop into a family of aircraft. Designers should appreciate future developments at an early design stage and allow for such flexibility, if desired.

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Conceptual Design
7 (seven) Pivot Points

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Like other creative endeavors, there is no correct and absolute method to carry out a conceptual design. It depends on people, companies, books etc. There is however a principle of seven hypothetical intellectual pivot points that offers some guide lines for a conceptual design process.

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Conceptual Design
7 (seven) Pivot Points: the first

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Requirements are often unique and tailor-made. There is no standard. But typical they comprise: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Range Take-off distance Stalling velocity Endurance Maximum velocity Rate of climb Maximum turn rate or minimum turn radius (military) Maximum load factor Service ceiling Cost Reliability and maintainability Maximum size.
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Conceptual Design

7 (seven) Pivot Points: the second

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Weight of the airplane, the first estimate:

1. Can enough lift be produced to fly?; 2. Can it be done with just a small drag; Note:
More drag needs more powerful engine that is larger and heavier.

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Conceptual Design
7 (seven) Pivot Points: the third

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Critical Performance Parameters:

1. Maximum lift coefficient CL,max ; 2. Lift-to-drag ratio, L/D (cruise) ; 3. Wing loading, W/S ; and 4. Thrust-to-weight ratio, T/W.

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Conceptual Design
7 (seven) Pivot Points: the fourth

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Configuration Layout:
A drawing of the shape and size of the airplane as it has evolved to the current stage. Note:
The initial weight estimate and the critical performance parameters give enough information to approximately size the airplane and to draw the configuration.

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Conceptual Design
7 (seven) Pivot Points: the fifth

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Better Weight Estimate:

The size and shape become more interesting. Improved weight estimate may be done by using detail component weight breakdown based on configuration layout.

A more detailed estimate of the fuel weight may also be elaborated.

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Conceptual Design
7 (seven) Pivot Points: the sixth

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Performance Analysis: The configuration layout of the airplane may be subjected to performance analysis.

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Conceptual Design

7 (seven) Pivot Points: the seventh

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Optimization:
When the design team is satisfied that the iterative process between the 3rd and 6th steps has produced a viable airplane. But is it the best design? Optimizing the design can be done by a systematic variation of different parameters; T/W and W/S, creating many different airplanes, and plotting the performance of all these airplanes on graphs which provide a sizing matrix from which the optimum can be found. Note:
Research in optimization theory and programs may soon be used to optimize and revolutionize the overall design process.

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Constraint Diagram

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Diagram: Sea-level thrustto-takeoff weight ratio T0/W0 versus the wing loading at takeoff W0/S.

A. Take-off Constraint; T0/W0 = const.W0/S.

B. Landing Constraint; there is only one value of W/S. C. Sustained Level Turn. T0/W0 = C1.W/S + C2/(W/S)

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Aircraft Design I

The End

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