(a)

(b)

FIGURE 6.88 Development of coarse-grained structure during recrystallization of soft iron. (a) Microstructure before cold working and (b) microstructure after cold working with very low degree of deformation (10%) and subsequent recrystallization annealing at 7008C. Magnification 500. (From G. Spur and ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, T. Sto 1987.)

6.3 HARDENING BY FORMATION OF MARTENSITE 6.3.1 AUSTENITIZING

Austenitizing is the first operation in many of the most important heat treatment processes (hardening, carburizing, normalizing) on which the properties of heat-treated parts depend. Let us assume the bulk heat treatment of real batches of workpieces and consider the metallurgical and technological aspects of austenitizing. 6.3.1.1 Metallurgical Aspects of Austenitizing The way austenite is formed when a certain steel is heated depends very much on the steels starting microstructure. Let us take as an example an unalloyed eutectoid steel with 0.8% C and follow the process of its austenitization using the schemes shown in Figure 6.90. At room temperature the cementite (Fe3C) plates of the pearlite are in direct contact with ferrite (a-Fe, see Figure 6.90a). The carbon atoms from cementite have a tendency to diffuse into the ferrite lattice. The higher the temperature, the greater this tendency is. Upon heating, on reaching the Ac1 temperature (7238C (13338F)), the transformation of ferrite into austenite (g-Fe)

Grain size 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Degree of deformation at cold working, %

FIGURE 6.89 Grain growth in the range of the critical degree of deformation (at 10%) for a steel with ferle (Eds.), Handbuch der 0.06% C. Recrystallization temperature, 7008C. (From G. Spur and T. Sto rmebehandeln, Carl Hanser, Munich, 1987.) Fertigungstechnik, Vol. 4/2, Wa

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-Fe

-Fe

-Fe

Fe3C (a)

-Fe (b)

Austenite (c) (d) (e)

Austenite (f)

FIGURE 6.90 Transformation of a pearlitic structure to austenite when heating an unalloyed eutectoid steel of 0.8% C.

starts immediately adjacent to the cementite plates (see Figure 6.90b). After that the cementite plates start to dissolve within the newly formed austenite, becoming thinner and thinner (Figure 6.90c and Figure 6.90d). So two processes take place at the same time: the formation of austenite grains from ferrite and the dissolution of cementite plates in the austenite lattice. Experiments have shown that the process of ferrite-to-austenite transformation ends before all the cementite has been dissolved. This means that after all the ferrite has transformed into austenite, small particles of cementite will remain within the austenite grains (Figure 6.90e). Figure 6.91 shows the formation of austenite in a microstructure of eutectoid steel. Areas of

FIGURE 6.91 Formation of austenite (light patches) from pearlite as a function of time. (From G. Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

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a1 2 a2 3 a3 (a)

a2 a1 2 3 Austenite Carbide (b) a3 1 1

a1 2

a2

(c)

FIGURE 6.92 Nucleation sites for austenite formation in microstructures of (a) ferrite; (b) spheroidite; (c) pearlite. (From G. Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

austenite formation are visible as white patches within the lamellar pearlitic structure. Some of the cementite persists in the form of spheroidized particles (the small dark spots in the white areas). They dissolve only with longer holding times at temperature. Once these cementite particles completely dissolve, the structure consists of only one phaseaustenite (see Figure 6.90f). In this state, however, there are still differences in carbon concentration among particular austenite grains. In spots where cementite plates were previously to be found, the carbon concentration is high, while in other spots far from cementite plates it is low. Equalizing of the carbon concentration proceeds gradually by diffusion, resulting in a homogeneous austenite structure at the end of this process. The holding time at austenitizing temperature necessary for this process is called the homogenization time. During pearlite austenite transformation, several austenite grains are formed from one pearlite grain, i.e., the newly formed austenite is fine-grained. Nucleation sites for austenite formation depend on the starting microstructure as shown in Figure 6.92. In ferrite the nucleation sites are situated primarily at grain boundaries. In spheroidized structures nucleation starts on carbide particles, whereas in pearlitic structures it starts primarily at the intersection of pearlite colonies but also at cementite lamellae. 6.3.1.1.1 Kinetics of Transformation during Austenitizing Figure 6.93 shows the volume percent of austenite formed from pearlite in eutectoid steel as a function of time at a constant austenitizing temperature. From the beginning of austenitization

100 Volume of austenite, % 75

50

25 0 0 5 10 15 Time, s 20 25 30

FIGURE 6.93 Volume percent austenite formed from pearlite in eutectoid steel as a function of time at a constant austenitizing temperature. (From G. Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

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a certain incubation time is necessary to form the first nuclei, and then the process proceeds at a more rapid rate as more nuclei develop and grow. At higher temperatures the diffusion rate increases and austenite forms more rapidly, as shown in Figure 6.94. The duration of austenitizing process depends on the austenitizing temperature and the steel composition. The influence of time at austenitization can best be explained by the diagrammatic illustrations shown in Figure 6.95. From Figure 6.95a and Figure 6.95b, which apply to eutectoid carbon steel of 0.8% C, one can see that if an austenitizing temperature of 7308C (13468F) is maintained (after a rapid heating to this temperature), the transformation will start in about 30 s. If instead an austenitizing temperature of 7508C (13828F) is chosen, the transformation will begin in 10 s, and if a temperature of 8108C (14908F) is selected, in about 1 s. The transformation of pearlite to austenite and cementite is in this case completed in about 6 s. If the steel is to be fully austenitic (all carbides dissolved, hatched area), it must be held at this temperature for about 2 h (7 103 s). Figure 6.95c and Figure 6.95d apply to a hypoeutectoid plain carbon steel of 0.45% C. They show that in this case at an austenitizing temperature of 8108C (14908F) the transformation from pearlite to austenite starts in about 1 s. In about 5 s the pearlite has been transformed and the structure consists of ferrite, austenite, and cementite. About 1 min later the carbon has diffused to the ferrite, which has thereby been transformed to austenite. Residual particles of cementite remain, however, and it takes about 5 h at this temperature to dissolve them completely. Figure 6.95e and Figure 6.95f apply to a hypereutectoid steel containing 1.2% C. If this steel is austenitized at 8108C (14908F), the pearlite starts to transform in about 2 s, and in about 5 s the structure consists only of austenite and cementite. It is not possible for the cementite to be completely dissolved at this temperature. To achieve complete solution of the cementite, the temperature must be increased above Acm, in this case to at least 8608C (15808F). The holding time at austenitizing (hardening) temperature depends on the desired degree of carbide dissolution and acceptable grain size, taking into account that the grain growth increases with higher austenitizing temperatures and longer holding times. Since the amount of carbide is different for different types of steel, the holding time (from the metallurgical point of view) depends on the grade of steel. However, carbide dissolution and the holding time are dependent not only on the austenitizing temperature but also the rate of heating to
100 80 Austenite, %
751C 730C

60 40 20 0 1 10 Time, s 100 1000

FIGURE 6.94 Effect of austenitizing temperature on the rate of austenite formation from pearlite in a eutectoid steel. (From G. Krauss, Steels: Heat Treatment and Processing Principles, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

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Temperature
C

900 800

A3

Acm

C 900 800
A+C A+ P

A1 700 600 500 700 600

500 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 % C 101 1 (a) (b) C 900 800 A1 700 600 500 101 1 (d) C 900 800 A1 700

10 102 103 104 105 s

Temperature C 900 A3 800 700 600 500

Acm

A A+C F+ P +A

F+A + C

F+ P

0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 % C (c) Temperature C 900 A3 800 700 600 500

10 102 103 104 105 s

Acm

A+C
A + P+ C

P+C

600 500 101 1 (f)

0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.2 % C (e)

10 102 103 104 105 s

FIGURE 6.95 Structural transformations during austenitizing steels containing (a, b) 0.8% C; (c, d) 0.45% C; (e, f) 1.2% C. A, austenite; C, cementite; F, ferrite; P, pearlite. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

this temperature. Varying the rate of heating to this temperature will have an effect on the rate of transformation and dissolution of the constituents. The influence of the role of heating (and correspondingly of the holding time) on carbide dissolution, grain growth, and hardness after hardening for various grades of steel has been studied in detail and published in Refs. [18,19]. These timetemperatureaustenitizing diagrams (Zeit-Temperatur-Austenitisierung Schaubilder in German) have been produced either as isothermal diagrams (the steel specimens were heated rapidly at the rate of 1308C/s (2668F/s) to the temperature in question and held there for a certain predetermined time) or as continuous heating diagrams (the steel specimens were heated continuously at different heating rates).

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Consequently, isothermal diagrams may be read only along the isotherms, and the continuous heating diagrams may be read only along the heating rate lines. Figure 6.96 shows an isothermal type of timetemperatureaustenitizing diagram of grade DIN 50CrV4 steel. From this type of diagram one can read off, for instance, that if the steel is held at 8308C (15268F), after about 1 s, pearlite and ferrite will be transformed to austenite, but more than 1000 s is necessary to completely dissolve the carbides to achieve a homogeneous austenite. In practice, the continuous heating diagrams are much more important because every austenitizing process is carried out at a specified heating rate. Figure 6.97 shows a time temperatureaustenitizing diagram of the continuous heating type for grade DIN Ck45 steel. The continuous heating was carried out at various constant rates ranging from 0.05 to 24008C/s (32.09 to 43528F). If the heating rate was extremely slow (e.g., 0.228C/s (32.48F/s)) to about 7758C (14278F), on crossing the Ac3 temperature after about 1 h all pearlite and ferrite would have been transformed to inhomogeneous austenite. At a heating rate

1300

1200

Homogenuous austenite 1100

Temperature, C

1000 ACC

900 Austenite + carbide AC3 830 800 AC1 AC2 Ferrite + pearlite Heating rate to hardening temp. 130C/s 700 0.01 0.1 1 10 Ferrite + pearlite + austenite

102

103

Time, s

FIGURE 6.96 Isothermal timetemperatureaustenitizing diagram of the steel grade DIN 50CrV4 (0.47% C, 0.27% Si, 0.90% Mn, 1.10% Cr). (From J. Orlich and H.J. Pietrzenivk (Eds.), Atlas zur rmebehandlung der Sta hle, Vol. 4, Zeit-Temperatur-Austenitisierung-Schaubilder, Part 2, Verlag Wa sseldorf, 1976 [in German].) Stahleisen, Du

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Heating rate, C/s

2400 1000 300 1300 100 30 10 3 1 0.22 0.05

1200

1100

Homogeneous austenite

Temperature, C

1000

900

Ac3

Inhomogeneous austenite

800

Ferrite + pearlite
Ac1 Ac2

Austenite

Ferrite + pearlite
700 101 1 10 102 103 104 105

Time, s

FIGURE 6.97 Timetemperatureaustenitizing diagram for continuous heating of the steel grade DIN Ck45 (0.49% C, 0.26% Si, 0.74% Mn). (From J. Orlich, A. Rose, and P. Wiest (Eds.), Atlas zur rmebehandlung der Sta hle, Vol. 3, Zeit-Temperatur-Austenitisierung-Schaubilder, Verlag Stahleisen, Wa sseldorf, 1973 [in German].) Du

of 108C/s (508F/s) the pearlite and ferrite would have been transformed to inhomogeneous austenite after crossing the Ac3 temperature at about 8008C (14728F) after only 80 s. A remarkable feature of such diagrams is that they show precisely the increase of Ac1 and Ac3 transformation temperatures with increasing heating rates. This is especially important when short-time heating processes like induction hardening or laser beam hardening, with heating rates ranging to about 10008C/s (18328F/s), are applied for surface hardening. In such a case this diagram should be consulted to determine the required austenitizing temperature, which is much higher than in conventional hardening of the same grade of steel. For the steel in question, for example, the conventional hardening temperature would be in the range of 8308508C (152615628F), but for induction or laser beam hardening processes the hardening temperatures required are between 950 and 10008C (1742 and 18328F). When heating at a rate of 10008C/s (18328F/s) to the austenitizing temperature of 10008C (18328F), only 1 s is necessary, and the above-mentioned short heating time processes operate in approximately this time range. As Figure 6.97 shows, much higher temperatures are necessary to achieve the

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homogeneous austenite structure. In such a case one is, of course, concerned with the grain growth. Figure 6.98 shows the grain growth (according to American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM]) when grade DIN Ck45 steel is continuously heated at different heating rates to different austenitizing temperatures. Figure 6.99 shows the achievable Vickers hardness after hardening for grade DIN Ck45 steel austenitized at various heating rates to various temperatures. It shows, for example, that maximum hardness would be achieved upon austenitizing the steel at 8508C (15628F) for about 900 s (or heating at a heating rate of 18C/s (33.88F/s)), which corresponds to the field of homogeneous austenite (see Figure 6.97). The hardness after quenching, which depends on the amount of carbide dissolution, is also dependent on the initial structure of the steel. This is illustrated in Figure 6.100. Figure 6.100a shows that a structure of spheroidized cementite (after soft annealing) of the hypoeutectoid DIN Cf53 carbon steel will attain the maximum hardness of 770 HV when heated at a rate of 18C/s (33.88F/s) to 8758C (16098F) (holding time 855 s or 14 min). The hardened and

Heating rate C/s

2400 1000 1300 300 100 30 10 3 1 0.22 0.05

4 to 3 1200

1100 4

Temperature, C

6 8 1000 9 10 Ac3 900 11 to 10 Grain size (ASTM): 104

800

Ac1

700 101

10

102

103

105

Time, s

FIGURE 6.98 Timetemperatureaustenitizing diagram for continuous heating showing the grain rmebegrowth of steel grade DIN Ck45. (From J. Orlich, A. Rose, and P. Wiest (Eds.), Atlas zur Wa hle, Vol. 3, Zeit-Temperatur-Austenitisierung-Schaubilder, Verlag Stahleisen, Du sselhandlung der Sta dorf, 1973 [in German].)

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Heating rate C/s

2400 1000 1300 300 100 30 10 3 1 0.22 0.05

1200

780 1100

Temperature,C

800 1000 840 Hardness after quenching (HV):

900

Ac3

840

800 Ac1

840 820 800 780

700 0.1 1 10 102 103 104 105

Time, s

FIGURE 6.99 Timetemperatureaustenitizing diagram for continuous heating showing the achievable hardness after hardening steel grade DIN Ck45. (From J. Orlich, A. Rose, and P. Wiest (Eds.), Atlas zur rmebehandlung der Sta hle, Vol. 3, Zeit-Temperatur-Austenitisierung-Schaubilder, Verlag Stahleisen, Wa sseldorf, 1973 [in German].) Du

tempered structure (tempered martensite) of the same steel, as shown in Figure 6.100b, will attain the maximum hardness of 770 HV, however, if heated to 8758C (16098F) at the rate of 10008C/s (18328F/s) (holding time less than 1 s). For this reason, when short-time heating processes are used, the best results are achieved with hardened and tempered initial structures. For eutectoid and hypereutectoid steel grades, which after quenching develop substantial amounts of retained austenite, the attainment of maximum hardness after quenching is more complicated. Figure 6.101 shows the hardness after quenching for the ball bearing hypereutectoid grade DIN 100Cr6 steel (1.0% C, 0.22% Si, 0.24% Mn, and 1.52% Cr). The maximum hardness of 900 HV after quenching is attained on heating to a very narrow temperature range, and furthermore this temperature range is displaced toward higher temperatures as the heating rate is increased. If this steel is quenched from temperatures that exceed the optimum range, the resulting hardness is reduced owing the presence of an increasing amount of retained austenite.

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Hardness after quenching, HV1

900 Rate of heating in C/s 800

700
1 10 100

1000

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Temperature, C 1200 1300

(a)

Hardness after quenching, HV1

900

Rate of heating in C/s

800

1 10 100 1000 700

600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300

(b)

Temperature, C

FIGURE 6.100 Hardness after quenching as a function of the rate of heating and austenitizing temperature for grade DIN Cf53 steel (hypoeutectoid carbon steel) (a) for soft-annealed condition and (b) for hardened and tempered condition. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

For plain carbon and low-alloy structural steels, which contain easily dissolved carbides, a holding time of 515 min after they have reached the hardening temperature is quite enough to make certain that there has been sufficient carbide dissolution. For medium-alloy structural steels this holding time is about 1525 min. For low-alloy tool steels, it is between 10 and 30 min; and for high-alloy Cr steels, between 10 min and 1 h. 6.3.1.2 Technological Aspects of Austenitizing

In heating metallic objects to their austenitizing (hardening) temperature, there are two kinds of heating rates to be distinguished: those that are technically possible and those that are technologically allowed. The technically possible heating rate is the heating rate the heating equipment could realize in actual use. It depends on 1. The installed heating capacity of the equipment 2. The heat transfer medium (gas, liquid, vacuum) 3. The temperature difference between the heat source and the surface of the heated objects (workpieces put in a hot or cold furnace) 4. The mass and shape of the workpiece (the ratio between its volume and superficial area) 5. The number of workpieces in a batch and their loading arrangement

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1000 Rate of heating in C/s 900

Hardness after quenching, HV1

800

700
1 10 100 1000

600

500 700

800

900

1000 1100 Temperature, C

1200

1300

FIGURE 6.101 Hardness after quenching as a function of the rate of heating and austenitizing temperature for grade DIN 100Cr6 steel initially soft annealed. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

The technologically allowed heating rate is the maximum heating rate that can be applied in actual circumstances, taking into account the fact that thermal stresses that develop within the workpiece must not exceed the critical value because this could cause warping or cracking, since sections having different dimensions heat up at different speeds and large temperature gradients can arise between the surface and the core of the workpiece. This heating rate depends on 1. The mass and shape of the workpiece (the ratio between its volume and superficial area) 2. The chemical composition of the material 3. The initial microstructure When workpieces of heavy sections or of complicated shapes are heated, temperatures between 250 and 6008C (482 and 11128F) are particularly dangerous, because in this temperature range the steel does not have enough plasticity to compensate for thermal stresses. If the heating of an object is asymmetrical, the object will warp. If thermal stresses are developed that overstep the strength of the material (which is substantially lower at higher temperatures), cracks will result. If the heating rate is too high through the transformation temperature range (between Ac1 and Ac3), warping may occur because of volume change of the structure lattice. The tendency of a steel to crack during heating depends on its chemical composition. Carbon content has the decisive influence. The higher the carbon content, the greater the sensitivity to cracking. The complex influence of carbon and other alloying elements is expressed by the following empirical formula termed the C equivalent (Cekv): Cekv C Mn Cr Mo Ni V Si 0:5 Ti W Al 5 4 3 10 5 5 5 10 10 (6:40)

where the element symbols represent wt% content. This formula is valid up to the following maximum values of alloying elements.

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C 0.9% Mn 1.1% Cr 1.8% Mo 0.5% Ni 5.0%

V Si Ti W Al

0.25% 1.8% 0.5% 2.0% 2.0%

The values of the alloying elements actually present are put into the formula in wt%. If the amount of an alloying element exceeds the limit given above, then the indicated maximum value should be put into the formula. The higher the calculated Cekv value, the greater the sensitivity of the steel to cracking. For instance, Cekv 0.4: The steel is not sensitive to cracking (it may be heated quite rapidly). Cekv 0.40.7: The steel is medium sensitive to cracking. Cekv ! 0.7: The steel is very sensitive to cracking (when heating up a preheating operation should be included). The initial microstructure also has some influence on the technologically allowed heating rate. A steel with a homogeneous microstructure of low hardness may be heated more rapidly than a steel of high hardness with inhomogeneous microstructure. The thermal gradients and consequently the thermal stresses developed when heating to austenitizing temperature can usually be diminished by preheating the workpiece to temperature lying close below the transformation temperature Ac1 and holding it there until temperature equalizes throughout the cross section. The theoretical timetemperature diagram of the austenitizing process is shown in Figure 6.102. Practically, however, there is no such strict distinction between the heating and soaking

T C Ta

Surfa

ce

Co

re

1preheating 2heating up 3heating through (thermal soaking) 4structure homogenizing (metallurgical soaking) Ta austenitizing temperature ta austenitizing time

1 2 ta

3 4

th

FIGURE 6.102 Austenitizing process (theoretically).

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Temperature F C 1832 1000 1652 900 1472 800 1292 700 1112 600 932 500 752 400 572 300 392 200 212 100 32 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 min Heating-up time
1 4 in. I 25 100 mm 2 7 in. II 50 175 mm 4 8 in. III 100 200 mm I II III

FIGURE 6.103 Timetemperature curves for steel bars of different diameters heated in a salt bath at 10008C. Full line, measured temperature at surface; dashed line, measured temperature at center. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

times. Contrary to the generally widespread belief that the surface of the steel reaches the preset temperature considerably earlier than the center, the closer the temperature of the steel approaches the preset temperature, the smaller the temperature difference between surface and core, as shown in Figure 6.103. It can therefore be assumed that when the surface has reached the preset temperature, part of the soaking time (depending on the cross-sectional size) has already been accomplished. Certainly, one has to be aware of the corner effect corners, sharp edges, and thin sections reach the preset temperature much earlier than the core of the workpiece. The most important parameters of every austenitizing process are: 1. The austenitizing temperature 2. The heat-up and soak time at austenitizing temperature For each grade of steel there is an optimum austenitizing (hardening) temperature range. This temperature range is chosen so as to give maximum hardness after quenching and maintain a fine-grained microstructure. It can be determined experimentally as shown in Figure 6.104 and Figure 6.105. From Figure 6.104 it is clear that the lowest possible hardening temperature for the steel in question is 8508C (15628F). A lower hardening temperature would result in the formation of bainite and even pearlite with inadequate hardness. When the hardening temperature is increased (see Figure 6.105), the grain size and the amount of retained austenite increase. At 920 and 9708C (1688 and 17788F) the retained austenite may be discerned as light angular areas. On the basis of these experiments, the optimum hardening temperature range for the steel in question has been fixed at 850 8808C (156216168F). The optimum hardening temperature range for unalloyed steels can be determined from the ironcarbon equilibrium diagram according to the carbon content of the steel. This range is 30508C (861228F) above the Ac3 temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and 30508C (861228F) above Ac1 for hypereutectoid steels, as shown in Figure 6.106. Because the curve SE in this diagram denotes also the maximum solubility of carbon

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FIGURE 6.104 Microstructures of a steel having 1% C, 1.5% Si, 0.8% Mn, and 1% Cr, hardened from hardening temperatures between 800 and 8508C. Dimensions of test pieces: 30-mm diameter 100 mm. Magnification 400. (a) Hardening temperature 8008C, hardness 55 HRC; (b) hardening temperature 8258C, hardness 61.5 HRC; (c) hardening temperature 8508C, hardness 66 HRC. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

in austenite, it is clear that the higher the austenitizing (hardening) temperature, the more carbon can be dissolved in austenite. For alloyed steels the optimum austenitizing (hardening) temperature range depends on the chemical composition, because different alloying elements shift the A1 temperature to either higher or lower temperatures. For

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FIGURE 6.105 Microstructures of steel having 1% C, 1.5% Si, 0.8% Mn, and 1% Cr, hardened from hardening temperatures between 870 and 9708C. Dimensions of test pieces: 30-mm diameter 100 mm. Magnification 400. (a) Hardening temperature 8708C, hardness 62.5 HRC, retained austenite 12%; (b) hardening temperature 9208C, hardness 62 HRC, retained austenite 20%.; (c) hardening temperature 9708C, hardness 61 HRC, retained austenite 28%. (From K.E. Thelning, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, 2nd ed., Butterworths, London, 1984.)

these steels, therefore, data from the literature on the optimum hardening temperature range have to be consulted. It should also be mentioned that increasing the austenitizing temperature causes the following effects.

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T C 1148

Ironcarbon equilibrium diagram E

G 0

Austenite

cm

912

+ Fe3C0
A3 A1

+ 727

S ' + pearlite Pearlite 0.77 C, wt% The range of optimun hardening temperatures Pearlite + Fe3C

2.11

FIGURE 6.106 Optimum hardening temperature range for unalloyed steels, depending on the carbon content.

1. It increases the hardenability of the steel because of the greater amount of carbide going into solution and the increased grain size. 2. It lowers the martensite start temperature (Ms). Owing to the more complete carbide dissolution, the austenite becomes more stable and starts to transform upon quenching at lower temperature. 3. It increases the incubation time, i.e., the time until the isothermal transformation to pearlite or bainite starts. This is expressed as a shift in the start of transformation curves in an IT diagram to later times. 4. It increases the amount of retained austenite after quenching due to stabilization of the austenite, which at higher temperatures is more saturated with carbon from dissolved carbides. Heat-up and soak time at austenitizing temperature is a very important parameter for bulk heat treatment because it not only determines the furnace productivity and economy (consumption of energy) but may also affect the properties of the treated workpieces. Until recently there was no reliable, objective method for accurately predicting heat-up and soak times for heat treatment cycles that took into account all workpiece characteristics, variations in furnace design, and load arrangement. Current determinations of heat-up and soak time are based on either a very conservative and general rule (e.g., 1 h/in. of cross section) or some empirical method, the results of which [20] differ substantially. By heat-up and soak time we mean the time it takes for the heated workpiece to go from starting (room) temperature to the preset temperature in its core. The main factors that influence heat-up and soak time are diagrammed in Figure 6.107. On the basis of experiments with 26 specimens (cylinders, round plates, and rings of various dimensions) made of unalloyed and low-alloy structural steels, Jost et al. [20] found from core temperature measurements that the heat-up and soak time depends substantially on the geometry of the heated workpiece and its mass. They found the heat-up and soak time to be directly proportional to the mass/surface area (m/A, kg/m2) ratio, as shown in Figure 6.108. By regression analysis for their conditions (the specimens were heated in an electrically heated chamber furnace of 8 kW capacity and 240 240 400 mm working space, to the hardening

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Workpiece
Shape size Surface area Mass Heat conductivity

Actual conditions
Temperature Number of workpieces Loading arrangement Trays

Furnace
Type Working space Heating mode and installed capacity Heat transfermedium Temperature distribution

Heat-up and soak time

FIGURE 6.107 The main factors that influence the heat-up and soak time. (From S. Jost, H. Langer, D. Pietsch, and P. Uhlig, Fertigungstech. Betr. 26(5):298301, 1976 [in German].)

temperature, 8708C (15988F)), they found that the heat-up and soak time (t) can be calculated using the equation t 0:42(m=A)3:7 (6:41)

The regression coefficients 0.42 and 3.7 are, of course, valid for their experimental conditions only. Comparison with their experimentally obtained results (see the points in Figure 6.108) showed a standard deviation of s2 1.4 min2, or s +1.2 min, indicating that this way of predicting heat-up and soak time in specific circumstances may be quite precise. The Jost et al. [20] approach may be used generally for prediction of heat-up and soak times according to the general expression t a(m=A) b (6:42)

provided that for a given situation the straight line of regression and relevant values of the regression coefficients a and b are fixed by means of some preliminary experiments. It should be stressed, however, that the described results of this investigation are valid for single workpieces only. In another investigation [21], a method enabling heat treaters to accurately determine the heat-up and soak times for different loads treated in batch-type indirect fired furnaces was
50 40 30 t, min 20 10 0 30 40 50 60 70 80 m/A , Kg/m2 90 100 110 120

FIGURE 6.108 Dependence of the heat-up and soak time on the mass/surface area ratio, (m/A). (From S. Jost, H. Langer, D. Pietsch, and P. Uhlig, Fertigungstech. Betr. 26(5):298301, 1976 [in German].)

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developed. To develop the method, a statistical and experimental investigation of load temperature conditions was performed. A computer-aided mathematical model of heat and mass transfer throughout the furnace and load was developed. The computer model accurately predicts the suitable heat-up and soak times for various types of furnace loads, load arrangements, workpiece shapes, and thermal properties. The treated loads were divided into several groups in terms of workpiece allocation and aerodynamic patterns of the furnace atmosphere, as shown in Figure 6.109. The experiments with six different loads were conducted in indirectly fired batch furnaces, the working space of which was of length 9151680 mm, width 6101420 mm, and height 610 1270 mm. The furnaces were equipped with four burners firing into the trident burner tubes located on the side walls, with a circulating fan located on top of the furnace as shown in Figure 6.110. The thermocouples were located in different parts of the load (measuring always the surface temperature of the workpieces)on the top and bottom, in the core, at the corners, and on the surfaces facing radiant tubesto determine temperature variations across the load. As can be seen from Figure 6.110, the heat and mass transfer in the furnace and load are very complicated and are characterized by nonlinear three-dimensional radiation and convection and by nonlinear heat conduction within the workpieces. In this case, the mathematical
(a) Monolayer, horizontally oriented, ordered loads Spaced Packed

(b)

Monolayer, horizontally oriented, random loads

(c)

Multilayer ordered and random loads Packed Spaced Bulk

(d)

Vertically oriented loads

FIGURE 6.109 Load characterization. (a) Monolayer, horizontally oriented, ordered loads; (b) monolayer, horizontally oriented, random loads; (c) multilayer ordered and random loads. (d) Vertically oriented loads. (From M.A. Aronov, J.F. Wallace, and M.A. Ordillas, System for prediction of heat-up and soak times for bulk heat treatment processes, Proceedings of the International Heat Treatment Conference on Equipment and Processes, April, 1820, 1994, Schaumburg, IL, pp. 5561.)

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Roof fan

Radiant tubes
q qwc wr qtr qtc qpr qgc qpc

qtr qtc qwr qwc qgc qpr

Load

qpc

Radiation from the radiant tubes Convection from the radiant tubes Radiation from the walls Convection from the walls Convection from the furnace gases Radiation between parts Conduction through the parts

FIGURE 6.110 Heat transfer in the used furnace and load. (From M.A. Aronov, J.F. Wallace, and M.A. Ordillas, System for prediction of heat-up and soak times for bulk heat treatment processes, Proceedings of the International Heat Treatment Conference on Equipment and Processes, April, 1820, 1994, Schaumburg, IL, pp. 5561.)

model to describe the heat and mass exchange is a system of integral and differential nonlinear equations. The input parameters to the computer program were as follows: Geometrical data of the furnace and load: Furnace working space dimensions, radiant tube diameter and layout in the furnace, dimensions of the baskets, number of trays in the basket, workpiece characteristic size Type of load (according to load characterization, see Figure 6.109) Type of steel (carbon, alloyed, high-alloy) Load thermal properties Load and furnace emissivities Temperature conditions (initial furnace and load temperature) Fan characteristic curve parameters Composition of protective atmosphere As an example, maximum and minimum steel part temperatures for a test (heating of shafts) together with the calculated data are shown in Figure 6.111. The experimental data show that the temperature curve of the load thermocouple usually reaches the set furnace temperature well within the soak time requirements. The experimentally determined soak time is seen to be considerably shorter than the soak time defined by the heat treater. It was found that the discrepancy between soak times determined from the test data and calculations does not exceed 8%, which is acceptable for workshop practice. The developed computer model was used for simulation of temperature conditions for different load configurations, and a generalized formula and set of graphs were developed. The generalized equation for the soak time determination is ts tsb k (6:43)

where ts is the calculated soak time, min; tsb is soak time for baseline temperature conditions, min; and k is a correction factor for the type of steel. The basic soak time (tsb) is obtained from graphs derived from the computer simulation. Such a graph for packed loads is shown in Figure 6.112. Other load shapes and configurations

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900 Temperature, C 800 700 600 500 400 300 0 15 30 45 60 75 Time, min 90 105 120 135

Furnace temp. + Load max. exper. Load min. exper. Load max. calcul. Load min. calcul.

FIGURE 6.111 Computer simulation for heating of shafts. (From M.A. Aronov, J.F. Wallace, and M.A. Ordillas, System for prediction of heat-up and soak times for bulk heat treatment processes, Proceedings of the International Heat Treatment Conference on Equipment and Processes, April, 1820, 1994, Schaumburg, IL, pp. 5561.)

require different graphs. The correction factor k depends on the type of steel. The generalized equation (Equation 6.43) for the heat-up and soak time determination was set into a userfriendly computer package that incorporates charts for the calculation. This resulted in a straightforward way of determining the soak time without the use of charts while allowing for a quick and accurate soak time calculation.

6.3.2 QUENCHING INTENSITY MEASUREMENT

AND

EVALUATION BASED ON HEAT FLUX DENSITY

In designing the method for practical measurement, recording, and evaluation of the quenching and cooling intensity in workshop conditions, in contrast to the Grossmann H value c ic was concept, which expresses quenching intensity by a single number, the main idea of Lis to express the quenching intensity by continuous change of relevant thermodynamic functions during the whole quenching process. Instead of recording only one cooling curve (as in laboratory-designed tests) in the center of a small (usually 1/2 in.) cylindrical specimen, the

300 250 N=4

N=3

N=2 N = Number of trays

Soak time (tsb), min

200 150 N>4 100 50 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 N=1

Load characteristic size, in.

FIGURE 6.112 Thermal soak time for a packed load. (From M.A. Aronov, J.F. Wallace, and M.A. Ordillas, System for prediction of heat-up and soak times for bulk heat treatment processes, Proceedings of the International Heat Treatment Conference on Equipment and Processes, April, 1820, 1994, Schaumburg, IL, pp. 5561.)

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.