Images

of the World, Part I

Subtopics: I. Neo-realism II. Neo-liberalism III. Neo-Marxism
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I 1

I. Neo-realism (cont.)
In the study of world poliGcs, images of the world are the ways in

which we sort out what actors are important in global poliGcs and what variables explain global events.
Systemic images analyze power relaGons between states in the global poliGcal system they disagree with realism and idealism, however, on what to conclude from those relaGons

There are two sets of images, each having three dierent perspecGves, but all perspecGves within each image agree on the focus of explaining global poliGcs. Systemic images (like both realism and idealism) claim that the power relaGons between states explain global poliGcs there are three major perspecGves within the group of systemic images: neo-realism, neo-liberalism, and neo-Marxism. Domes+c poli+cs images claim that global poliGcs is explained by a deeper explanaGons that are found within the culture and poliGcs of states and socieGes there are three major perspecGves within the group of domesGc poliGcs images: neo-conservaGsm, the clash of civilizaGons, and isolaGonism.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

The domesGc poliGcs images analyze the nature of governments and socieGes themselves 2

I. Neo-realism (cont.)
Neo-realism, or, structural realism, is a variaGon of classical

realism. AccepGng most of classical realisms assumpGons, neo- realism departs with it in one very substanGal way.

Recall that classical realism assumes that it is in human nature that people will always covet power, the consequence of which is that the world forever be a dog-eat-dog, unstable world. Neo-realism rejects this focus on the nature of people, instead assuming that the structure of the global system compels states to pursue power and self-interest whether it is their so- President Richard Nixon and called nature or not. advisor Henry Kissinger architects of neo-realism in the United States. Further, neo-realists tend to minimize the importance of the intangible aspects of power (such as culture and history), focusing exclusively on what can be measured.

POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I 3

I. Neo-realism (cont.)
Neo-realists completely ignore cultural or philosophical

variables in world aairs even whether states are democra+c or not. What maZers is that the structure of anarchy compels states to act in a mechanisGc way to balance o threats to their security.

In a sense, neo-realists argue that there are the equivalent of laws of physics that states cannot ignore. Hence, the structure and dynamics of anarchy mean that states do not have agency or act independently they need to guarantee there are no imbalances of power and overall global stability which is largely successful except for cases of miscalculaGon. The neo-realist goal, therefore is to reduce the miscalculaGons and instability that cause war.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I Human nature, culture, or emoGons are of no concern to the neo-realist when calculaGng threats to naGonal security.

II. Neo-realism (cont.)

What can lead to a miscalculaGon of power? Neo-realists

tend to focus on the decision-making process of a states naGonal security apparatus.

predisposi+ons already arrived-at, ideological conclusions about how the world works despite what is known to be true; bias; ex. Israeli miscalculaGon of the Arab aZack in the 1973 Yom Kippur War representa+veness conclusions based on what is familiar instead of what is known to be true; experience; ex. BriGsh and French miscalculaGon of German armored speed and maneuverability (Maginot Line) ra+onaliza+ons explanaGons that dismiss what is known to be true in favor of the speculaGve; wishful thinking; ex. WWI military leadership belief in oensive military operaGons
For a neo-realist, all miscalcula+ons result from decision-
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I The BriGsh ExpediGonary Force evacuates Europe at the port of Dunkirk, France, 1940

makers not seeing the world as it is, i.e. not realis+cally.

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I. Neo-realism (cont.)

Of further interest to neo-realists is the concept of polarity. Polarity refers to the distribuGon of power among Great Powers (superpowers) within a given system, whether regional or global the potenGal for shigs in power between Great Powers to lead to miscalculaGon, which, in turn, impacts the stability of the system is an acute problem according to neo-realists.

Ogen neo-realists are said to be singularly focused on the shigs in power between the Great Powers, or on Great Power poliGcs.
mulGpolarity is a balance of power that involves three or more Great Powers ex., the pre-20th century world. bipolarity is a balance of power involving two Great Powers ex., the Cold War. unipolarity is where one Great Power acts as a hegemon, constraining other states ability to disrupt the system ex., the contemporary, post-Cold War world.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I Realists are concerned with stability and balance in the internaGonal system.

II. Neo-liberalism
Neo-liberalism, while also focusing on systemic relaGons

between states as does neo-realism, rejects the neo-realist premise of a world in a permanent anarchy and the consequent need for a focus on naGonal security and stability.

Neo-liberalism accepts some of the basic premises of GroGan idealism, especially the importance of internaGonal law. However, neo-liberals depart from idealists on a signicant point: the neo-liberal looks to a future characterized by a democraGc perpetual peace, an atmosphere where there has been a permanent resoluGon to conict within a structure of democraGc world governance (i.e., a liberal world order). Neo-liberalism does not assume the existence of sovereign, independent states outside this global world order.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

Neo-liberals hold out for a lasGng, perpetual peace: The wolf will live with the lamb, the leopard will lie down with the goat, the calf and the lion and the yearling together; and a liZle child will lead them. -- Isaiah 11:6

II. Neo-liberalism (cont.)

Thus, creaGng perpetual peace means resolving what neo- liberals see as the major impediment: the lack of world government. Neo-liberals believe in creaGng a number of insGtuGons of global governance to overcome the challenges of anarchy:
mulGlateralism: an increased emphasis on the cooperaGve diplomacy of many states within IGOs, especially the European Union and the United NaGons, as well as internaGonal law, including internaGonal courts; areas of increased mulGlateralism: peacekeeping , criminal law, civil law, and nance interdependence and legally entwined economies; ex. climate change, Rio and Kyoto climate protocols humanitarian foreign policies; ex. Swedens open immigraGon policies, and foreign aid for poverty and disaster relief

The InternaGonal Criminal Court (ICC) was formally established in 2002 ager 60 countries raGed the statute. The ICC was created to prosecute war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide, and the as-yet undened crime of aggression. The US has not raGed the ICC. (The above wanted poster consists of former ocials in the Sudanese government, wanted for internaGonal human rights abuses.) 8

POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

II. Neo-liberalism (cont.)

UlGmately, the neo-liberal vision of a world government involves supranaGonalism displacing state sovereignty. SupranaGonalism is the subordinaGon of domesGc law to internaGonal law. SupranaGonalism is qualitaGvely dierent than the voluntary arrangements among member states of an IGO. Whereas the member states of an IGO remain sovereign and direct its acGviGes, in a supranaGonal arrangement the member states lose sovereignty to the supranaGonal authority that authority then assumes the posiGon of a sovereign. In the Lisbon Treaty, raGed in 2009, the European Parliament, one of two main decision-making bodies of the European Union, was given the power to legislate in 40 new areas of law including public health, energy agriculture, transportaGon, and criminal jusGce.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I The European Parliament, located in Strasbourg, France, consists of 726 members elected by voters in the 27 member states of the European Union.

II. Neo-liberalism (cont.)

Robert Schuman, the rst EU president and who coined the term, supranaGonalism would come about through the voluntary concession of sovereign rights on the part of the member states. This may be undertaken slowly, as populaGons forego a naGonalisGc outlook in favor of a truly internaGonal perspecGve in the case of Europe, this change in outlook has its origins in the devastaGon of World War Two:
We are carrying out a great experiment, the fulllment of the same recurrent dream that for ten centuries has revisited the peoples of Europe: creaGng between them an organizaGon punng an end to war and guaranteeing an eternal peace... This new policy ... consGtutes probably the supreme aZempt to save our ConGnent and preserve the world from suicide.
speech ager the creaGon of the Council of Europe, an early insGtuGon of the European Union POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I May 16, 1950

French diplomat Robert Schuman (1886-1963) is regarded as the Founding Father of the European Union.

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III. Neo-Marxism
Neo-Marxism also focuses on the power relaGons between states and not on the internal poliGcs of states, as do neo-realism and neo-liberalism. However, neo-Marxism substanGally deviates from these other two systemic images in that it focuses completely on economic phenomena as explanaGon for poliGcal indeed, for a neo-Marxist, strictly speaking there are no poliGcal phenomena. Every human interacGon is embedded with a struggle over wealth and labor. PoliGcs essenGally is just a distracGon.

One-third of the populaGon of India lives on $1 per day.

POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

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III. Neo-Marxism (cont.)

Neo-Marxism is a variaGon of orthodox socialist theory propounded by German philosopher Karl Marx in the mid-19th century. Marx argued that all history is a history of class warfare between the laboring and the elite classes that involves the exploita+on (i.e., theg) of the laboring classes of the value of their work. Although capitalism is not the only system of exploitaGon according to Marx, it is the most recent. Specically, Marx argued that capitalism, like all other exploitaGve systems before it, will eventually be undone by the very nature of its exploitaGon essenGally Marx argued that the laboring classes will become conscious of their exploitaGon and overthrow the capitalist system, ushering in over Gme socialism and a complete end to exploita+on.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

Karl Marx, 1818-1883

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III. Neo-Marxism (cont.)

By the early 20th century socialist intellectuals began to noGce that capitalism wasn't collapsing and, indeed, it seemed to be genng more entrenched. This new generaGon of socialists began to formulate theories to explain why the working classes werent revolGng. Principal among these intellectuals was Russian revoluGonary Vladimir Lenin. Lenin postulated a strategy of imperialism undertaken by capitalist states. Lenin was basically arguing that the capitalists werent exploiGng the workers at home, but instead were squeezing the laboring classes in developing countries for prot.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

Vladimir Ilych Ulyanov (Lenin), 1870-1924

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III. Neo-Marxism (cont.)

Contemporary socialists (neo-Marxists) expand on Lenins

theory of imperialism to claim the existence of a core- periphery relaGonship between capitalist states and developing states. All global poli+cs are interpreted by contemporary socialists through this mode of analysis.

Core-periphery theory, someGmes also called dependency theory or world systems theory, postulates that capitalist states (the core) penetrate the poliGcal systems of developing states (the periphery) creaGng mutually dependent relaGons with the local elites, essenGally creaGng puppet regimes. These complex relaGonship are not formed for poli+cal gain but to expedite the economic and material exploitaGon of developing world labor classes. EecGvely, poor countries are seen by neo-Marxists as lacking agency and otherwise not to be independent actors.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

PoliGcal cartoon saGrizing internaGonal banking, c. late 1800s.

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III. Neo-Marxism (cont.)

All global poliGcs are interpreted through this perspecGve in other words, all global poliGcal events (wars, diplomacy, everything) are fundamentally economic phenomena related to the exploita+on of the laboring classes. Even events/phenomena that are apparently and obviously religious, cultural, or ethnic actually are only supercially so. Events as disparate as World War Two, Islamic terrorism, globalizaGon, ethnic cleansing in the Balkans, the Indo- Pakistani conict, and African tribal genocide are all said to be economic phenomena caused by global capitalism aZempGng to subvert the developing world for its resources.
POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I J.P. Morgan Chase, one of the ten largest investment banks in the world.

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III. Neo-Marxism (cont.)

Dependency and Development

Neo-Marxists have oered a variety of strategies to help bring about the destrucGon of these terrible chains imposed by dependent development, as termed by dependency theorist Theotonio dos Santos.

revoluGon: Marxist overthrow of regimes to delink from the capitalist world-system, breaking dependency naGonalizaGon: seizure by the state of property holdings of MNCs import-subsGtuGon and protecGonism import subsGtuGon is the producGon of previously imported goods by domesGc industries; in nearly every case, these industries receive massive government subsidies and are protected from foreign compeGGon privaGzaGon: free-market and free trade policies; essenGally abandoning Marxism

The Brasinca Uirapuru, a sport coupe manufactured in Brazil between 1964-1966 only 73 were produced.

POS120 -- Images of the World, Part I

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