PART - II Mechanics of Deformable Bodies

COURSE CONTENT IN BRIEF

6. Simple stresses and strains 7. Statically indeterminate problems and thermal stresses 8. Stresses on inclined planes 9. Stresses due to fluid pressure in thin cylinders

6. Simple stresses and strains

The subject strength of materials deals with the relations between externally applied loads and their internal effects on bodies. The bodies are no longer assumed to be rigid and the deformations, however small, are of major interest The subject, strength of materials or mechanics of materials involves analytical methods for determining the strength , stiffness (deformation characteristics), and stability of various load carrying members. Alternatively the subject may be called the mechanics of solids.

GENERAL CONCEPTS STRESS No engineering material is perfectly rigid and hence, when a material is subjected to external load, it undergoes deformation. While undergoing deformation, the particles of the material offer a resisting force (internal force). When this resisting force equals applied load the equilibrium condition exists and hence the deformation stops. These internal forces maintain the externally applied forces in equilibrium.

STRESS

The internal force resisting the deformation per unit area is called as stress or intensity of stress.

Stress = internal resisting force / resisting cross sectional area

R = A

STRESS SI unit for stress N/m2 also designated as a pascal (Pa) Pa = N/m2 kilopascal, 1kPa = 1000 N/m2 megapascal, 1 MPa = 1106 N/m2 = 1106 N/(106mm2) = 1N/mm2 1 MPa = 1 N/mm2 gigapascal, 1GPa = 1109 N/m2 = 1103 MPa = 1103 N/mm2

AXIAL LOADING NORMAL STRESS P P R

STRESS

Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area A, subjected to a tensile force P. Consider a section AB normal to the direction of force P Let R is the total resisting force acting on the cross section AB. Then for equilibrium condition,

R=P Then from the definition of stress, normal stress = = R/A = P/A

Symbol:

= Normal Stress

AXIAL LOADING NORMAL STRESS Direct or Normal Stress: Intensity of resisting force perpendicular to or normal to the section is called the normal stress. Normal stress may be tensile or compressive

STRESS

Tensile stress: stresses that cause pulling on the surface of the section, (particles of the materials tend to pull apart causing extension in the direction of force) Compressive stress: stresses that cause pushing on the surface of the section, (particles of the materials tend to push together causing shortening in the direction of force)

STRESS The resultant of the internal forces for an axially loaded member is normal to a section cut perpendicular to the member axis. The force intensity on that section is defined as the normal stress.

F = lim A0 A

P ave = A

STRAIN STRAIN : when a load acts on the material it will undergo deformation. Strain is a measure of deformation produced by the application of external forces. If a bar is subjected to a direct load, and hence a stress, the bar will changes in length. If the bar has an original length L and change in length by an amount L, the linear strain produced is defined as, L Change in length = = Linear strain, Original length L Strain is a dimensionless quantity.

Linear Strain

P = = stress A

2P P = = 2A A

= normal strain

P A 2 = = 2L L

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM In order to compare the strength of various materials it is necessary to carry out some standard form of test to establish their relative properties. One such test is the standard tensile test in which a circular bar of uniform cross section is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load until failure occurs. Measurement of change in length over a selected gauge length of the bar are recorded throughout the loading operation by means of extensometers. A graph of load verses extension or stress against strain is drawn as shown in figure.

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Proportionality limit

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Typical tensile test curve for mild steel showing upper yield point and lower yield point and also the elastic range and plastic range

Stress-strain Diagram Limit of Proportionality : From the origin O to a point called proportionality limit the stress strain diagram is a straight line. That is stress is proportional to strain. Hence proportional limit is the maximum stress up to which the stress strain relationship is a straight line and material behaves elastically. From this we deduce the well known relation, first postulated by Robert Hooke, that stress is proportional to strain. Beyond this point, the stress is no longer proportional to strain

PP P = = Load at proportionality limit A Original cross sectional area

Stress-strain Diagram Elastic limit: It is the stress beyond which the material will not return to its original shape when unloaded but will retain a permanent deformation called permanent set. For most practical purposes it can often be assumed that points corresponding proportional limit and elastic limit coincide. Beyond the elastic limit plastic deformation occurs and strains are not totally recoverable. There will be thus some permanent deformation when load is removed.

PE Load at proportional limit E = = A Original cross sectional area

Stress-strain Diagram Yield point: It is the point at which there is an appreciable elongation or yielding of the material without any corresponding increase of load.

PY Y = = A

Load at yield point Original cross sectional area

Ultimate strength: It is the stress corresponding to maximum load recorded during the test. It is stress corresponding to maximum ordinate in the stress-strain graph.

P U = U = A

Maximum load taken by the material Original cross sectional area

Stress-strain Diagram Rupture strength (Nominal Breaking stress): It is the stress at failure. For most ductile material including structural steel breaking stress is somewhat lower than ultimate strength because the rupture strength is computed by dividing the rupture load (Breaking load) by the original cross sectional area.

PB B = = A

load at breaking (failure) Original cross sectional area load at breaking (failure) Actual cross sectional area

True breaking stress =

Stress-strain Diagram After yield point the graph becomes much more shallow and covers a much greater portion of the strain axis than the elastic range. The capacity of a material to allow these large plastic deformations is a measure of ductility of the material Ductile Materials: The capacity of a material to allow large extension i.e. the ability to be drawn out plastically is termed as its ductility. Material with high ductility are termed ductile material. Example: Low carbon steel, mild steel, gold, silver, aluminum

Stress-strain Diagram

A measure of ductility is obtained by measurements of the percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area, defined as, increase in gauge length (up to fracture) 100 = original gauge length Percentage elongation Reduction in cross sectional area of necked portion (at fracture)

Percentage reduction in = area original area

100

Cup and cone fracture for a Ductile Material

Stress-strain Diagram Brittle Materials : A brittle material is one which exhibits relatively small extensions before fracture so that plastic region of the tensile test graph is much reduced. Example: steel with higher carbon content, cast iron, concrete, brick

Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle material

HOOKES LAW Hookes Law For all practical purposes, up to certain limit the relationship between normal stress and linear strain may be said to be linear for all materials stress () strain () stress () constant strain () = Thomas Young introduced a constant of proportionality that came to be known as Youngs modulus. stress () E strain () = = Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

HOOKES LAW Youngs Modulus is defined as the ratio of normal stress to linear strain within the proportionality limit. stress () = E = strain ()

P L PL = A L AL

The value of the Youngs modulus is a definite property of a material From the experiments, it is known that strain is always a very small quantity, hence E must be large. For Mild steel, E = 200GPa = 2105MPa = 2105N/mm2

Deformations Under Axial Loading From Hookes Law:

= E =
E =

P AE

From the definition of strain:

L Equating and solving for the deformation, PL = AE

With variations in loading, crosssection or material properties, Pi Li = i Ai Ei

Consider an element of length, x at a distance x from A

W A W

d1

Diameter at x, = d1

L = d1 + k x

(d d ) + 2 1 x

dx

d2 c/s area at x,
2 d1 =

(d1 + kx )2

Change in length over a length dx is Change in length over a length L is

Wdx PL = = 2 AE dx (d1 + kx ) E 4 L Wdx = 0 (d + kx )2 E 1 4

Consider an element of length, x at a distance x from A Change in length over a length L is

L Wdx = 0 (d + kx )2 E 1 4 dt W L k = 0 (t )2 E 4

Put d1+kx = t, Then k dx = dt

L

4W t 4W = = Ek 1 0 Ek
2 +1

4W 1 = t 0 Ek

1 ( d + kx ) 1 0

4WL WL = Ed1d 2 d1d 2 E 4

Derive an expression for the total extension of the tapered bar AB of rectangular cross section and uniform thickness, as shown in the figure, when subjected to an axial tensile load ,W. W B L b

d1 b

W A

d2

d1 b

W A x dx B

d2 b

Consider an element of length, x at a distance x from A depth at x,

= d1 +

L = d1 + k x

(d 2 d1 ) x

c/s area at x, = (d1 + kx )b

Change in length over a length dx is

Wdx PL = = AE dx (d1 + kx )b E

Change in length over a length L is

Wdx (d + kx )b E 1

P (log e d 2 log e d1 ) = b E k
2.302 P L (log d 2 log d1 ) = b E (d 2 d1 )

Derive an expression for the total extension produced by self weight of a uniform bar, when the bar is suspended vertically.

Diameter d

dx x

P1 = weight of the bar below element the section, = volume specific weight dx = ( d2/4) x P1 = A x

Diameter d

Extension of the element due to weight of the bar below that,

P1 dx ( A x ) dx PL = = = AE AE AE dx

Hence the total extension entire bar

=
L

( A x )dx x L2 = = AE 2E 0 2E
2

The above expression can also be written as

A ( AL ) L 1 PL = = = 2E A 2 AE 2 AE

L2

Where, P = (AL) = total weight of the bar

SHEAR STRESS Consider a block or portion of a material shown in Fig.(a) subjected to a set of equal and opposite forces P. then there is a tendency for one layer of the material to slide over another to produce the form failure as shown in Fig.(b) P P P P R Fig. b Fig. c R

Fig. a

The resisting force developed by any plane ( or section) of the block will be parallel to the surface as shown in Fig.(c). The resisting forces acting parallel to the surface per unit area is called as shear stress.

Shear stress () =

Shear resistance Area resisting shear

P = A

This shear stress will always be tangential to the area on which it acts

Shear strain
If block ABCD subjected to shearing stress as shown in Fig.(d), then it undergoes deformation. The shape will not remain rectangular, it changes into the form shown in Fig.(e), as AB'C'D. B' C' C C B B
A

Fig. d

Fig. e

B'

Fig. e

Shear strain is defined as C' the change in angle between two line element which are originally right angles to one another.

BB shear strain = = tan AB

The angle of deformation

is then termed as shear strain

The angle of deformation is measured in radians and hence is non-dimensional.

SHEAR MODULUS For materials within the proportionality limit the shear strain is proportional to the shear stress. Hence the ratio of shear stress to shear strain is a constant within the proportionality limit. Shear Modulus Shear stress () or = G = = constant Shear strain () Modulus of Rigidity

The value of the modulus of rigidity is a definite property of a material For Mild steel, G= 80GPa = 80,000MPa = 80,000N/mm2

example: Shearing Stress Forces P and P are applied transversely to the member AB. Corresponding internal forces act in the plane of section C and are called shearing forces. The resultant of the internal shear force distribution is defined as the shear of the section and is equal to the load P. The corresponding average shear stress is,
ave =
P A

The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed to be uniform.

State of simple shear

Consider an element ABCD in a strained material subjected to shear stress, as shown in the figure A B

Force on the face AB = P = AB t Where, t is the thickness of the element. Force on the face DC is also equal to P

State of simple shear Now consider the equilibrium of the element. (i.e., Fx = 0, Fy = 0, M = 0.) For the force diagram shown, Fx = 0, & Fy = 0, But M = 0 The element is subjected force to a clockwise moment P AD = ( AB t) AD D P C A P B

But, as the element is actually in equilibrium, there must be another pair of forces say P' acting on faces AD and BC, such that they produce a anticlockwise moment equal to ( P AD )

State of simple shear P ' AB = P AD = ( AB t) AD ----- (1) If 1 is the intensity of the shear stress on the faces AD and BC, then P ' can be written as, P ' = ' AD t Equn.(1) can be written as '
D A

P'
D

P' P
C

'
C

( ' AD t ) AB = ( AB t) AD ----- (1) ' =

State of simple shear Thus in a strained material a shear stress is always accompanied by a balancing shear of same intensity at right angles to itself. This balancing shear is called complementary shear.
A

The shear and the complementary shear together constitute a state of simple shear

'=
D

'=
C

Direct stress due to pure shear Consider a square element of side a subjected to shear stress as shown in the Fig.(a). Let the thickness of the square be unity. A
A B B

a a Fig.(a).
C

a a Fig.(b).
C

Fig.(b) shows the deformed shape of the element. The length of diagonal DB increases, indicating that it is subjected to tensile stress. Similarly the length of diagonal AC decreases indicating that compressive stress.

Direct stress due to pure shear Now consider the section, ADC of the element, Fig.(c). X
A

n a a

a a
D

( 2 )a
C

Fig.(c).

Resolving the forces in n direction, i.e., in the X-direction shown

For equilibrium

Fx = 0
=n

2 a 1 2( a cos 45)

n =

Direct stress due to pure shear Therefore the intensity of normal tensile stress developed on plane BD is numerically equal to the intensity of shear stress.

Similarly it can be proved that the intensity of compressive stress developed on plane AC is numerically equal to the intensity of shear stress.

POISSONS RATIO Poissons Ratio: Consider the rectangular bar shown in Fig.(a) subjected to a tensile load. Under the action of this load the bar will increase in length by an amount L giving a longitudinal strain in the bar of l l =
l

Fig.(a)

POISSONS RATIO The bar will also exhibit, reduction in dimension laterally, i.e. its breadth and depth will both reduce. These change in lateral dimension is measured as strains in the lateral direction as given below. b d lat = = b d The associated lateral strains will be equal and are of opposite sense to the longitudinal strain. Provided the load on the material is retained within the elastic range the ratio of the lateral and longitudinal strains will always be constant. This ratio is termed Poissons ratio ()
( d ) d = POISSONS RATIO = l Longitudinal strain l

Lateral strain

( b ) b OR l l

Poissons Ratio =

For most engineering metals the value of lies between 0.25 and 0.33 y Lz P Lx z Poissons Ratio Lateral strain Strain in the direction of load applied
l y = ly
l z

In general

Ly P x

l x

lx

OR = l x

lz

lx

Poissons Ratio =
In general Px
Lx

y
Lz Ly Px

Strain in Y-direction =

Strain in X-direction = x

l x
lx

y
=

l y
ly

l x
lx

Strain in Z-direction = z

l z
lz

l x
lx

Load applied in Y-direction y

Lz

Py
Ly

Lx

x Py

Poissons Ratio

Lateral strain Strain in the direction of load applied

l x =

l y

lx

l z

ly

OR = l y

lz

ly

Strain in X-direction = x

l x
lx

l y
ly

Load applied in Z-direction y

Lz

Pz
Ly

x z Pz Lateral strain Strain in the direction of load applied

Lx

l x =

Poissons Ratio

l z

lx

l y

OR

lz

l z

ly

lz

Strain in X-direction = x

l x
lx

l z
lz

Load applied in X & Y direction y

Lz

Py

Ly Px

Strain in X-direction = x x

Px
Lx

x
E

y
E

Py

Strain in Y-direction = y

y
E

x
E

Strain in Z-direction = z

y
E

x
E

Py

y
Px

Pz

General case: Strain in X-direction = x

Px

Pz

Py

x =
y x z

x
E

y
E

z
E

Strain in Y-direction = y

E Strain in Z-direction = z y x z z =
E E E

y =

y
E

x
E

z x

Bulk Modulus Bulk Modulus A body subjected to three mutually perpendicular equal direct stresses undergoes volumetric change without distortion of shape. If V is the original volume and dV is the change in volume, then dV/V is called volumetric strain. A body subjected to three mutually perpendicular equal direct stresses then the ratio of stress to volumetric strain is called Bulk Modulus. = Bulk modulus, K dV V

Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strain Consider a cube of side 1unit, subjected to three mutually perpendicular direct stresses as shown in the figure. Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume per unit volume is
dV = 1 (1 + x )(1 + y )(1 + z ) = 1 1 + x + y + z 1 = x +y +z = change in volume per unit volume

Relationship between volumetric strain and linear strain

Volumetric strain
dV = x +y +z V
y x = z E E E
y x z + E E E

y x z + E E E

1 2 ( x + y + z ) = E

For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

x =y =z =
dV 1 2 ( x + y + z ) = V E dV 1 2 (3 ) = V E

K=

dV V

E K= = bulk modulus 3(1 2 ) or E = 3K (1 - 2 )

Relationship between youngs modulus of elasticity (E) and modulus of rigidity (G) :A1 A H

45

B1 B

a C

Consider a square element ABCD of side a subjected to pure shear . DA'B'C is the deformed shape due to shear . Drop a perpendicular AH to diagonal A'C. Strain in the diagonal AC = /E (- /E) [ n= ] = /E [ 1 + ] -----------(1) Strain along the diagonal AC=(A'CAC)/AC=(A'CCH)/AC=A'H/AC

In le AA'H Cos 45 = A'H/AA' A'H= AA' 1/2 AC = 2 AD ( AC = AD2 +AD2) Strain along the diagonal AC = AA'/ (2 2 AD)=/2 ----(2) Modulus of rigidity = G = / = /G Substituting in (2) Strain along the diagonal AC = /2G -----------(3) Equating (1) & (3) /2G = /E[1+] E=2G(1+ )

Relationship between E, G, and K:We have E = 2G( 1+ ) -----------(1) E = 3K( 1-2) -----------(2) Equating (1) & (2) 2G( 1+ ) =3K( 1- 2) 2G + 2G=3K- 6K = (3K- 2G) /(2G +6K) Substituting in (1) E = 2G[ 1+(3K 2G)/ (2G+6K)] E = 18GK/( 2G+6K) E = 9GK/(G+3K)

Working stress: It is obvious that one cannot take risk of loading a member to its ultimate strength, in practice. The maximum stress to which the material of a member is subjected to in practice is called working stress. This value should be well within the elastic limit in elastic design method. Factor of safety: Because of uncertainty of loading conditions, design procedure, production methods, etc., designers generally introduce a factor of safety into their design, defined as follows

Factor of safety = Maximum stress or Yield stress (or proof stress) Allowable working Allowable working stress stress

Malleability: A property closely related to ductility, which defines a materials ability to be hammered out in to thin sheets Homogeneous: A material which has a uniform structure throughout without any flaws or discontinuities. Isotropic: If a material exhibits uniform properties throughout in all directions ,it is said to be isotropic. Anisotropic: If a material does not exhibit uniform properties throughout in all directions ,it is said to be anisotropic or nonisotropic.

Exercise Problems Q1. An aluminum tube is rigidly fastened between a brass rod and steel rod. Axial loads are applied as indicated in the figure. Determine the stresses in each material and total deformation. Take Ea=70GPa, Eb=100GPa, Es=200GPa
Aa=1000mm2

20kN

Ab=700mm2

brass 500mm

15kN

15kN

As=800mm2

aluminum 600mm

steel 700mm

10kN

Ans: b=28.57MPa, a=5MPa, s=12.5MPa, l = - 0.142mm

Q2.

A 2.4m long steel bar has uniform diameter of 40mm for a length of 1.2m and in the next 0.6m of its length its diameter gradually reduces to D mm and for remaining 0.6m of its length diameter remains the same as shown in the figure. When a load of 200kN is applied to this bar extension observed is equal to 2.59mm. Determine the diameter D of the bar. Take E =200GPa 200kN
1000mm 500mm 500mm

200kN

= 40mm = D mm

Q3. The diameter of a specimen is found to reduce by 0.004mm when it is subjected to a tensile force of 19kN. The initial diameter of the specimen was 20mm. Taking modulus of rigidity as 40GPa determine the value of E and Ans: E=110GPa, =0.36 Q.4 A circular bar of brass is to be loaded by a shear load of 30kN. Determine the necessary diameter of the bars (a) in single shear (b) in double shear, if the shear stress in material must not exceed 50MPa. Ans: 27.6, 19.5mm

Q.5 Determine the largest weight W that can be supported by the two wires shown. Stresses in wires AB and AC are not to exceed 100MPa and 150MPa respectively. The cross sectional areas of the two wires are 400mm2 for AB and 200mm2 for AC. Ans: 33.4kN B 300 A 450 C

Q.6 A homogeneous rigid bar of weight 1500N carries a 2000N load as shown. The bar is supported by a pin at B and a 10mm diameter cable CD. Determine the stress in the cable D Ans: 87.53MPa

A 3m 2000 N

C 3m

Q.7. A stepped bar with three different cross-sectional areas, is fixed at one end and loaded as shown in the figure. Determine the stress and deformation in each portions. Also find the net change in the length of the bar. Take E = 200GPa
300mm2 20kN 450mm2 250mm2 40kN 10kN

250mm

320mm

270mm

Ans: -33.33, -120, 22.2MPa, -0.042, -0.192, 0.03mm, -0.204mm

Q.8

a) b) c)

The coupling shown in figure is constructed from steel of rectangular cross-section and is designed to transmit a tensile force of 50kN. If the bolt is of 15mm diameter calculate: The shear stress in the bolt; The direct stress in the plate; The direct stress in the forked end of the coupling.

Ans: a)141.5MPa, b)166.7MPa, c)83.3MPa

Q.9 The maximum safe compressive stress in a hardened steel punch is limited to 1000MPa, and the punch is used to pierce circular holes in mild steel plate 20mm thick. If the ultimate shearing stress is 312.5MPa, calculate the smallest diameter of hole that can be pierced. Ans: 25mm Q.10 A rectangular bar of 250mm long is 75mm wide and 25mm thick. It is loaded with an axial tensile load of 200kN, together with a normal compressive force of 2000kN on face 75mm250mm and a tensile force 400kN on face 25mm250mm. Calculate the change in length, breadth, thickness and volume. Take E = 200GPa & =0.3 Ans: 0.15,0.024,0.0197mm, 60mm3

Q.11 A piece of 180mm long by 30mm square is in compression under a load of 90kN as shown in the figure. If the modulus of elasticity of the material is 120GPa and Poissons ratio is 0.25, find the change in the length if all lateral strain is prevented by the application of uniform lateral external pressure of suitable intensity. 90kN
30 180

30

Ans: 0.125mm

Q.12 Define the terms: stress, strain, elastic limit, proportionality limit, yield stress, ultimate stress, proof stress, true stress, factor of safety, Youngs modulus, modulus of rigidity, bulk modulus, Poisson's ratio, Q.13 Draw a typical stress-strain diagram for mild steel rod under tension and mark the salient points. Q.14 Diameter of a bar of length L varies from D1 at one end to D2 at the other end. Find the extension of the bar under the axial load P Q.15 Derive the relationship between Youngs modulus and modulus of rigidity.

Q.16 Derive the relationship between Youngs modulus and Bulk modulus. Q.17 A flat plate of thickness t tapers uniformly from a width b1at one end to b2 at the other end, in a length of L units. Determine the extension of the plate due to a pull P. Q.18 Find the extension of a conical rod due to its own weight when suspended vertically with its base at the top. Q.19 Prove that a material subjected to pure shear in two perpendicular planes has a diagonal tension and compression of same magnitude at 45o to the planes of shear.

Q.20

For a given material E=1.1105N/mm2& G=0.43105N/mm2 .Find bulk modulus & lateral contraction of round bar of 40mm diameter & 2.5m length when stretched by 2.5mm.

ANS: K=83.33Gpa, Lateral contraction=0.011mm Q.21 The modulus of rigidity of a material is 0.8105N/mm2 , when 6mm6mm bar of this material subjected to an axial pull of 3600N.It was found that the lateral dimension of the bar is changed to 5.9991mm5.9991mm. Find & E. ANS: =0.31, E= 210Gpa.