TVBK 5185JJweb

Design of a 170 m span
bridge over the fjord

Thorskafjordur in Iceland

Jhannes Helgi Jhannesson
Avdelningen fr Konstruktionsteknik
Lunds Tekniska Hgskola
Lunds Universitet, 2010

Rapport TVBK - 5185
i

Avdelningen fr Konstruktionsteknik
Lunds Tekniska Hgskola
Box 118
221 00 LUND

Department of Structural Engineering
Lund Institute of Technology
Box 118
S-221 00 LUND
Sweden

Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in
Iceland

Dimensionering av 170 m lng bro ver fjorden orskafjrur p Island


2010

Abstract
Determining the structural type of a bridge is often a difficult task. The purpose of this thesis is to
preliminary design three bridge alternatives. The bridge shall cross the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland.
The goal is to determine the most favorable option. That decision will be based on economy,
construction and aesthetics. Following that a more detailed design of the superstructure is performed
for the chosen alternative. All calculations are performed according to Eurocode.

Keywords: concrete girder bridge; arch bridge; cable-stayed bridge; concrete; reinforcement;
prestress
ii

Rapport TVBK-5185
ISSN 0349-4969
ISRN: LUTVDG/TVBK-10/5185+92p

Examensarbete
Supervisor: Dr. Fredrik Carlsson
Examinator: Prof. Sven Thelandersson
October 2010
iii

Foreword
This thesis was written under the administration of the Division of Structural Engineering at the
University of Lund. It was written during the period September 2009 - September 2010 under the
supervision of Dr. Fredrik Carlsson.
I especially want to thank my supervisor, Dr. Fredrik Carlsson, for all his help with making this thesis
become real. I also want to thank Einar Hafliason, the head of the bridge division of the Icelandic
Road Administration, for the help with finding a subject for this thesis and for giving me necessary
information regarding this subject. For the cost of various structural materials I would like to thank
Oskar Bruneby, a site manager at Peab, for his contribution. In addition I would like to thank a good
friend from Iceland, str Ingvason, for making 3D animations of the three bridge alternatives
presented in this thesis. Finally, I want to thank my friends at LTH: Bzav Abdulkarim, Daniel Honfi,
var Bjrnsson and Valdimar rn Helgason for all their help and last but not least other friends and
family for their moral support.

Lund, October 2010

iv

v

Table of Contents
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Outline of the thesis ................................................................................................................ 1
2 Bridge types .................................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Concrete bridge ....................................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Arch bridge ............................................................................................................................. 3
2.3 Cable-stayed bridge................................................................................................................. 4
3 The actual project geometry and boundary conditions ................................................................ 5
4 Preliminary design .......................................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 7
4.2 Loads ....................................................................................................................................... 7
4.2.1 Permanent loads .............................................................................................................. 7
4.2.2 Variable loads ................................................................................................................. 7
4.2.3 Load combinations .......................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Material cost ............................................................................................................................ 9
4.4 The concrete beam bridge ..................................................................................................... 10
4.4.1 Geometry for type 1 ...................................................................................................... 10
4.4.2 Size estimation .............................................................................................................. 10
4.4.3 Supports ........................................................................................................................ 11
4.4.4 Construction .................................................................................................................. 13
4.4.5 Cost estimation/conclusions .......................................................................................... 13
4.5 The arch bridge ..................................................................................................................... 16
4.5.2 Arch ............................................................................................................................... 17
4.5.3 Bridge Deck .................................................................................................................. 22
4.5.4 Hangers ......................................................................................................................... 23
4.5.5 Transversal Bracing ...................................................................................................... 23
4.5.6 Foundations ................................................................................................................... 24
4.5.7 Construction .................................................................................................................. 24
4.6 The cable-stayed bridge ........................................................................................................ 26
4.6.1 Aesthetics of cable-stayed bridges ................................................................................ 26
4.6.3 Design ........................................................................................................................... 27
vi

4.6.4 Deck .............................................................................................................................. 32
4.6.5 Pylons ............................................................................................................................ 33
4.6.6 Foundation .................................................................................................................... 34
4.6.7 Construction .................................................................................................................. 34
4.7 Summary and choice of bridge type...................................................................................... 37
5 Final design ................................................................................................................................... 38
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 38
5.2 Design ................................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.1 Building codes .............................................................................................................. 39
5.2.2 Loading ......................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.3 Materials ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.2.4 Exposure classes and service life .................................................................................. 40
5.2.5 Tendon alignment and prestress force ........................................................................... 40
5.2.6 Prestress losses .............................................................................................................. 46
5.2.7 Secondary effects of prestress ....................................................................................... 51
5.3 Ultimate moment capacity .................................................................................................... 55
6 References ..................................................................................................................................... 57
6.1 Literature ............................................................................................................................... 57
6.2 Computer programs............................................................................................................... 58
6.3 Other references .................................................................................................................... 58
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................................... 59
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................................... 74
Design of a 170 m long bridge over the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland

1

1 Introduction
1.1 Background
The motivation for writing this thesis is an interest in bridges that the author has acquired during his
studies in structural engineering. Many people consider bridges to be state of the art of all civil
structures. That can be for many reasons; f. ex. bridges sometimes cross a difficult passing or because
of their aesthetic aspects.
During the time the subject for this thesis was under consideration the author decided to contact the
bridge division of the Icelandic Road Administration (ICERA). Einar Hafliason, the head of the
bridge division of ICERA, was contacted and he was more than willing to help. He came up with a
few options to look into which were all considered. Following that, a decision was made and a bridge
that is to be constructed to cross the fjord orskafjrur in Iceland was chosen as a subject for this
thesis.
1.2 Objectives
The main purpose for a bridge over the fjord orskafjrur is to shorten the distance of the route on
the way to the northwestern part of Iceland. With this bridge the route will shorten of about 10 km.
Another purpose is to increase traffic security by eliminating all one-lane bridges on this 10 km sector.
The main objective of this thesis is divided into two parts. First, a preliminary design of three bridge
alternatives is made. A rough cost estimation and an estimation of quantity of materials is made based
on the preliminary design for these three alternatives. Secondly, a more detailed design is made of the
most appropriate bridge type. The choice of a bridge type is based on the conclusions from the first
part. These conclusions will primarily be based on economy, aesthetics and construction method.
1.3 Outline of the thesis
Chapter 2 consists of a general discussion about aesthetics, advantages and disadvantages and other
aspects for the three bridge types that are chosen to be analyzed.
Chapter 3 displays the bridge location and describes the boundary conditions and geometry at the
construction site. It also includes information about why this bridge is to be built.
Chapter 4 includes preliminary design and cost estimations of the three chosen bridge alternatives
with respect to the quantity of materials needed for each type. That chapter also includes conclusions
of the preliminary design, that is, which type of bridge is chosen for a more detailed design with
respect to the limits that are set.
Chapter 5 includes more detailed structural analysis for the superstructure of the chosen bridge
alternative.

2 Br
There ar
main sub
1.
2.
3.
4.
These i
preferen
Safety a
principle
achieved
In this th
based on
bridge (p
based on
2.1 C
Concrete
concrete
of the si
for this t
These ty
longer th
they inte
alternati
sense as
with two
Des
ridge typ
re many area
bjects consid
Safety
Serviceabilit
Economy
Aesthetics
ssues and th
nce.
and serviceab
es and thus
d through no
hesis three b
n the four a
post tension
n the author
Concrete
e slab- or gir
e bridges are
implest form
type of bridg
ypes of cros
han ca. 25 m
egrate to the
ives. Neverth
s the two typ
o girders can
ign of a 170
pes
as of concern
dered in this
ty
heir order o
bility are ac
depend on
onscientific m
bridge types
aforemention
ed), an arch
s interest.
bridge
rder bridges
an attractive
ms for a bridg
ge can be see
Figure 2-1
s-sections w
m. They are ec
e surroundin
heless, the a
es that are co
n be seen in f
Figur
m long bridg
n that need t
thesis. They
of priority m
chieved throu
the analytic
means and de
are investiga
ned areas of
bridge and
are by far th
e alternative
ge with respe
en in figure 2
1: A typical cro
with prestress
conomically
ngs on site. T
author consid
onsidered in
figure 2-2.
e 2-2: An exam
ge over the f
2
to be focused
can be listed
may though
ugh systema
cal skills of
epend almost
ated as optio
concern. Th
a cable-staye
e most comm
for long-spa
ect to its struc
2-1.
oss-section for
s reinforcem
compatible
They are als
ders them no
the next cha
mple of a prest
fjord orskaf
d on when d
d in order of
be criticize
atic applicati
f the engine
t entirely on
ons for the pr
hese three br
ed bridge. T
mon of all br
an bridges an
ctural mode
a concrete gir
ment in the gi
and can easi
o easy to co
ot as the stat
apters. An ex
ressed girder b
fjrur in Ice
esigning a b
f priority as:
ed and are
ion of scient
er. Economy
the creativity
roject and a
ridge types a
The choice of
ridge types n
nd are consid
of action. A

der bridge.
irders are us
ily be design
onstruct com
te-of the-art
xample of a c

bridge.
eland
bridge. There
merely the
tific and eng
y and aesth
y of the engi
choice is est
are; a concre
f these altern
owadays. Pr
dered by man
typical cros
sually used f
ned in the ma
mpared to ma
bridges in t
concrete bea
e are four
authors
gineering
hetics are
neer.
tablished
ete beam
natives is
estressed
ny as one
s-section
for spans
anner that
any other
the same
m bridge

2.2 A
Arches h
in which
perfect a
impossib
to multip
For man
perspect
be very
The arch
rotation
arch itse
required
at found
Arches c
risks suc

Des
Arch bridg
have been us
h only comp
arch can be
ble to have a
ple loadings.
ny people, an
tive and a pl
attractive du
h type that i
possible at
elf and the c
d since an arc
dation; horizo
can span up
ch as the risk
Figure
ign of a 170
ge
sed througho
pressive forc
thought of a
a perfect arch
.
n arch is con
leasure for a
uring night.
is chosen in
supports. T
crown of the
ch can be sen
ontal, vertica
to about 55
k for torsiona
2-4: A typical
m long bridg
out the ages a
es act at the
as the inverse
h bridge exce
nsidered to b
motorist to
this paper i
The deck wil
e arch, so ca
nsitive to set
al and bendin
Figure 2-3: A
50 m and in
al buckling o
arch bridge w

ge over the f
3
as structural
e centroid of
e of a hangin
ept for one l
be one of the
drive over. W
is a zero hin
ll be located
alled half-th
ttlements an
ng.
A model of a ze
the case of s
of the arches,
with the deck ha
fjord orskaf
elements. A
f each eleme
ng chain bet
oading cond
e most comp
With the app
nged steel ar
d at an eleva
hrough arch.
d a zero-hing
ero hinge arch.
slender struc
must be tak
anging on ties
fjrur in Ice
perfect arch
ent of the arc
tween abutm
dition while i
etitive option
propriate ligh
ch, figure 2-
tion between
Good found
ged arch has

ctures of stee
en into consi
connected to t
eland
h, theoreticall
ch. The shap
ments. It is pr
it is usually s
ns from the
hting arches
-3, which im
n the suppor
dation condi
s high reactio

el, various in
ideration.

the arch.
ly, is one
pe of the
ractically
subjected
aesthetic
can also
mplies no
rts of the
itions are
on forces
nstability

2.3 C
The con
predict.
intermed
cable-sta
the cabl
the pylo
flexural
consump
complex
Nowada
up to ar
beautifu
a cable-
simple c
also serv
beauty a
2-5.

Des
Cable-stay
ncept of a ca
A bridge c
diate support
ayed bridge
es and the p
on and the de
members. T
ption but on
x.
ays, cable-sta
round 1000
ul structures t
stayed bridg
configuration
ve as tourist
and visibility
ign of a 170
yed bridg
able-stayed b
carries main
ts for the gir
is a series of
pylon are und
eck under co
This contribut
the other ha
ayed bridges
m and com
that appeal to
ge and theref
n is preferab
attractions,
y of the bridg
Figure 2-5
m long bridg
ge
bridge is sim
nly vertical
rder so that i
f overlapping
der predomin
mpression. A
tes to the eco
and larger st
are the most
me in variou
o most peopl
fore contribu
ble with free
for example
ge at night. A
5: A cable-stay

ge over the f
4
mple althoug
loads actin
t can span a
g triangles th
nant axial fo
Axially loade
onomy of a c
tress variatio
t common br
us forms bec
le. The tower
ute the most
e standing to
when lightin
An example o
ed bridge with
fjord orskaf
gh the loadin
ng on the g
long distanc
hat connect t
orces, with th
ed members
cable-stayed
ons can occu
ridge type fo
cause of eco
rs, or pylons
from an aest
owers. Under
ng is a part o
of a cable-st
h two pylons on
fjrur in Ice
ng mechanis
girder. The
ce. The basic
the deck to t
he cables un
are generall
d bridge. The
ur and their s
or long-span
onomy and
s, are the mo
thetic point o
r special cir
of the design
ayed bridge

n each side.
eland
sm is not so
stay cables
c structural f
the pylons. T
nder tension
y more effic
ey also have
structural be
bridges and
aesthetics. T
st visible ele
of view. A c
cumstances
n which enha
can be seen
o easy to
provide
form of a
The deck,
and both
cient than
less steel
ehavior is
can span
They are
ements of
clean and
they can
ances the
in figure

3 Th
The posi
Currentl
crosses a
in each
crossing
In figure
The ligh
As was
direction
necessar
acquired
The rest
sides of
fjord wh
The larg
around
maximu
minimum
rock fill
alignmen
Des
he actual
ition of this b
ly there is a
a river with
direction, to
g the fjord.
e 3-1 the pos
ht gray line w
mentioned,
n. The requ
ry area of w
d. For full wa
t of the distan
the bridge. T
here the bridg
gest possible
1.65 m from
um differenc
m water ope
lings will b
nt of the plan
ign of a 170
l project
bridge is in t
road that go
only one lan
o increase tr
sition of the f
where the arro
Figure 3-1: Po
the bridge
uired length
water opening
ater changes
nce required
Therefore the
ge is to be po
depth of sea
m the sea be
e between h
ning would
be at each e
nned road lin
m long bridg
geome
the north-we
oes along th
ne. The purp
raffic safety,
fjord can be
ow points is
osition of the fj
will have tw
of the brid
g needs to be
the water flo
to cross the
e bridge will
ositioned is a
a level is arou
d. The avera
highest and
be reduced b
end abutmen
ne that will b
ge over the f
5
etry and
stern part of
he fjord and
pose of the ne
efficiency a
seen. The fig
the current r
fjord on the no
wo traffic la
dge, 170 m,
e of minimu
ow is assume
fjord will be
l be positione
around 1 km.
und 6.35 m a
age sea leve
lowest sea
by a few me
nts and eros
be considered
fjord orskaf
boundar
f Iceland pass
at the end o
ew bridge is
and to short
gure displays
road.
rth-western co
anes for nor
is mainly
um 560 m
2
s
ed to be 2.5 m
e achieved by
ed in the mid
.
and the smal
el is 4 m fro
level is 4.7
ters because
ion protectio
d is displayed
fjrur in Ice
ry condit
sing a fjord c
of the fjord t
s therefore to
ten the route
s the northw
oast of Iceland
rmal vehicle
due to ecol
o that full w
m/sec.
y a road, on
ddle of the fj
llest possible
om the sea b
m. It can b
of piers and
on will be
d in figure 3-
eland
tions
called orska
there is a br
o have two la
e of about 1
estern part o

.
traffic, one
logical reaso
water change
a rock filling
ord. The wid
e depth of se
bed. Hence,
be assumed
d abutments.
at all suppo
-2.
afjrur.
ridge that
anes, one
0 km by
of Iceland.
e in each
ons. The
s will be
g on both
dth of the
a level is
the total
that the
Guiding
orts. The

The soil
fundame
A sectio
The fjor
defined
greater t
Iceland a
Figur
Des
l at the sea b
ents will be f
on of the fjord
Figu
rd is not loc
as <2% g in
than 4% g th
are displayed
e 3-4: Maximu
ign of a 170
Figure 3-2
bed consists
founded on c
d is displaye
ure 3-3: A cros
cated in an
n this area,
he provision
d in figure 3-
um values of su
m long bridg
2: The road lin
of sediment
cohesive pile
ed in figure 3
ss section of th
earthquake z
see figure 3
s of Eurocod
-4.
urface accelera
ge over the f
6
ne where the br
layers. The
es.
-3. Note that
he fjord, the he
zone and the
3-4. Accordi
de 8 can be
ation. (Earthqu
Iceland).
fjord orskaf
ridge will be co
sediment lay
t the height i
eight is scaled u
e peak value
ing to Euroc
neglected. T
uake Engineer
fjrur in Ice
onstructed.
yers are cohe
is scaled 10 t
up of the facto
e for surfac
code 8 for st
The different
ring Research C
eland

esive materia
times the wid
r 10.
e acceleratio
tructures wit
t earthquake
Centre, Univer
als so all
dth.

on, a
g
, is
th a
g
not
zones in
rsity of

7

4 Preliminary design
4.1 Introduction
This chapter contains preliminary design of the three bridge types, a concrete girder bridge, an arch
bridge and a cable-stayed bridge. The aim of the preliminary design is to determine the most suitable
bridge type for the purpose of crossing the fjord orskafjrur. The chapter is divided in to two
different sections. The first sections (sections 4.2 and 4.3) treat factors that are common for all three
bridge types, i.e. loads, load combinations and materials. Sections 4.4 to 4.6 treat the three different
bridge types respectively. In these sections are sizes of important bridge elements for each bridge type
estimated. These sections also contain rough cost estimations and construction methods for each
bridge type. Finally, in the last section of this chapter, the most suitable bridge type is determined
based on the preliminary design.
4.2 Loads
For the preliminary design of this project only three loads are considered. Two permanent loads, self-
weight and pavement, and one variable load, traffic load. The loads are determined according to
Eurocode 1 (EC1).
4.2.1 Permanent loads
Self-weight for reinforced concrete is set to 25 kN/m
3
. The self-weight of pavement and structural
steel are set to 2.1 kN/m
2
and 78.5 kN/m
3
respectively.
4.2.2 Variable loads
The variable actions, which are taken into account in this thesis, are traffic loads in vertical direction.
After some discussion with the head of the bridge division of ICERA it seemed reasonable to do this
simplification in the preliminary analysis.
Traffic Loads
In EC1-2, chapter 4, there are defined four different load models for traffic loads. In this case Load
Model 1 (LM1) is used with two partial systems, one including axle loads (Tandem system TS) and
the other including uniformly distributed loads (UDL system), see figure 4-1. LM1 is considered to
cover most of the effects from traffic of lorries and cars and should be used for general and local
verifications while the other load models are considered for dynamic effects, special vehicles and
other situations. LM1 should be applied on each notional lane and on the remaining areas. On notional
lane number i, the load magnitudes are referred to as
Qi
Q
ik
and
qi
q
ik
, axle load and distributed load
respectively. On the remaining areas, the load magnitude is referred to as
qr
q
rk
. According to chapter
4.3.2(3) in EC1-2 the recommended minimum values for the adjustment factors are:
o
1
u,8
o
q
1,u
The national annex for Sweden recommends the following minimum values for the adjustment factors:
o
1
= u,9
o
2
= u,9
o
3
= u

Hence,
Icelandi
characte
These lo
most unf
4.2.3
Several
when a
state is m
limit sta
Des
these values
c national an
eristic vertica
oad arrangem
favorable res
Load comb
load combin
bridge is ana
made for the
ate is accordin
ign of a 170
s are used f
nnex for this
al distributed
Table
ments are disp
sult.
Figure 4
binations
nations need t
alyzed and d
preliminary
ng to EC0, s
y
u,]
0
]>1
m long bridg
for this situa
part of Euro
d loads, q
ik
, ar
e 4-1: Axle load
played on fig
4-1: Load arra
to be taken i
designed. Bu
design of al
ection 6.4.3.
0
k,]
" + "y
P
P
ge over the f
8
o
q
= 1,u
o
q
= 1,u
ation. The S
ocode 2 is no
re summariz
ds and uniform
gure 4-1 and
angements for l
nto account,
ut for simplif
ll bridge type
2:
" + "y
,1
k,
fjord orskaf
Swedish nat
ot ready yet. C
zed in table 4
mly distributed
d should be a
load model 1 in
in the ultim
fication only
es. The desig
1
" + " y
>1
fjrur in Ice
ional annex
Characteristi
4-1.

d loads.
arranged for
n EC1-2.
ate and servi
y an analysis
gn value of a
,
0,
k,

eland
is applied
ic axle loads
each case to

iceability lim
in the ultim
actions in the
since an
, Q
ik
, and
o give the
mit states,
mate limit
e ultimate

where
G,j

G
k,J

P

P
Q,1

Q
k,1

Q,i

0,i

Q
k,i

Here are
variable
principa
4.3 M
Table 4-
not com
that hav
attended
Sweden
given.
To estim
is used
necessar
from Zh
as the o
mainten
the desig
Des
Partial facto
Characterist
Partial facto
Relevant rep
Partial facto
Characterist
Partial facto
Factor for co
Characterist
e
G,j
=1.35,
action resp
al action.
Material c
-2 summariz
mpletely corre
e been inves
d and other
. Workforce
mate the price
(SEK/kg). T
ry to find the
huan (1998) a
ones that w
ance or othe
gn of that is
ign of a 170
r for perman
ic value of p
r for prestres
presentative v
r for variable
ic value of th
r for variable
ombination v
ic value of th
P
=1.0 and
pectively. Th
ost
zes unit price
ect they will
stigated. The
resources li
is included
Table
e of the steel
To come up
e unit weight
about stay ca
were chosen
r factors, wi
not done in
m long bridg
nent action j
permanent ac
ssing actions
value of a pr
e action 1
he leading va
e action i
value of varia
he accompan
Q,1
=1.5 the p
he last term
es for the ma
give a good
basis of the
ke discussio
in these val
4-2: Unit pric
l hangers in t
p with a pri
t (kg/m) of th
ables where
here to use
ll be estimat
the prelimin
ge over the f
9
tion j
s
restressing ac
ariable action
able action i
nying variabl
partial safety
in this equa
aterials used.
d perspective
cost estimat
ons with con
lues and high
ces for various
the arch brid
ice for the
he cables. Un
the unit wei
e and that v
ted and cost o
ary phase. H
fjord orskaf
ction
n 1
le action i
y factors for
ation is not
. Even thoug
on prices fo
tion and pric
ntractors and
her values a
structural mat
dge, see secti
stay cables
nit weight fo
ght of cables
value is 24
of foundatio
Here estimatio
fjrur in Ice
r permanent
required sin
gh values of
or compariso
ces is from c
d engineers
re chosen w

terials.
ion 4.5.4, uni
of the cable
or cables was
s that has a s
.1 kg/m. No
ns is a factor
on is used to
eland
action, prest
nce there is o
various expe
on of the brid
ourses the au
both in Ice
where a price
it price for so
e-stayed brid
s found in a
similar break
o lifetime c
r of uncertain
o calculate th
tress and
only one
enses are
dge types
uthor has
land and
range is
olid steel
dge it is
literature
king load
cost, like
nty since
he cost of

the subs
elements
4.4 T
Bridge t
supporti
the bridg
4.4.1
This bri
continuo
down to
4.4.2
As was m
spans, tw
figure 4-
the lengt
The firs
prestress
290x290
Also an
The heig
height, L
bridge sh
economi
wont co
The cen
Theland
where B
The thic
The estim
Des
structures wi
s. Included in
The concr
type no. 1 is
ing the beam
ge deck will
Geometry
idge type w
ous girder br
the sea bed.
Size estim
mentioned b
wo internal
-2. This choi
th of the exte
st step is to
s system is
0 mm. 3 cab
additional th
ght of the g
L/h, of the g
hould be cho
ic reasons (s
ome up probl
nter distance
dersson (2009
B is the free w
ckness of the
mated cross-
ign of a 170
th a method
n the substru
rete beam
s a concrete
ms. There wil
be 10 m, see
for type 1
ill have a c
ridge with 4

ation
efore, the tot
spans with t
ice of span le
ernal spans i
decide the p
VSL 6-19.
bles are chos
hickness of 3
irder is dete
girder. A rec
osen in the ra
section 7.2.1
lems later in
e between t
9):
width of the b
slab is chose
-section of th
m long bridg
developed b
ucture are the
m bridge
post-tension
ll be two ma
e figure 4-3.
oncrete slab
spans, see fi
tal span of th
the length 4
engths is ma
s about 80 %
Figure 4-2: Sp
prestressing
The dimens
sen in each r
300 mm is de
ermined by t
commended
ange of 12-3
1 in Menn (1
n the design.
l
= 2u
the two ma
B = 1,8
bridge.
en to be 250
he bridge, ba
ge over the f
10
by Menn (19
e piers and fu
ned girder b
ain girders w
Supports wil
b supported
igure 4-2. Th
he bridge is 1
8 m and tw
de to get an
% of the lengt
pan lengths for
system to e
sions for an
row which r
etermined ov
the slenderne
slenderness
35 and some
1986)) and
So the estim
=
48
2u
ain girders,
o o =
1
1,
mm to be ab
ased on the m
fjord orskaf
986) as a 23.
undaments.
bridge with f
with post-tens
ll be founded
on two cont
he girders ar
170 m. The b
wo external sp
even momen
th of the inte
r bridge type 1
estimate the
chorage blo
results in a m
ver the suppo
ess, a ratio b
ratio for a c
lower range
a low value
mated height b
= 2,4 m
a, is chose
u
,8
= S,6 m
ble to resist s
methods abov
fjrur in Ice
.5% of the to
four spans an
sioning cable
d on concrete
tinuous gird
re supported
bridge is divi
pans with a
nt distributio
ernal ones.
.
size of the
cks for that
minimum wi
orts.
between the
conventional
e should be c
e should also
becomes:
en with the
shear forces a
ve, can be see
eland
otal cost of s
nd concrete
es. The total
e piles.
ders. The bri
on concrete
ided into fou
length of 3
n. That is ac
girders. The
t specific sy
idth, b, of 10
span length
l cast-in-plac
onsidered be
o be chosen
e following
and moment
en in figure 4
structural
columns
width of
idge is a
columns
ur smaller
7 m, see
chieved if

e chosen
ystem are
080 mm.
h and the
ce girder
ecause of
so there
method,
ts.
4-3.

4.4.3
Maximu
To estim
has to b
loads ha
To find
figure 4-
The GD
And the
Des
Supports
um load on a
mate the mos
be determine
ave to be loc
GDF, the m
-4.
Fs for the tw
following tr
ign of a 170
Figu
a column wo
st unfavorab
ed. GDF tells
cated in the m
moment is ca
Figure
wo traffic loa
0
raffic loads th
m long bridg
ure 4-3: The cr
ould be when
ble load actin
s how the tr
most unfavo
alculated aro
e 4-4: Location
ds, axle and
0F
= 1,S7
0F
q
= 1
hat act on on
ge over the f
11
ross-section at
n the given t
ng on a sing
raffic load is
rable positio
ound B with
n of traffic load
distributed l
7 For the ta
1,16 For U
ne beam are:
fjord orskaf
preliminary st
traffic load i
gle beam the
s distributed
on on the bri
the lever ar
ds to determine
oads, are det
andem system
DL system
fjrur in Ice
tage.
s located as
girder distri
between the
idge deck in
rm for each
e GDF.
termined to b
m
eland

shown in fig
ibution facto
e girders. Th
the lateral d
load as disp

be:
gure 4-4.
or (GDF)
he traffic
direction.
played in

where th
analyzed
section.
the colum
The max
state. At
The wid
calculate
with the
as f
ck
=45
the mini
11
So for a
For the p
Precaste
Des
he axle load
d in the leng
Figure 4-5 s
mns and the
Figure 4-5: P
ximum norm
t this stage th
dth of a sin
ed from a for
yield streng
5 MPa, the p
imum thickn
118u 1u
3
single suppo
piles, given t
ed 270x270 p
ign of a 170
ds are chan
gth direction
shows the ac
bridge sectio
Position of traf
mal force in t
he concrete q
ngle girder o
rmula for pre
N =
gth of the rein
percentage o
ess of the su
= 1S8u t
ort the total s
that each pile
piles with 12
m long bridg
tu
q
tu
nged into on
n for one gir
ctions and th
on in the ulti
ffic loads when
the middle su
quality is assu
over suppor
eliminary de
A
c
_u.44
ck
nforcement a
of reinforcem
upport should
_u.44 4S
size is determ
e resists 400
11
4
00 mm spaci
ge over the f
12
u]]c
= 1u12
u]]c
= S7 kN
ne concentra
rder. Calcula
he position o
imate limit st
n the largest no
upport is cal
umed to be C
rts is 1.380
sign given in
k
+
p
1uu
(u.6
as f
y
=500 MP
ment p=2% a
d be:
+
2
1uu
(u.67
mined to be b
kN, gives:
18u
uu
= 28 pi
ing and a fou
fjord orskaf
2 kN
Nm
ated force (a
ations are m
f actions to
tate.
ormal force at
lculated to be
C45/55.
mm. The th
n the ISE ma
67
u.44
Pa, character
and A
c
as the
7 Suu u
b x t = 7500 x
ilcs
undation of t
fjrur in Ice
assumption).
made for half
decide the la
the middle sup
e 11.180 kN
hickness of
anual (1985):
ck
)_
istic cylinder
e gross cross
.44 4S)_
x 450 mm.
the size 5x10
eland
Then the b
f of the brid
argest shear
pport occurs.
N in the ultim
the support
:
r strength of
-sectional ar
t S11m
0 m.
bridge is
dge cross
force for
mate limit
t wall is
f concrete
rea. Thus
mm


13

4.4.4 Construction
The construction method of a concrete girder bridge is relatively easy to perform. Concrete girder
bridges are one of the most common bridges in Iceland. This bridge alternative is often chosen for
similar conditions as are in this case because of economic and constructional reasons, that is, when a
shallow fjord is to be crossed.
Supports and columns below the superstructure will be constructed first. They will be founded on
piles. Since the level of sea depth at is shallow at the construction site the superstructure of the bridge
will be casted in forms that are supported on a temporary filling under the bridge. The filling will
finally be removed when the concrete has hardened and can then be used as road material.
4.4.5 Cost estimation/conclusions
To estimate the cost of this bridge type a method from Menn (1986) is used. The following is an
explanation of this method.
The superstructures costs can be reliably estimated with the help of the geometrical average span
length, l
m
, defined as:
l
m
=
l
2
l

where l
i
is the length of span i.
The empirical equations given below give the quantities of concrete, reinforcing steel, and
prestressing steel as functions of l
m
and have been derived from samples of recently constructed
bridges.
By this method the volume of concrete in the whole superstructure is obtained by multiplying the total
deck surface by the effective girder depth, h
m
, defined by the following expression:
m
= u.SS +u.uu4S l
m

where h
m
and l
m
are in meters. This equation is valid provided the actual girder depth, h, satisfies the
following inequality:
1
2u
l
m
1
16

which fulfills the criteria used earlier, l/h=20. The quantity of reinforcing steel is obtained by
multiplying the total volume of concrete by the mass of steel per unit volume of concrete, m
s
. The
parameter m
s
is estimated using the equation:
m
s
= 9u + u.SS l
m

where l
m
is in meters and m
s
is in kilograms per cubic meter of concrete (kg/m
3
). This expression is
valid provided the deck slab is not transversely prestressed. Between 65 and 70 kg/m
3
of
reinforcement is required for stability during construction and crack control; this quantity is
independent of span length, see Menn (1986). The transverse reinforcement required to resist loads is
primarily a function of cross-section dimensions. An additional 20 to 25 kg/m
3
is required for
commonly used cross-sections, regardless of span length. Most of the steel required above the

minimum
attention
The ma
construc
equation
where l
m
girders
multiply
The esti
obtained
(scaffold
(tempora
into acco
material
falsewor
sea leve
increase
estimate
Here is o
is a tab
calculati
Des
m 65 to 70 k
n in the desig
ss of prestre
ction method
n:
m
is in meter
that are no
ying m
p
by th
imated cost
d by multipl
ding system
ary structure
ount the prop
l costs, anot
rk and formw
l the cost pe
ed. These va
ed using table
Table 4
only listed th
ble that sum
ions as well
ign of a 170
kg/m
3
is loca
gn and arrang
essing steel
d. For girders
s and m
p
is i
ot transverse
he total volum
of concrete
lying the es
ms that are u
e used to ret
posed constr
ther constru
work costs yi
ercentage of
alues are cho
e 4-3, from M
4-3: Table from
he quantity o
marizes tho
as the empiri
m long bridg
ated in the d
gement of th
per unit vo
s that are cas
m
in kilograms
ely prestress
me of concre
e, reinforcin
stimated qua
used to tem
tain unharden
ruction seque
uction metho
ields the tota
the total cos
osen to be 2
Menn (1986)
m Menn (1986)
of super- and
se results. T
ical equation
ge over the f
14
deck slab. Th
he superstruct
lume of con
sted on conv
m
p
= u.4 l
m
s per cubic m
ed. The qu
ete.
ng steel and
antities with
mporarily su
ned concrete
ence; if it is g
od should b
al superstruct
st of those st
5% and 23%
).
) to estimate co
d substructure
These quanti
ns above. The
fjord orskaf
he deck slab
ture reinforc
ncrete, m
p
, i
ventional fals
m

meter of conc
uantity of pr
d prestressin
unit materi
upport perma
e until harde
greater than 6
be considere
ture cost. Sin
tructural part
% respective
osts for variou
e materials th
ities are acq
e calculated
fjrur in Ice
should there
ement.
s a function
sework, m
p
i
crete. This ex
restressing s
ng steel in t
ial costs. Th
anent structu
ened) should
65 percent o
ed. Adding
nce abutment
ts as well as
ely. The rem
us structural el
hat will be d
quired based
quantities ar
eland
efore be the
n of span len
s estimated u
xpression is
steel is obta
the superstru
he cost of f
ures) and fo
d be estimate
f the superst
the bridge
ts and piers a
falsework/fo
maining cost

lements.
determined an
d on the pre
re given in ta
focus of
ngth and
using the
valid for
ained by
ucture is
falsework
formwork
ed taking
tructures
material,
are under
formwork
ts can be
nd below
eliminary
able 4-4.

For the f
sub- and
cost for
This resu
type of b
ISK/SEK
Des
T
figures given
d superstruct
this bridge ty
ult is consist
bridge was 6
K. Note that
ign of a 170
Table 4-4: Amo
n in table 4-4
ture and the t
ype the total
tent with a d
638.500.000
this draft ass
F
m long bridg
ounts of structu
4, abutments
total cost bas
values for th
Table 4-5: T
draft for this p
ISK which i
sumes the tot
Figure 4-6: An
ge over the f
15
ural materials
and column
sed on the pr
he structural
Total cost of br
project made
is around 38
tal length of
n overview of th
fjord orskaf
for the concre
s are include
rice values f
elements are
ridge type 1.
e by ICERA
.700.000 SE
f 182 m inste
he beam bridg
fjrur in Ice

ete beam bridg
ed. Below is
from section
e doubled.

where the e
EK with the e
ad of 170 m.
e.
eland
ge.
a table with
4.3 and to g
estimated cos
exchange rat
.
prices of
get a total
st for this
e of 16.5

4.5 T
Bridge t
Each arc
will be o
deck wil
main gir
which ar
the main
4.5.1
The cho
chosen b
which w
conditio
To conn
a drawin
To deter
determin
Des
The arch b
type no. 2 is
ch will be of
of zero hinge
ll be of com
rders with sh
re connected
n girders, see
Geometry
oice of the r
between 4 an
would result
ons on site (n
nect the deck
ng of the stru
rmine the se
ned accordin
ign of a 170
bridge
a conventio
f a steel box
ed type with
mposite steel/c
hear studs. T
d to the arch
e figure 4-7.
F
for type 2
rise of the a
nd 8 see, Lo
in less horiz
no rock only
k to the arch
uctural mode
Figur
ction forces
ng to figure 4
m long bridg
nal steel arc
cross-sectio
X-bracing b
concrete. In
To connect th
hes with hang
igure 4-7: A cr
rch is based
oretsen and S
zontal reacti
y sediment s
spon
risc
= 4
vertical stee
l of the bridg
e 4-8: A struct
in the arche
4-9.
ge over the f
16
h bridge wit
on with steel
between the a
the longitud
he two main
gers. A reinf
ross-section of
d on the rati
Sundquist (19
ion forces. T
soil layers). T
risc =
17
4
l wire hange
ge.
tural model of
es the GDF n
fjord orskaf
th two separa
stiffeners in
arches to inc
dinal directio
n girders ther
forced concr
the bridge dec
io between s
995). This ra
This ratio is
That results i
7u
4
= 42,S m
ers with c/c 2
the tied arch b
needs to be
fjrur in Ice
ate arches ab
nside, see fig
rease lateral
on of the brid
re will be tra
rete slab wil
ck.
span and ris
atio is in this
suitable bec
n
m
25 m are cho
bridge.
determined a
eland
bove the brid
gure 4-11. Th
stiffness. Th
dge there wi
ansversal ste
l be casted o
e which is g
s case chosen
cause of geot
osen. On figu
again. The G
dge deck.
he arches
he bridge
ll be two
el beams
on top of
generally
n to be 4
technical
ure 4-8 is

GDFs are

The follo
And the
4.5.2
To desig
investiga
moving
moment
Des
owing GDFs
following tr
Arch
gn the arch t
ated: abutme
a point load
t, shear force
ign of a 170
Figure 4
s are acquire
0
raffic loads th
the influence
ent, of the
d of 100 kN
e and normal
m long bridg
4-9: Position of
d:
0F
= 1,1S
0F
q
= 1
hat act on on
t
q
tu
e lines for th
e arch and t
N in 10 m i
force. Thes
ge over the f
17
f traffic loads w
S For the ta
1,uu For U
ne girder are:
u]]c
= 694
u]]c
= 27 kN
he arch need
he middle. I
intervals ove
se influence d
fjord orskaf
when calculati
andem system
DL system
:
4 kN
Nm
d to be determ
Influence lin
er the deck
diagrams can
fjrur in Ice
ing GDF.
m
mined. 3 sec
nes for each
in the longi
n be seen in f
eland

ctions in the
section are
itudinal dire
figure 4-10.
arch are
made by
ction for

18

Figure 4-10: Influence lines for various section forces at most critical placements.
To calculate the important section forces for design of the cross section of the arch the traffic loads
are placed on the most unfavorable position corresponding to these influence diagrams in a program
called PCFrame. PCFrame is a commercial program for structural analysis of frames.
Cross Section
To design the arch in the ultimate limit state the section forces are required. The highest moment in
the arch is reached when the traffic load is located in the middle of the span. The position of the point
load at the first quarter of the span gave the highest normal force. So these corresponding section
forces are used to design the cross section and are shown in table 4-6.
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
M
x/L
Influence Lines for Moment in the Arch
Abutment 1/4 of span
Middle of the span
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
V
x/L
Influence Lines for Shear Force in the Arch
Middle of the span
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
N
x/L
Influence Lines for Normal Force in the Arch
Middle of the span

The mat
The follo
direction
The cro
dimensio
A.
Stability
To chec
well as w
load and
Des
terial qualitie
owing cross-
n and resistan
oss-section i
ons of the cr
y
ck for stabili
with the help
d the maximu
ign of a 170
T
es of the stee
-section was
nce, see figu
F
s a welded
ross section (
ity in longitu
p of PCFram
um normal f
m long bridg
Table 4-6: Des
el are given in
Table 4-7:
determined
ure 4-11:
Figure 4-11: Ch
box section
(moment of
udinal direct
me. To fulfill
force needs to
ge over the f
19
sign section for
n table 4-7.
Material quali
after few tria
hosen cross-sec
n with trape
inertia, secti
tion two inve
l the requirem
o be in the ra
fjord orskaf
rces in the arch
ities of steel.
als with resp
ction of the arc
ezoidal stiffe
ion modulus
estigations a
ments for sta
ange from 4
fjrur in Ice

h.

pect to stabili

ch.
feners. Furth
etc.) can be
are made; ca
ability the ra
to 5, see Lo
eland
ity in the lon
her details a
seen in the a
alculation by
tio between
oretsen and S
ngitudinal
about the
appendix
y hand as
buckling
Sundquist

(1995).
critical b
where S
case S is
determin
From an
well wi
determin
EC3 giv
is given
with N
d

Here is
with e
and , a
stronger
z
, the no
Des
To calculate
buckling load
S is the one-h
s 98525 mm
ned to be 458
nalysis in PC
ith the calc
nation of the
ves another m
in section 5.
as the design
s the reductio
equal to
an imperfecti
r axis and a w
on-dimension
ign of a 170
e the bucklin
d is given as
half length of
and k is 0.70
845 kN and t
CFrame for th
culations by
cross section
Fi
method to de
.5.1 in EC3.
n normal forc
on factor for
ion factor, o
welded box s
nal slenderne
m long bridg
ng load by ha
:
P
f the arch and
0 for a fixed
the ratio betw
his case this
y hand. The
n. The buckl
igure 4-12: Bu
etermine the
EC3 defines
ce and the ca
N
b.R
r the relevant
_ =
+ |
= u,S|
obtained from
section with b
ess, is define
ge over the f
20
and formulas
P
c
= n
2
EI
(kS)
d k is the effe
d arch with a
ween the buc
P
c
N
= 4.8
factor is dete
ese calculati
ling mode sh
uckling mode sh
buckling res
s the followin
N
d
N
b.Rd
apacity of the
d
= _[
A
A
t buckling m
1
2
z
2
]
0,5
|1 + o(z
u
m an approp
b/t
f
<30, be
o = u.49
ed as
fjord orskaf
s presented b
)
2

ective length
rise-span rat
ckling load an
ermined to b
ions were t
hape for this
hape of the arc
sistance crite
ng criteria:
d

e cross-sectio
y
M1

ode and is de
but _ < 1
u,2) + z
2
]
riate bucklin
comes
fjrur in Ice
by Austin (1
h factor, see A
tio as 0.25. F
nd the maxim
be 5.0. That m
the most cr
arch is show
ch.
eria for comp
on, N
b.Rd
, as
efined as
ng curve. Fo
eland
971) were u
Austin (1971
For these val
mum normal
matches cons
ritical ones
wn in figure 4

pressed mem
or buckling a
used. The
1). In this
lues P
e
is
l force is
siderably
for the
4-12.
mbers and
about the

where
A
In this c
Table 4-
It can be
arch.
Compre
To dete
determin
In this c
The cros
Here, N
p
and W
pl

factor is
seen in a
force are

The resu
Des
A
is dependin
ase
A
is equ
-8 summarize
e seen in tabl
ession and
ermine the c
ned. To decid
case the cros
ss-section ca
N
pl.Rd
is the pl
the plastic s
defined as y
appendix A.
e made accor

ults of this an
ign of a 170
ng on the cro
[
A
[
A
ual to 1. For r
es the results
Table
le 4-8 that th
bending ca
compression
de the cross
s section cla
apacities are d
lastic design
section modu
y
M0
= 1,1 in
Next a chec
rding to secti

nalysis are su
m long bridg
z
=
oss-section a
A
= 1 for Cl
A
= A
c]]
A
resistance of
s of this anal
e 4-8: Criteria
he buckling re
pacities
and bendin
section class
ass is determi
defined in EC
N
p
H
pI.
n resistance f
ulus. For res
n section 5.1.
ck for bendin
ion 5.4 in EC
H
Sd
N
Sd

M
Sd
M
pl.R
ummarized in
ge over the f
21
= |[
A
A
N
c
s below:
lass 1, 2 or 3
for Class 4
f member to
y
M1
= 1,1
ysis.
for buckling r
esistance is w
ng capacitie
s plastic stres
ined to be 1.
C3 in section
I.Rd
= A
y
Rd
= w
pI
for compress
sistance of C
1 in EC3. Th
ng moment, c
C3. The follo
d
H
c.Rd
N
c.Rd
d
Rd
+_
N
Sd
N
pl.Rd
_
2
n table 4-9.
fjord orskaf
]
0,5

cross sectio
4 cross sectio
buckling the
resistance from
well above th
es the class
ss distributio
ns 5.4.4 and
y
M0

y
M0

sion, M
pl.Rd
th
Class 1, 2 or
he calculatio
compression
owing design
Ben
Com
2
1 Com
fjrur in Ice
ons
ons
e safety facto
m EC3.
he calculated
of the cros
on is assumed
5.4.5 respect
he plastic re
3 cross-sect
ons for N
pl.Rd
,
and combin
n criteria are
nding
mpression
mbined bend
eland
or is
d normal forc
ss-section ha
d.
tively as
esistance for
tion the parti
M
pl.Rd
and W
ned bending a
checked:
ing and axia
ces in the
as to be
bending
ial safety
W
pl
can be
and axial
l force

All the c
so small
4.5.3
The brid
work as
will only
Transve
The tran
loading
them. Th
moment
cross-se
Figure 4
The high
these sec
given in

Des
criteria are fu
l and are ther
Bridge Dec
dge deck wi
composite d
y make the st
ersal beams
nsversal beam
for these be
hese position
t and shear
ction in the u
4-13: Positions
hest moment
ction forces
n sections 5.4

ign of a 170
Tabl
ulfilled. Also
refore neglec
ck
ill consist of
deck with st
tructure mor
s
ms will be m
eams will be
ns are show i
force in the
ultimate limi
s of traffic load
t and shear fo
the cross-sec
4.5 and 5.4.6
H
Sd
H
m long bridg
le 4-9: Design v
o, the cross-s
cted. The arc
f main steel
teel shear stu
re rigid. Estim
made of ste
e when the a
in figure 4-1
transversal
it state.
ds and shear- a
force are dete
ction can be
in EC3 as
H
c.Rd
= w
pI
ge over the f
22
values and resi
section is ass
ch is mostly i
girders, tran
uds. The com
mated thickn
el and will
axle load fro
13. This locat
beams. The
and moment di
determined.
ermined to b
determined.
I
y
M0
fjord orskaf
istance for the
sumed to res
in compressi
nsversal beam
mposite effe
ness of the co
be placed w
om the traffic
tion of the ax
ese section f
iagrams when
e 3025 kNm
The design
For class 1 o
fjrur in Ice

arch.
ist the shear
on.
ms and conc
ct is not cal
oncrete slab i
with 5 m spa
c is placed e
xle load will
forces are us
the cross-secti
m and 1359 kN
criteria for s
or 2 cross sec
eland
forces since
crete slab. T
culated here
is 200 mm.
acing. Worst
exactly abov
l generate th
sed to determ

ions of cross be
N respective
shear- and m
ctions
e they are
They will
e but that
t case of
ve one of
e highest
mine the
eams are
ely. From
moment is

where th
beams is
Main gi
The mai
hangers.
7241 kN
the tran
calculati
4.5.4
The han
hangers
ultimate
exactly
carbon s
4.5.5
The cho
the X-ty
analyzed
Des

he parameter
s shown in fi
rders
in girders w
. The largest
Nm respectiv
nsversal bea
ions can be s
Hangers
ngers are the
are designe
e limit state.
at hanger nu
steel with the
Transversa
oice of X-typ
ype, see Bun
d as a truss sy
ign of a 170

rs are explain
igure 4-14. F
Fi
will be conne
t shear force
vely. Here the
ms. The de
seen in appen
Fig
elements th
ed to resist t
This force
umber 1 clo
e design yield
al Bracing
e bracing rat
nner and Wr
ystem. Later
m long bridg
I
Sd
ned in the las
For detailed c
igure 4-14: Est
ected to the t
e and momen
e same criter
etermined cr
ndix A.
gure 4-15: Dete
hat connect th
he largest te
is acquired
osest to the
d strength as
ther than Vie
right (2006)
ral braces wi
ge over the f
23
I
pI.Rd
= A
st section. Th
calculations,
timated size of
transversal b
nt in the mai
ria are check
ross-section
ermined size of
he bridge de
ension force,
when the ax
support. The
s 3605 kN.
erendeel brac
, which resu
ll not be calc
fjord orskaf
A
v
(
]
j
3
)y
M0
he determine
see appendix

f the cross beam
beams which
in girders ar
ked, shear- an
can be see

f the main gird
eck to the arc
, which is d
xle force fro
e chosen ma
cing is that th
ults in less l
culated at thi
fjrur in Ice

ed cross-sect
x A.
ms.
h are hangin
re determined
nd moment r
en in figure
ders.
ch. They are
determined to
om the traff
aterial of the
he system wi
lateral deflec
is time.
eland
tion of the tra
ng from the a
d to be 2087
resistance, as
e 4-15 and
e vertical cab
o be 3393 k
fic load is po
ese hangers
ill be more r
ctions and w
ansversal
arches in
7 kN and
s was for
detailed
bles. The
kN in the
ositioned
is M100
igid with
would be

4.5.6
The soil
concrete
(2010).
length o
estimate
for each
be 35 pi
fundame
support
direction
4.5.7
My prop
First, fou
be place
segment
segment
placed in
Next the
beams th
welded
casted.
4.5.8
In table
quantitie
on the m
Des
Foundatio
l under the
e piles that w
The piles wi
of the piles w
ed amount of
h arch. The sp
iles under eac
ent itself. Th
the fundam
n and the app
Constructi
posal of a co
undations fo
ed under the
ts, sizes that
t at a time, su
n right positi
e deck is co
hat are hang
together and
Cost estim
4-10 the to
es are based
method in sec
ign of a 170
ns
foundations
will be drive
ill have an in
will be 14 m.
f piles is
pacing betwe
ch abutment
he filling beh
ments. A con
proximate siz
Fig
ion
onstruction m
r the arches
e bridge. The
are possible
upported by
ions the temp
onstructed. T
ging in the ha
d finally, wh
mation/conc
tal quantity
on the preli
ction 4.4.2 fo
m long bridg
s is sedimen
en down to
nclination do
. The largest
12
4
een the piles
. The piles w
hind the brid
ntinuous foun
ze of it will b
gure 4-16: Plac
method for th
will be const
en the arche
e to transpor
falsework st
porary worki
The main gir
angers. The
hen all the w
clusions
of materials
minary calcu
or bridge type
ge over the f
24
nt layers. Th
the ground.
own in the di
t reaction for
6u1
uu
= S2 pi
will be 1.2
will also be a
dge will also
ndation is ch
be 7.2 x 4 x 1
cing of piles at
his bridge typ
tructed and t
es will be ra
rt. These seg
tanding on th
ing plane is r
rders come
hangers con
work with the
s for the arc
ulations. The
e one. These
fjord orskaf
he foundatio
Each pile r
irection to th
rce in the arc
ilcs
m. The total
able to resist
o be able to
hosen under
16.8 m, see f
the arch suppo
pe is similar
then a tempo
aised. Each a
gments will b
he working p
removed and
in segments
nnect the arch
e structural s
hes and brid
e cost estima
e cost figures
fjrur in Ice
n will be fo
resists about
he archs dire
chs direction
number of p
the risk of tu
resist some
r the whole
figure 4-16.
orts.
r to the meth
orary working
arch will be
be welded to
plane. When
d can be used
s and are co
hes to the de
steel is done
dge deck are
ation for the
s are given in
eland
ounded on p
400 kN, Ha
ection. The e
n is 12601 k
piles is deter
urning along
external act
bridge in th
hod for bridg
g plane of gr
divided into
ogether in ste
the arches h
d as a road fil
onnected to t
eck. Each se
, the concret
e summarize
foundations
n table 4-11.
precasted
afliason
estimated
kN so the
rmined to
g with the
tions and
he lateral
ge type 1.
ravel will
o several
eps, each
have been
lling.
the cross
egment is
te slab is
ed. These
is based

To get a
This brid
steel cos

Des
a total cost th
dge type is l
st and compl
ign of a 170
Table 4-10:
he total mater
little less tha
exity of the s
F
m long bridg
Quantities of
rial cost is do
Table 4-11:
an twice as ex
structure. An
Figure 4-17: An

ge over the f
25
structural mat
oubled, whic
Total cost of b
xpensive as
n overview o
n overview of t
fjord orskaf
terials for the
ch is a rough
bridge type 2.
the first brid
of the arch br
the arch bridg
fjrur in Ice

arch bridge.
estimation.

dge type. Thi
ridge can be
ge.
eland
is mainly dep
seen in figur
pends on
re 4-17.

4.6 T
Bridge t
pylons
steel/con
about th
cable-sta
4.6.1
Bridge t
cable st
configur
4-20. Th
stabilize
Nowada
orthotrop
Many co
for conc
construc
construc
yard. Th
weight o
because
A prope
Howeve
except f
concrete
Althoug
composi
composi
Most po
Howeve
end span
In this
conditio
there is
transferr
and a co
cable sy
Des
The cable-
type no. 3 is
on each sid
ncrete deck.
he choice of t
ayed bridges
Aesthetics
type no. 3 is
tayed bridge
rations, see f
he pylons ca
ed by the cab
ays the pylon
pic or as a co
oncrete cable
crete cable-st
ction is a f
ction it is po
he segments,
of the segme
it is stiffer a
erly designed
er, with incr
for very long
e. Thus the re
gh the steel or
ite deck wit
ite with the
ortions of th
er, tensile str
ns. Post-tensi
a self-ancho
ons on site, th
a so called
red to the su
ombination
ystem can be
ign of a 170
-stayed b
s a back and
de, similar
The cross s
the superstru
s are discusse
s of cable-s
s a cable stay
is to be de
figure 4-18. T
an either be
bles that are a
Figure 4-18
ns are most
omposite ste
e-stayed brid
tayed bridge
further deve
ossible to use
, however, sh
ent is limited
and easier to
d and fabric
reasing labor
g spans. The
educed self-w
rthotropic de
th a concrete
steel girder
he girder ar
resses may o
ioning is usu
oring system
he foundation
earth anchor
upports at th
of self-anch
seen on figu
m long bridg
bridge
front cable-
to the res
section of th
ucture is in th
ed.
stayed brid
yed bridge. T
esigned. The
The number
rigid, work
anchored into
: Configuratio
often made
el/concrete d
dges have be
es: cast-in-pl
elopment of
e a more com
hould all be
d by the tran
erect.
cated orthotr
r costs, the
use of steel
weight of the
eck is too exp
e slab on a
by shear stu
re under hig
occur in the m
ually used in
m is prefera
ns will be be
red system w
e ends of th
oring and ea
ure 4-19.
ge over the f
26
-stayed bridg
sund bridge
he deck is si
he next chap
dges
There are se
e cables can
of spans can
k as a cantile
o the ground
ons of the cable
e of concrete
deck.
een built. In
lace construc
the free ca
mplicated cro
similar to av
nsportation c
ropic deck is
orthotropic
l in the deck
e deck slab m
pensive for c
steel frame
uds reduces
gh compress
middle portio
these areas t
able, see fig
elow sea leve
where the ho
he bridge wh
arth anchorin
fjord orskaf
ge, see figure
e. The bridg
imilar to brid
pter where ae
everal types
n be arrange
n either be tw
ever, or the
d.
es for cable-sta
e. The deck
general, the
ction or prec
antilever co
oss-section b
void adjustm
capability. B
s a good sol
deck becom
k is, today, tw
must result in
construction
can be very
the steel qua
sion, which
on of the cen
to keep the c
gure 4-19. T
el and sedim
orizontal com
hich requires
ng system. T
fjrur in Ice
e 4-21. This
ge will con
dge type 2.
esthetics and
that can com
ed in a harp
wo or three,
deck is stif
ayed bridges.
k can be mad
ere are two c
cast construc
onstruction m
because prec
ment in the p
Box is the pr
lution for a
mes less com
wo to four ti
n appreciable
in most coun
y competitiv
antity of the
is good for
nter span an
concrete unde
That depend
ment layers ar
mponents of
favorable fo
The principl
eland
bridge type
sist of a co
A further di
d structural s
me into mind
p-, fan- or c
see figures
ff and the py

de of concre
construction
ction. A cast
method. For
casting is don
precasting for
referred cros
cable-stayed
mmercially a
imes as expe
e savings.
ntries at this
ve. Making
e girder sign
r concrete m
nd at both en
er compressi
s on the fo
re the main s
f the cable fo
foundation co
le of a self-a
e has two
omposite
iscussion
system of
d when a
combined
4-19 and
ylons are
ete, steel
methods
t-in-place
r precast
ne in the
rms. The
s section
d bridge.
attractive
ensive as
time, the
the deck
nificantly.
members.
nds of the
ion.
oundation
soil. Also
orces are
onditions
anchored

Let us co
be a goo
seen on
But, an
a self-an
4.6.2
Based o
Here, a h
and deli
the view
in the py
The oute
stays wo
modelle
analysis
two pyl
bridge d
horizont
4.6.3
In this se
Des
onsider an as
od choice wit
figure 4-20.
asymmetrica
nchoring syst
Geometry
on the discus
harp shape c
cate appeara
wing angle. It
ylon begin a
er spans leng
ont exceed
d in SAP200
of structures
ons are conn
deck to each
tal.
Design
ection the ele
ign of a 170
symmetrical
th respect to
al system ha
tem.
for type 3
ssion above
configuration
ance because
t also allows
at a lower ele
gths should b
its limits. Fi
00 for 3D ana
s. The deck,
nected toget
h pylon. Eac
ements in the
m long bridg
Figure 4-1
system with
foundation c
Figure 4-2
s earth-anch
self-anchori
n of the cable
e an array of
an earlier st
evation so th
be around 30
igure 4-21 d
alysis. SAP2
see figure 4-
ther with on
ch cable wil
Figure 4-21
e following t
ge over the f
27
19: Self anchor
h only one py
construction
20: Asymmetri
ored cables
ing cable sy
es is chosen.
parallel cabl
tart of the de
hat fastening
0-40% of the
isplays the g
2000 is a com
-26, is 10 m
ne cross-beam
ll be connec
1: Model for br
table will be
fjord orskaf
red system.
ylon as can b
n. An exampl
ical system.
and requires
ystem is pref
Harp shape
les will alwa
eck construct
of cables ca
e main span
geometry of
mmercial fini
wide with fo
m for stabil
cted to trans
ridge type 3.
checked in t
fjrur in Ice
be seen in fig
le of that stru
s better found
ferable in th
configuratio
ays appear pa
tion because
an start befor
length so the
the chosen m
ite element p
our pylons, tw
ity. Ten cab
sversal beam
the ultimate
eland

gure 4-19. Th
uctural system

dation condi
his specific s
on offers a ve
arallel irresp
the cable an
re the pylon
e stresses in
model. The
program for s
wo on each s
bles will con
ms with 30

limit state.
hat could
m can be
tion than
situation.
ery clean
pective of
nchorages
is ready.
the back
bridge is
structural
side. The
nnect the
angle to

To begi
elements
traffic lo
is move
displaye
indicate
Des
in with the
s of the brid
oads are plac
d in 5 m inc
ed for those
the position
ign of a 170
Tab
necessary s
ge that are u
ced by using
crements alon
parts of the
of the pylon
m long bridg
ble 4-12: Eleme
section force
under investi
these influen
ng the bridg
e bridge that
ns.
ge over the f
28
ents that will b
es and react
gation. SAP2
nce lines. To
ge deck. On f
t will be an
fjord orskaf
be checked in U
tions are de
2000 is used
o create influ
figures 4-22
nalyzed at th
fjrur in Ice

ULS.
etermined fo
d to create in
uence lines a
to 4-24 are
his stage. Th
eland
or the corres
nfluence line
point load o
these influe
he dark verti
sponding
s and the
f 100 kN
nce lines
ical lines

29

Figure 4-22: Influence lines for moments in the deck and at pylon supports.
-1.00
-0.90
-0.80
-0.70
-0.60
-0.50
-0.40
-0.30
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
M
x/L
Influence Lines for Moment in the main
girders
@Pylon Center
-1.00
-0.90
-0.80
-0.70
-0.60
-0.50
-0.40
-0.30
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
M
x/L
Influence Lines for Moment in Pylon
Supports
Left Pylon Right Pylon

30

Figure 4-23: Influence lines for normal forces in pylon support and moment at 55% of the height of the pylons.
-1.00
-0.90
-0.80
-0.70
-0.60
-0.50
-0.40
-0.30
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
N
x/L
Influence Lines for Normal Force in Pylon
Supports
-1.00
-0.90
-0.80
-0.70
-0.60
-0.50
-0.40
-0.30
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
M
x/L
Moment in 55% of the Height of the
Pylons

31

Figure 4-24: Influence lines for various parts of the structural system of the cable-stayed bridge.
After the influence lines have been created the bridge is modeled as a 3D model in SAP2000 with the
forces positioned at the corresponding positions. The slab is modeled as area section elements with a
meshing of 0.5 m so that the axle traffic loads can be positioned right. Main girders and cross beams
in the bridge deck are modeled as frame elements as well as the pylons. The cables are modeled as
cable elements with high tensional stiffness. The only supports of the model are the fixed supports
under the pylons because the pylons and cables should be able to carry its self-weight under
construction.
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
N
x/L
Axial Force in cables - Back Stays
Cable 1 Cable 2 Cable 3
Cable 4 Cable 5
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
N
x/L
Axial Force in cables - Front Stays
Cable 1 Cable 2 Cable 3
Cable 4 Cable 5

4.6.4
Concre
The con
concrete
shear stu
Cross B
The cro
designed
loads for
When th
the cross
of the fl
see appe
Main G
Largest
span and
reached
is chosen
the widt
calculati
Des
Deck
te Slab
ncrete slab w
e casted on s
uds will be w
Beams
ss beams w
d to resist th
r the largest
Figu
he largest mo
s beams. The
anges is 300
endix A.
irder
moment in t
d is determin
when the tra
n. From thes
th of the flan
ion, see appe
ign of a 170
will be 250 m
ite and a me
welded on cro
will be made
he self-weigh
moment can
ure 4-25: Posit
oment and sh
e cross sectio
0 mm and the
the main gir
ned to be 73
affic loads ar
se design val
nges is 400 m
endix A. Figu
m long bridg
mm thick and
etal deck ben
oss beams an
of steel and
ht of the co
n be seen in f
ion of the traff
hear force are
on of the bea
e thickness o
rders is when
11 kNm. Th
re applied w
lues the size
mm and the
ure 4-26 disp
ge over the f
32
d the concret
neath of trape
nd main girde
d are placed
ncrete slab
figure 4-25.
fic loads to esti
e determined
am is I shape
of the web an
n the traffic
he largest she
where the pylo
of the girder
thickness of
plays the cho
fjord orskaf
te quality is
ezoidal profil
ers.
d in 5 m int
and the traff
imate the size
d in ULS, its
ed with the to
nd flanges is
loads are ap
ear force is d
ons are posit
r is determin
f the web an
osen bridge d
fjrur in Ice
C35/45. The
les. To achie
tervals along
ffic loads. Lo

of the cross be
s possible to
otal height of
30 mm. For
pplied at the
determined t
tioned. An I-
ned. The tota
nd flanges is
deck.
eland
e slab will c
eve composit
g the deck. T
ocation of th
eams.
determine th
f 860 mm. T
r detailed cal
middle of th
to be 1247 k
-shaped cros
al height is 1
30 mm. For
consist of
te effects
They are
he traffic
he size of
The width
lculation,
he bridge
kN and is
ss section
200 mm,
r detailed

4.6.5
The pyl
C40/50.
beams.
normal
determin
pylons i
interacti
design p
appendix
The cho
Des
Figure 4-26
Pylons
lons will be
The towers
Each pylon
force were d
ned 1.5 x 2.0
is determine
ion diagram t
point for the
x A.
sen cross-sec
N
(
k
N
)
ign of a 170
6: Configuratio
a concrete
s have two v
is designed
determined t
0 m with a w
d to be 1.2
to estimate th
e above men
Figu
ction of the p
-30,000
-20,000
-10,000
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
0
N

(
k
N
)
m long bridg
on of the deck
hollow secti
vertical cable
for combin
to be 27292
wall thicknes
x 2.0 m wit
he capacity o
ntioned sect
re 4-27: N-M i
pylon is show
5,000 10,
N
ge over the f
33
and girders w
ion. The con
e planes and
ned moment
kNm and 5
ss as 0.3 m. T
th a wall thi
of the pylon.
tion forces.
interaction dia
wn in figure
,000 15,000 2
M (kN
N-M Diagram
fjord orskaf
with shear studs
ncrete qualit
d are connec
and normal
5121 kN resp
The size of t
ickness of 0
The star on
Calculations
agram for the p
4-28.
20,000 25,000
Nm)
m
fjrur in Ice
s and trapezoi
ty in the py
ted together
l force. The
pectively. Th
the cross-bea
0.25 m. Figu
the inside of
s of the pylo
pylon.
0 30,000 35,0
eland

dal profiles.
lons is chos
r with two tr
design mom
he size of a
ams that con
ure 4-27 dis
f the curve s
ons are disp

000
sen to be
ransverse
ment and
pylon is
nnects the
splays an
hows the
played in

4.6.5.1
Where t
main gir
tension f
2000 wi
Finally a
4.6.6
The foun
bridge ty
kN and
pylon. T
4.6.7
The foun
pylon w
the deck
construc
main gir
the beam
main gir
of the sp
Des
Cables
the cables ar
rders. The c
force in the
th tendon un
a model of th
Foundatio
ndation unde
ypes. The lar
27292 kNm
The fundamen
Constructi
ndations are
will be constru
k can start w
cted further u
rders and cro
ms. Finally th
rders welded
pan. This wa
ign of a 170
Figure 4
re connected
cables are m
cables was d
nits as 6-61 w
he bridge tha
Figure 4-2
n
er each pylon
rgest vertical
m respectivel
nt along with
ion
to be constr
ucted up to a
where the dec
up. During t
oss-beams ar
he slab is cas
d togeather u
ay, the struct
m long bridg
4-28: Cross sec
d to the bridg
modeled as c
determined to
with a design
at was constru
29: 3-D model
n will consis
l reaction for
ly. That imp
h the piles is
ructed first. A
a height whe
ck is connec
this the cros
re in place th
sted. This pr
until the top r
ture works a
ge over the f
34
ction of the pyl
ge deck cros
cable elemen
o be 15888 k
n capacity of
ucted in SAP
of the cable-st

st of concret
rce and mom
plies that app
assumed to
After that, th
re the lowest
cted to the c
s-beams are
he trapezoida
ocess is done
row is reache
as a self-anch
fjord orskaf
lon with reinfo
ss beams are
nts with high
kN. A propo
17019 kN.
P2000 is disp
tayed bridge in
te footings an
ment under on
proximately
resist the ris
he work with
t cable is con
cables in seg
also set in
al profiles ar
e for each ca
ed and the de
hored system
fjrur in Ice

orcement.
e placed to r
h tensional s
osal of a cabl
played in figu

n SAP2000.
nd cohesive
ne pylon is d
13 piles are
k for overtur
h the pylons
nnected. The
gments mean
place. After
re fastened o
able row with
eck structure
m with the de
eland
reduce torsio
stiffness. Th
le system is V
ure 4-29.
piles as for
determined to
e needed un
rning.
can start wh
en the constru
nwhile the py
r the segmen
on the upper
h the segmen
e meets in th
eck hanging
on in the
he largest
VSL SSI
the other
o be 5121
nder each
here each
ruction of
ylons are
nts of the
edges of
nts of the
he middle
from the

cables o
stayed b
Figure
4.6.8
The tota
price va
substruc
calculati
bridge ty
Finally t
Des
on each side
bridge in the w
4-30: The Ston
Cost estim
al quantities
alues given i
cture are lis
ions but the
ype one.
T
the total cost
ign of a 170
of the pylon
world that di
necutters Brid
mation/conc
of materials
in section 4.
sted for the
cost estimat
Table 4-13: Am
t of this bridg
m long bridg
ns. Below, f
isplays how
dge (currently t
clusions
are summar
3. In table 4
cost estim
tion for the
mounts of struc
ge type is sum
Table 4-14:
ge over the f
35
figure 4-30, i
this principl
the largest cab
rized in table
4-14 the mai
mation. Thes
foundations
ctural materia
mmarized in
Total cost of b
fjord orskaf
is an examp
e works.
ble-stayed brid
e 4-13 and co
in materials
e quantities
is based on
als for the cable
n the table 4-
bridge type 3.
fjrur in Ice
le from one

ge in the world
ost estimatio
and quantiti
are based
n the method

e-stayed bridg
14.

eland
of the large
d) under const
on made base
ies of the su
on the pre
d in section
e.
est cable-
truction.
ed on the
uper- and
eliminary
4.4.2 for

This bri
depends
there is q
also a la

Des
idge type is
s on the same
quite much q
arge factor. A
ign of a 170
little less th
e factors as f
quantity of co
An overview
Figure 4-31
m long bridg
han three tim
for bridge ty
oncrete and r
of the arch b
: An overview

ge over the f
36
mes as expe
ype 2, steel c
reinforcemen
bridge can be
of my proposa
fjord orskaf
ensive as th
cost and com
nt that is use
e seen in figu
al of a cable-st
fjrur in Ice
he first bridg
mplexity of th
ed in the pylo
ure 4-31.
tayed bridge.
eland
ge type. Thi
he structure.
ons and the c
s mainly
But also
cables are


37

4.7 Summary and choice of bridge type
From the total cost estimations for the bridge types it is clear that the cable-stayed bridge is the most
expensive one. Also the arch bridge is quite expensive compared to the prestressed concrete bridge
that is the least expensive one. From a construction point of view the prestressed bridge is also the
most favorable. From these perspectives a concrete girder bridge is the obvious choice.
But, there are also other aspects that need to be taken into consideration when choosing a bridge type;
aesthetics, method of construction and construction time are obvious factors that can affect which
choice is made. The author will leave those decisions for others to make at later stages but chooses to
design the concrete beam bridge in a more detailed manner. In the following chapter more detailed
calculations will be performed for the superstructure of bridge type 1. Calculations of the post-
tensioned cables are performed where the prestress force and eccentricity of the cable profile are
determined. Following that all cable losses are determined and then the secondary effects of prestress.
Finally the ultimate moment capacity is determined for relevant members of the superstructure.


38

5 Final design
5.1 Introduction
Prestressed concrete structures, using high-strength materials to improve serviceability and durability,
are an attractive alternative for long-span bridges, and have been used worldwide since the 1950s. The
presence of cracks that can develop in tensile members can lead to corrosion of the reinforcement due
to its exposure to water and chemical contaminants. Corrosion is generally only a problem for
structures in aggressive exterior environments (bridges, marine structures, etc.) and is not critical in
the majority of buildings. The effect of cracking of members can lead to substantial loss in stiffness
which occurs after cracking and the second moment of area of the cracked section is far less than the
second moment of area before cracking. Thus, allowing cracks to develop can cause a large increase
in the deformation of the member. For prestressed concrete, compressive stresses are introduced into a
member to reduce or nullify the tensile stresses which result from bending due to the applied loads.
The compressive stresses are generated in a member by tensioned steel anchored at the ends of the
members and/or bonded to the concrete.
There are two types of prestressing systems: pre-tensioning and post-tensioning systems. Pre-
tensioning systems are methods in which the strands are tensioned before the concrete is placed. This
method is generally used for mass production of prefabricated members. Post-tensioning systems are
methods in which the tendons are tensioned after concrete has reached a specified strength. This
technique is often used in projects with very large elements. The main advantage of post-tensioning is
its ability to post-tension cast-in-place members. Mechanical prestressing jacking is the most common
method used in bridge structures.
The post-tensioning process involves three fundamental stages. In the first stage of the process, the
concrete is cast around a hollow duct. After the concrete has set or hardened, a tendon, consisting of a
number of strands, is pushed through the duct (alternatively, the tendon can be placed in the duct
before casting). Thus, the tendon can be fixed in any desired linear or curved profile along the
member. By varying the eccentricity of the tendon from the centroid, the maximum effectiveness of a
constant prestressing force can be utilized by applying the prestress only where it is required. Once
the concrete has achieved sufficient strength in compression, the tendon is jacked from one or both
ends using hydraulic jacks, thus putting the concrete into compression. When the required level of
prestress is achieved, the tendon is anchored at the ends of the member. After anchorage, the ducts are
usually filled with grout under pressure. The grout is provided mainly to prevent corrosion of the
tendon but it also forms a bond between the tendon and the concrete which reduces the dependence of
the beam on the integrity of the anchor and hence improves its robustness.
When prestressed concrete elements are designed the following factors need to be considered:
The prestressing reinforcement is determined by concrete stress limits under service load.
Bending and shear capacities are determined for the ultimate limit state
Deformations are determined in the serviceability limit state.

5.2 D
Through
loads ar
the girde
mm.
5.2.1
The brid

5.2.2
Self-wei
the load
5.2.3
In this se
5.2.3.1
High str
concrete
concrete
The effe
definitio
constant
E
cm
, is re
where
In this c
concrete
Des
Design
hout the desi
e calculated
ers is change
Building c
dge shall be d
FS ENV 199
FS ENV 199
Loading
ight and traf
generated by
Materials
ection the m
Concrete
rength concr
e quality is
e compressio
fects of cree
on of creep
t stress. To ta
educed to an
is the creep
case, there is
e is loaded is
ign of a 170
ign process,
with respect
ed from what
odes
designed acc
91
92
ffic loads are
y prestressin
ost common
e
rete is alway
C45/55. For
on strength is
ep need to b
is that unde
ake account
n effective ela
coefficient.
Table 5-
s a humid at
28 days. Th
m long bridg
one girder i
t to that. Aft
t was chosen
cording to the
Eurocode 1
Eurocode 2
e the same as
ng is taken in
n physical pro
ys used in po
r this quality
s f
ck
=45 MPa
be taken int
er compressi
for creep in t
astic modulu
E
is taken fr
-1: Creep coeff
tmospheric c
he circumfere
u
ge over the f
39
is designed w
fter iteration
n in chapter 4
e following s
(Loading)
(Concrete D
s in the pre-d
nto account.
operties of al
ost-tensioned
y the modul
. The self-we
to account f
on the conc
the design of
us, E
c,eff
. E
c,eff
E
c,c]]
=
E
c
1 +
rom EC2 and
ficient, , for n
condition at t
ence of the se
= 277uu m
fjord orskaf
with properti
of the calcu
4.4 with a he
standards:
Design)
design phase
ll materials u
d structural m
lus of elasti
eight of reinf
for calculatio
rete membe
f concrete m
f
is determine
c

d shown in ta
normal weight
the bridge si
ection, u, is:
mm
fjrur in Ice
ies of half th
lations in th
eight of 1800
e. But in this
used are sum
members. In
city is E
cm
=
forced concr
on of long-t
r will contra
members the m
ed with the f
able 5-1.
concrete.
ite of 80% a
eland
he cross-sect
is chapter th
0 mm instead
s detailed de
mmarized.
this case th
=36000 MPa
rete is 25 kN/
term deflect
act with tim
modulus of e
following for

and the age w
tion. The
he size of
d of 2400
sign also
he chosen
a and the
/m
3
.
tion. The
me due to
elasticity,
rmula:
when the

40

The cross sectional area of the concrete is:
A
c
= 646uuuu mm
2

The notional size is calculated to be:
2A
u
= 466
which gives after interpolation the creep coefficient as =1.56, see table 5-1, and the effective
modulus of elasticity is determined to E
c,eff
=14066 MPa.
5.2.3.2 Reinforcement
The quality of the reinforcement is chosen to be B500B with characteristic yield strength f
yk
=500 MPa.
5.2.3.3 Prestress system
As mentioned in chapter 4 for bridge type 1, the prestressing system is VSL 6-31. All technical
information concerning VSL systems are acquired from technical brochures published by VSL
International Ltd. (2010). Each tendon consists of 28 strands each consisting of 7 wires with a
diameter of 15.7 mm with a total nominal cross-section A
p
=4200 mm
2
, where each strand has a
nominal cross section of 150 mm
2
. The steel quality of the wires is f
p0,1k
/f
pk
=1640/1860 MPa. The
breaking load of each tendon is 7812 kN. The cables will be placed before casting in a group around a
centerline that counteracts the moment from the self-weight of the bridge. The cables will be anchored
individually with conical devices at each end of the bridge. When the concrete has achieved sufficient
strength large multi-cable hydraulic jacks are used at both ends of the bridge to prestress the structure.
When the required level of prestress is achieved the tendons are anchored at each end of the member.
After anchorage, the ducts around the tendons are filled with cement grout under pressure, called
bonded tendons. The cement grout is provided mainly to prevent corrosion of the tendons, but also it
forms bond in the integrity of the anchor and hence improves its robustness. The prestressing process
will be done in that manner that first the two internal spans will be constructed and prestressed and
then finally the two external spans will be constructed and prestressed. To simplify the calculations it
is assumed that the cables are calculated as one element, stressed from both ends of the bridge.
5.2.4 Exposure classes and service life
According to Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1) a structure should be classified after environmental
conditions, chemical and physical. This structure will be classified in the following classes:
Corrosion induced by carbonation: XC4
Corrosion induced by chlorides: XD3
Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water: XS3
Freeze/Thaw Attack: XF4
These classifications give a structural class of S4 according to table 4.3N in EC2. For that class the
minimum concrete cover for reinforcement steel is c
min,dur
=45 mm and for prestressing steel c
min,dur
=55
mm. Also, for post-tensioned members, the concrete cover should not be less than the diameter of the
duct. In this case the external diameter of the duct is 117 mm. According to EC0, table 2.1, the service
life (indicative design working life) for bridges is 100 years.
5.2.5 Tendon alignment and prestress force
The position of the centroid of the tendons should be chosen to give the highest effective depth. The
alignment is based on concrete cover, the number and size of the tendons, the size of the cable ducts

and stre
section a
fiber at s
These v
given in
mm. Ma
center o
decided
displays
superstru
At each
section)
different
Immedia
as the sm
At the s
acceptab
suggests
with f
ck
(
f
ck
(t) is d
Des
sses. Roughl
are chosen a
supports. Th
values will b
n section 8.10
aximum mom
of the interna
with respec
s the momen
ucture will b
end of the
. Eurocode 2
t times. The
ately after th
maller of:
same time, e
ble value dep
s that an acce
(t) as the char
defined in sec
ign of a 170
ly, a good m
as 0.17h from
e total heigh
be used in th
0.1.3 in EC2
ments from
al bays. Thes
t to minimum
nt curve from
be taken into
Figure 5-1
bridge the t
2, part 1.1, s
maximum al
o
s
he cables are
o
s
excessive co
pends on the
eptable comp
racteristic co
ction 3.1.2 in
ck
(t)
m long bridg
moment distri
m the bottom
ht of the cross
u.17
u.1
he beginning
, and should
self-weight i
se values wi
m concrete c
m self-weight
account.
1: Moment dist
tendons are
section 5.10.2
llowed pre-te
_
u.8
pk
u.9
p0.1k
released fro
_
u.7S
pk
u.8S
p0.1k
ompressive a
e length of ti
pressive stres
o
c
ompression s
n Eurocde 2
=
cm
(t)
ck
(t) =
ge over the f
41
ibution is ob
m extreme fib
s-section, h,
7 = S48.S
12 = 246 m
g of the calc
not be less t
in external b
ill be checke
cover and m
t. In the pre
tribution in the
placed at th
2, is used to
ensioning str
= u.8 186u
k
= u.9 164
om the jacks
= u.7S 186
k
= u.8S 16
and tensile s
ime during w
ss is:
c
u.6u
ck
strength as a
and is found
8 (HPo)
ck
for t
fjord orskaf
btained if the
ber at bay an
is 2050 mm.
mm
mm
ulations. Mi
than the diam
bays occur a
ed later when
minimum dist
stressing sta
e girder from s
he centroids
o determine t
ress during te
u = 1488 H
4u = 1476 H
the maximum
6u = 1S9S H
64u = 1S94
stresses mus
which the co
(t)
function of t
d with the fol
for 3 < t <
28 days
fjrur in Ice
e positions o
nd as 0.12h f
. Hence,
inimum spac
meter of the
t 0.375L or
n the amoun
tances betwe
age only the
self-weight.
of the T-sec
the maximum
ensioning is
HPo
HPo

m stresses in
HPo
HPo

st not arise
oncrete has h
time of the p
llowing meth
28 days
eland
f cables in th
from the top
cing of the c
duct, in this
13.875 m an
nt of cables
een ducts. Fi
self-weight
ction (half th
m allowed st
the smaller o
n the cables a
in the concr
hardened. Eu
prestressing o
hod:
he cross-
p extreme
cables, is
case 117
nd in the
has been
igure 5-1
from the
he cross-
tresses at
of:
are given
rete. The
urocode 2
operation.


42

f
cm
(t) is estimated from the following expressions:
cm
(t) = [
cc
(t)
cm

With
cc
(t) as:
[
cc
(t) = exp _s _1 _
28
t
]
1
2
__ = exp _u.2S _1 _
28
1u
]
1
2
__ = u.8S
where s is chosen to 0.25 which is valid for cement of strength classes CEM Class N at 10 days and
f
cm
is 53 MPa. From this f
cm
(t) is determined to 44.79 MPa and f
ck
(t) to 36.79 MPa. Hence, the
compressive strength at transfer becomes:
o
c
u.6
ck
(t) = u.6 S6.79 = 22.u7 HPo
And the concrete strength at service time is:
o
c
u.6
ck
= u.6 4S = 27 HPo
EC2 does not lay down any compulsory permissible tension stresses so the choice of concrete tension
stress limits is left to the discretion of the designer. Hence the design is restricted by not allowing high
tensile stresses to develop at service and only the concrete tensile strength at transfer:
o
ctk.0,05
2.7 HPo
And at service the maximum tensile stress is chosen to:
o
t
2.u HPo
The stresses in the cross-section are calculated according to Naviers formula:
o =
P
A
+
H
g
Pc
s
I
y
where P is the normal force, A is the area of the cross-section and I is the moment of inertia. M
g
is the
moment generated by self-weight, e
s
is the eccentricity of the normal force and y is the location in the
section where the stresses are calculated. In this equation P and e
s
are unknown and have to be
determined. The prestress force and eccentricity will be determined by developing a Magnel diagram,
a method to determine a Magnel diagram is descriped in OBrien (1999). Magnel diagrams are
determined for the critical sections where the maximum transfer- and service moments occur. An
estimation of the ratio between the prestress force at service and the prestress force at transfer, , is
made (generally from 0.75-0.90) and is chosen here to be 0.75. The critical sections that will be
checked are external and internal spans and supports B and C. Figure 5-2 displays the load
arrangements to establish the largest moments at each section at service stage. These load
arrangements are determined based on influence lines that are created by the same method as in
section 4 and can be seen in appendix B.

Figu
These m
develope
Table 5
Below is
follow.
tmin
: min
tmax
: ma
bmin
: mi
bmax
: ma
These st
Des
ure 5-2: Mome
moments are
ed for each s
5-2: Maximum
s a list that d
nimum stres
aximum stres
inimum stres
aximum stre
tresses are de
ign of a 170
ent distribution
calculated i
section and th
m moments at e
defines neces
s at extreme
ss at extreme
ss at extreme
ss at extreme
etermined ac
o
tmn
= gr
m long bridg
ns and load arr
in the compu
he moments
each section wh
ssary notatio
top fibre.
e top fibre.
e bottom fibr
e bottom fibr
ccording to:
rcotcr o _
ge over the f
43
rangement for
uter program
can be seen
here M
0
is the m
n, sign conv
e.
re.
_p
0mn
H
0
w
t
fjord orskaf
r moments at se
m PCFRAME
in table 5-2.
moment at tra
ventions and
] onJ
1
p
_p
S
fjrur in Ice
ervice for the c
E after influe

ansfer and M
s
t
formulas for
Smn
H
S
w
t
]
eland
calculated sect
ence lines h

the moment at
r the calculat

tions.
ave been
service.
tions that

where W
positive
centroid
M
S
at se
are show
omin
: mi
omax
: ma
Smin
: mi
Smax
: ma
In table
And fina
Note th
negative
The foll
the Mag
Des
W is the secti
value, A is
d is positive a
ervice), see t
wn in append
inimum perm
aximum perm
inimum perm
aximum perm
5-3 the num
ally the resul
at for these
e.
lowing four
gnel diagrams
ign of a 170
o
tmux
= lc
o
bmn
= gr
o
tmux
= lc
on modulus
area of the
and below ne
able 5-2. Sag
dix B. The no
missible stres
missible stre
missible stres
missible stre
erical values
lts for these t
Table
calculations
inequalities
s:
1
P
m long bridg
csscr o _p
rcotcr o _
csscr o _p
(I/y). W
b
is a
e cross-sectio
egative) and
g moments a
otation for pe
ss at transfer.
ss at transfer
ss at service.
ss at service
s for these pe
Table 5-
top and botto
5-4: Maximum
s compressiv
are used to
1
P
o
tmn
1
A
ge over the f
44
p
0mux
H
0
w
]
_p
0mn
H
0
w
b
p
0mux
H
0
w
b
]
at bottom an
on, e is the
M are applie
are positive
ermissible str
.
r.
.
ermissible str
-3: Permissible
om stresses a
m stresses at to
ve stresses
determine th
+
c
w
t
I
fjord orskaf
] onJ
1
p
_p
S
] onJ
1
p
_p
] onJ
1
p
_p
S
nd is a negati
eccentricity
ed moments
and hog mom
resses in thes
resses are giv
e stresses.
are listed in t
op and bottom
are consider
he feasible z
Incquolity
fjrur in Ice
Smux
H
S
w
t
]
Smn
H
S
w
b
]
Smux
H
S
w
b
]
ive value and
of prestress
(M
0
is the m
ments are ne
se equations
ven.

table 5-4.
fibers.
red positive
zone for the p
1
eland
d W
t
is at top
s tendons (a
oment at tran
egative. Thes
is the follow
and tensile
prestressing
p and is a
above the
nsfer and
se values
wing:
e stresses
force on

45

1
A
+
c
w
t
1
P
o
tmux
Incquolity 2
1
P
o
bmn
1
A
+
c
w
b
Incquolity S
1
A
+
c
w
b
1
P
o
bmux
Incquolity 4
These inequalities represent half-planes bounded by the line on which the stress limits are just
satisfied. To determine which half-plane represents the inequality, the origin of the Magnel diagram is
substituted into inequality 1, 1/P=0 and e=0, and gives the following:
u
1
A
Incquolity 1
If this is true (A is positive), the correct half-plane is the one containing the origin and the same
procedure is done for the three remaining inequalities.
1
A
u Incquolity 2
u
1
A
Incquolity S
1
A
u Incquolity 4
Thus, for inequality 1 the half-plane contains the origin, for inequality 2 it doesnt, for inequality 3 the
half-plane contains the origin and for inequality 4 it doesnt. For further information see appendix B
and OBrien (1999).
After some calculation the Magnel diagrams are established (Appendix B) and the appropriate
prestress force and eccentricity are chosen. The chosen prestress force is 46.512 kN (1/P=2.15 x 10
-8

N
-1
) which is based on the maximum allowable eccentricity that is at supports B and C. That requires
approximately 8 tendons each with a breaking load of 7812 kN. The eccentricity limits at each section
are given below, based on these Magnel diagrams.
Section at support A: -180 mm e 283.6 mm
Section at span 1: -210 mm e -410 mm
Section at support B: 200 mm e 283.6 mm
Section at span 2: -300 mm e -420 mm
Section at support C: 250 mm e 283.6 mm
On figure 5-3 is the longitudinal feasible zone and the cable layout displayed. That zone is based on
the calculations above.

Fig
On figur
5.2.6
The effe
the leng
transfer
losses c
occur pr
and loss
The pre-

The pos

Des
gure 5-3: Longi
re 5-4 the ch
Prestress
ective prestre
gth of the m
and service
an be divide
rior to the po
ses which occ
-transfer loss
Elastic shor
Friction betw
st-transfer lo
Time depend
the concrete
Loss due to
tension).
ign of a 170
itudinal feasib
osen eccentr
Figu
losses
ess force is n
member. Ther
e, the losses
ed into two
oint in time
cur after the
ses consist of
rtening of the
ween the ten
sses consist
dent losses,
.
slippage of
m long bridg
ble zone of the c
ricities are di
ure 5-4: Chose
not generally
refore, in or
in prestress
groups in ac
when stress
prestress is
f:
e cross-sectio
ndons and the
of:
which are fr
the tendons
ge over the f
46
cable (the beam
isplayed.
n eccentricitie
equal to the
rder to deter
s must first
ccordance w
is first felt b
transferred t
on.
e surroundin
rom relaxatio
at the ancho
fjord orskaf
m size has the
s for the cable
e applied jack
rmine the eff
be calculate
with the time
by the concr
to the concre
g ducts (in c
on of the ste
orage known
fjrur in Ice
scale of 10 in v
line.
king force no
ffective stres
ed at each d
when they
rete are calle
ete are called
ase of post-t
el and by cr
n as draw-in
eland

vertical directi
or is it consta
s due to pre
design sectio
occur. Losse
ed pre-transf
d post-transfe
tension).
reep and shri
loss (in case
ion).

ant along
estress at
n. These
es which
fer losses
er losses.
inkage of
e of post-

5.2.6.1
The loss

The frict
where
section
friction
used:
where y
horizont
The frict
k is a wo
supports
system t
to sectio
The resu
Des
Friction l
s of prestress
Friction due
Friction due
tion loss at s
is a friction
i and n is t
coefficient a
y
i
is the ver
tal distance b
Figure 5-5:
tion loss at s
obble coeffic
s, the degree
the producer
on number i.
ults of the ca
ign of a 170
losses
s force from f
to curvature
to unintentio
section i due
cur
coefficient a
the total num
as =0.2. To
rtical change
between the c
Sections of the
section i due
w
cient which
of vibration
r recommend
Hence, the t
totol
lculated frict
m long bridg
friction is ca
e of the tendo
onal variatio
to curvature
r:oturc los
and
i
is the a
mber of sect
calculate th
e in height
correspondin
e beam for calc
to wobble is
wobblc loss
depends on t
n used in plac
ds k=0.0008
otal friction
riction los
tion losses ar
ge over the f
47
aused by two
on
on of the duct
is:
ss
= P
]uck
(
aggregate ch
tions. The sy
e angle chan
0
= 2(
y
)
between the
ng sections. T
culations of fri
s:
= P
]uck
(1
the quality o
cing the conc
m
-1
. The term
loss become
ss
= P
]uck
(1
re displayed
fjord orskaf
sources:
t from its pre
(1 c
-
n
i=1
hange in slop
ystem produ
nges at each
e sections th
These section
iction losses an
c
-k x
n
i=1
of workmans
crete and the
m x
i
is the d
es:
1 c
-
n
i=1
in table 5-5.
fjrur in Ice
escribed prof
0
i 1
)
pe in radians
ucer recomm
section the f
hat are calc
ns are display
nd elastic short
x
i
)
ship, the dist
e type of the
distance (in m
(0+kx)
)

eland
file or wobb
between the
mends a valu
following eq
culated and
yed on figur

tening losses.
ance betwee
duct. For th
meters) from
ble.
jack and
ue of the
quation is
x
i
is the
e 5-5.
en tendon
he chosen
m the jack

5.2.6.2
As the p
cause a
shortenin
tendon t
tendon t
where in
eccentric
shortenin
5.2.6.3
After ja
anchorag
the anch
Des
Elastic sh
prestress is t
slackening o
ng in each
that is releas
that is release
cls
ndex 1 and
city respecti
ng loss for th
Draw-in l
cking the te
ges to the co
hors. The dr
ign of a 170
hortening l
transferred t
of the strand
tendon of p
sed first and
ed first is:
sostic sor
2 indicate t
ively. A
g
is
he whole cab
losses
endons are re
oncrete. This
raw-in of the
m long bridg
Table
losses
to the concr
d which resu
post-tensione
then less in
tcning loss
endon 1 and
the area of
ble group in o
Table 5-6:
eleased from
process resu
e tendons res
ge over the f
48
e 5-5: Friction
ete, the con
ults in a loss
ed members
n the next on
s in tcnJon
d 2 respectiv
f the cross-se
one girder ar
Elastic shorte
m the jacks a
ults in a loss
sults in a los
fjord orskaf
losses.
crete underg
s of prestress
are differen
ne and etc. T
1 = P
2
A
p1
E
E
vely. P and
ection. The
re displayed
ening losses.
and the forc
due to slipp
ss of strain o
fjrur in Ice
goes elastic
s force. The
nt. The max
The elastic s
E
p
E
c
_
1
A
g
+
c
1
c
I
g
e are the pr
results of t
in table 5-6.

e is applied
page or draw
f
jack
at the a
eland
shortening.
losses due t
ximum loss
shortening lo
c
2
g
_
restressing f
the calculate
directly thr
w-in of the s
anchorage. H
This can
to elastic
is in the
oss in the
force and
ed elastic
ough the
strands at
However,


49

because of friction, this loss decreases along the length of the member to zero at a distance L
d
from the
jack. The extent of draw-in losses is determined with the following equation:
I
d
= _
s
E
p
A
p
(P
]uck
P
L
)I

where (P
jack
-P
L
)/L is the slope of the distribution of prestress force if the friction loss is assumed to
vary linearly.
s
is the total shortening of the tendon. The magnitude of the draw-in loss at the
anchorage is then given by the following equation:
P = 2
(P
]uck
P
L
)
I
I

where P is the draw-in loss. The distribution of the prestress force after the draw-in loss is displayed
in figure 5-6 where the decrease of this loss along the length of the member becomes zero at distance
L
d
approximately 15 m from the jack.

Figure 5-6: Distribution of the prestress force after the draw-in loss for half of the total span.
5.2.6.4 Time-dependent losses
Losses in prestress which occur gradually over time are caused by shortening of the concrete due to
creep and shrinkage and due to relaxation of the prestressing steel. Shrinkage is a time-dependent
strain which occurs as the concrete sets and for a period after setting. The shrinkage strain approaches
final value at infinite time. When maintained at a constant tensile strain, steel gradually loses its stress
with time due to relaxation. The extent of the loss of stress in prestressing strands due to relaxation is
determined by the stress to which the steel is tensioned, the ambient temperature and the class of steel.
Maximum allowable value for relaxation losses of the prestressing steel are specified by the
manufacturer as 2.5% for 15 mm strands. To determine the loss EC2 suggests that it should be based
on the 1000 hour values given in figure 5-7. These values should be trebled to determine the final
relaxation losses.
0, 46512
85, 40830
0, 43270
24, 44891
40000
45000
50000
0 20 40 60 80
P

[
k
N
]
x [m]
Draw-in loss
Prestress due
to friction loss
Draw-in loss

The phe
relaxatio
occurs a
the conc
EC2 rec
followin
where

The fina
autogeno
author r
Des
enomenon o
on refers to t
at constant st
crete.
commends th
ng formula:
p,tot
= loss
cs
= final sh
of this strain
E
p
= modulu
p,r
= loss o
m = modular
= final cre
c
= stress in
A
p
= area of
A
g
, I
g
= gros
e = eccentric
al shrinkage
ous shrinkag
efers to sect
ign of a 170
F
of creep is
the loss of st
tress. For pre
hat these two
o
p
of stress in s
hrinkage stra
n is
cs
=0.000
us of elasticit
of stress in th
r ratio, E
p
/E
c
eep coefficien
n the concret
prestressing
s area and se
city of tendo
strain is com
ge strain,
ca
.
tion 3.1.4 (6)
m long bridg
Figure 5-7: Re
essentially t
tress under c
estressed con
o prestress lo
p,tot
=
1 +
m
steel due to c
ain calculated
0256.
ty of the pres
he tendons at
c
.
nt taken from
te at the level
g steel.
econd mome
ns from cent
mposed of tw
For detailed
) in EC2. Th
ge over the f
50
elaxation of pre
the same as
constant strai
ncrete, relaxa
osses, creep
e
cs
E
p
+ o
mA
p
A
g
_1 +
A
g
I
creep, shrink
d according
stressing stee
t the design s
m table 5-1.
l of the tendo
nt of area of
troid section.
wo compone
d explanation
he loss of str
fjord orskaf
estressing steel
s that of rel
in while cree
ation occurs
and shrinkag
o
p,
mo
c
g
c
2
I
g
_(1 + u.
kage and rela
to section 3.
el.
section due to
ons due to pe
f section.
.
ents, the dry
ns of calcula
ress in the te
fjrur in Ice
l.
laxation. Th
ep is the inc
in the steel w
ge, should b
.8)

xation.
.1.4 (6) in E
o relaxation.
ermanent loa
ying shrinkag
ations of the
endons due t
eland

he distinction
rease of stra
while creep o
e calculated
C2. Calculat

ads plus prest
ge strain,
cd
final shrinka
to relaxation
n is that
ain which
occurs in
with the
ted value
tress.
, and the
age strain
,
p.r
, is

derived
the secti
and the l
The stre
calculate
Followin
From th
then be c
5.2.7
For stat
moment
eccentric
during p
displace
The equ
paraboli
M
1
=Pe.
maximu
Since th
paraboli
Applicat
Des
from figure
ion that is ca
loss of stress
ess,
c
, in th
ed using the
ng these calc
ese results a
calculated. T
Secondary
ically indete
t and second
city, the seco
prestressing.
ement method
uivalent load
ic tendon pro
If an equiva
um moment a
he equation
ic, the mome
tion of this e
ign of a 170
5-7 with the
lculated as:
s in the tendo
he concrete
following eq
culations the
and from the
The results of
y effects of
erminate stru
dary momen
ondary mom
To determi
d and equiva
is a uniform
ofile. The be
alent uniform
at mid-span i
of the bend
ents must be
equation at th
m long bridg
e ratio of stee
o
p
ons due to re
o
p,
= S
at the leve
quation:
o
c
=
e total time-d
calculations
f the calculat
Table 5-7
f prestress
uctures the p
nt. The prim
ent is mome
ne the secon
alent load me
mly distribute
ending mome
m upward loa
is equal to:
ding momen
equal in the
he mid-span g
ge over the f
51
el stress/char
=
P
A
p
+
E
p
E
c
H
laxation as:
rcloxotion
el of tendon
P
A
g
+
(Pc +
I
g
dependent lo
s of the draw
ted time-dep
: Time-depend

prestress mo
mary momen
nt caused by
ndary mome
ethod. In this
ed load estab
ent at any po
ad, w, is ass
H
2
=
wI
2
8
nt for unifor
two beams a
H
1
= H
2
gives
fjord orskaf
racteristic ten
H
s
c
I
g

n loss
P
A
p
ns due to pe
+ H
s
)c
g

oss of stress
w-in losses th
endent losse
dent losses.
oment consis
nt is the pr
y reactions de
ent there are
s thesis the e
blished by c
oint due to th
sumed to act
rmly loaded
at any point.
fjrur in Ice
nsile strength
ermanent loa
in the tendon
he applied pr
es are display
sts of two c
oduct of pr
eveloped at i
e two comm
quivalent loa
onsidering a
his prestress
on the beam
simply sup
Thus
eland
h as (
p
/f
pk
) w
ads plus pre
ns can be ca
estress at ser
yed in table 5
components,
restressing fo
intermediate
on methods;
ad method is
a simple beam
ing force is
m, see figure
pported beam
with
p
at
estress is
alculated.
rvice can
5-7.
primary
force and
supports
; support
s applied.
m with a
given by
e 5-8, the
m is also

and
where e
In the ca
e is the
cable, se
Thus, th
To deter
is used.

Des
is the distan
ase when the
eccentricity
ee figure 5-9
he eccentricit
rmine the mo
The calculat
Draw a free
Label the sp
Use the thre
Move one sp
ign of a 170
nce from the c
Figure 5-8:
e vertical pos
at mid span
.
Figure 5-9: D
ty becomes:
oment at the
tion procedur
body diagram
pans L
1
and L
e-moment eq
pan further a
m long bridg
cable to the e
Calculation of
sition of the c
n from the c
Determination
c
intermediate
re of the thre
m of the firs
L
2
and the sup
quation to so
and repeat the
ge over the f
52
Pc =
wI
2
8
w =
8Pc
I
2
eccentricity o
f the equivalen
cables at sup
cable to the
n of e for cable
= c
3
+
c
1
+
2
e supports the
ee-moment e
t two spans.
pports A, B a
olve the unkn
e procedure a
fjord orskaf
of the beam
nt load for curv
pports is not t
line that con
with eccentric
c
2

e three-mom
quation is in
and C.
nown momen
above.
fjrur in Ice
at mid-span.
ved tendons.
the same at t
nnects these
city e
1
and e
2
.
ment equation
n the followin
nts.
eland
.

two adjacent
two position

n (Clapeyron
ng order:
supports
ns of the
ns theory)

In this c
M
A
, M
B
a
The nota
The term
with uni
In table
moment
More de
Des
Repeat as n
equations.
Solve 3 simu
case these mo
and M
C
. The
ation for the
ms on the rig
iformly distri
5-8 the calc
t diagrams fo
etailed calcul
ign of a 170
needed, alwa
ultaneous eq
oment equati
ey are the fol
H
A
I
1
+
H
B
I
2
+
H
C
I
3
+
formulas abo
Figure 5-10: N
ght hand side
ibuted load o
culated value
or the corresp
lations to obt
m long bridg
ays moving o
quations for 4
ions are thre
lowing:
2H
B
(I
1
+I
2H
C
(I
2
+ I
2H
(I
3
+ I
ove is displa
Notation for ca
of these equ
on span no. n
E
es for w and
ponding mom
tain the secon
Table 5
ge over the f
53
one span to
4 spans to get
e since there
I
2
) + H
C
I
2
I
3
) + H
I
3
I
4
) + H
L
I
4
ayed on figur
lculations with
uations are ac
n:
EI0
n
=
w
n
I
24
d the prestres
ments. The s
ndary mome
5-8: Prestress m
fjord orskaf
the right an
t the internal
e are four spa
= 6(EI0
1
= 6(EI0
2
= 6(EI0
3
re 5-10.
h the three-mo
cquired with
n
3

ss moments
econdary mo
ent are in app
moment.
fjrur in Ice
nd writing a
l moments.
ans and three
+ EI0
2
)
+ EI0
3
)
+ EI0
4
)
ment equation
h the followin
are listed an
oment is line
pendix B.
eland
new set of
e unknown m
n.
ng formula fo
nd on figure
ear between s

f moment
moments,
for beams
5-11 the
supports.

When th
calculate

Des
he total mo
ed. That is do
ign of a 170
Figure 5
oment has b
one in the ne
m long bridg
5-11: Diagrams
been obtaine
ext chapter.

ge over the f
54
s of primary an
ed in the be
fjord orskaf
nd secondary m
eam, the ult
fjrur in Ice
moments.
timate mom
eland
ment capacityy can be


55

5.3 Ultimate moment capacity
When the member has been designed to satisfy the transfer and service stress limits it is necessary to
check for moment capacity in the ultimate limit state. As for ordinary reinforced concrete, the ultimate
moment capacity of a prestressed section is calculated by equilibrium of forces at the corresponding
section. The compressive strain in the concrete due to prestress,
ce
, at the level of the prestressing
tendon is given with the following formula:
e
cc
=
1
E
c
_
P
A
g
+
H
p
c
I
g
_
where M
p
is the moment due to prestress and P is the prestress force, both after all losses, at the
section that is calculated. The tendon strain is defined as (contraction positive):
e
pu
=
P
A
p
E
p
+e
ct
e
cc

where A
p
is the area of the prestress reinforcement and E
p
is its modulus of elasticity.
ct
is the total
ultimate strain in the concrete and is found with the following equation:
e
ct
=
e
uIt
(J x)
x

EC2 recommends that
ult
should be taken as 0.0035. Here d is the effective depth, distance from
extreme fibre in compression to the center of tension reinforcement, and x is the distance from
extreme fibre in compression to neutral axis. To calculate the equilibrium of forces the force in the
steel, F
p
, and the compressive force acting on the concrete in compression, F
c
, are required:
F
p
= A
p
(E
p
e
pu
)
F
c
= u.8xb
o
ck
y
c

Here b is the width of the section which F
c
is acting on. is a coefficient which takes into account the
long-term effects on the compressive strength and is 1.0.
c
is the partial safety factor for concrete
strength and is equal to 1.5 according to EC2. Now the following equation for equilibrium of forces is
established and solved to find x:
F
p
+F
c
= u
When x is found a check is made to see if the steel has yielded by substituting x into the equation for
the tendon strain defined above. The initial yield strain for prestressing steel is
pk
y
p
E
p
where
p
is
the partial safety factor for reinforcement strength and is equal to 1.15 according to EC2.
pu
cannot
exceed the initial strain, otherwise the steel has yielded. Finally the ultimate moment capacity can be
determined with the following formula:
H
uIt
= F
p
z = F
c
z
with z as:
z = (J u.4x)

In appen
are the b
Tab
Finally,

Des
ndix B are de
bending mom
ble 5-9: Total d
the cross-sec
ign of a 170
etailed calcu
ments in ULS
design moment
ction with th
Fi
m long bridg
ulations of the
S with prestre
t in the ULS w
he cable eleva
igure 5-12: Cro

ge over the f
56
e moment ca
ess and the m
ith prestress (M
ation is displ
oss-section and
fjord orskaf
apacity of ea
moment capa

M
total
) and the
layed for eac
d cable elevatio
fjrur in Ice
ach section d
acity summar
ultimate mom
ch section in
on.
eland
isplayed. In
rized for eac
ent capacity (M
figure 5-12.
table 5-9
h section.
M
ult
).


57

6 References
6.1 Literature
Austin, W.J., (1971), IN-PLANE BENDING AND BUCKLING OF ARCHES, Journal of the
Structural Division, May 1971, pp. 1575-1591.
Bunner, M. and Wright, K., (2006), Selecting the Shape of a Steel Arch, Bridgeline, Volume 15, NO.
1, April 2006.
Chen, W. and Duan, L., (2000), Bridge Engineering Handbook, CRC Press LLC, Florida.
EN 1990:2002. Eurocode - Basis of Structural Design. CEN, 2002.
EN 1991:2002. Eurocode - Actions on Structures. CEN, 2002.
EN 1992:2004. Eurocode Design of Concrete Structures. CEN, 2004.
EN 1993:1992. Eurocode Design of Steel Structures. CEN, 1992.
Ghoneim, M. and El-Mihilmy, M., (2008), Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Vol. 3, Cairo
University, Cairo.
Gilbert, R. I., and Mickleborough, N. C., (2004), Design of Prestressed Concrete, Spon Press,
London.
ISE manual, (1985), I. Struct. E./ICE Joint committee, Manual for the Design of Reinforced
Concrete Building Structures, Institution of Structural Engineers, London.
Loretsen, M. and Sundquist, H., (1995), Bgkonstruktioner, KTH.
Loretsen, M. and Sundquist, H., (1995), Hngkonstruktioner, KTH.
Menn, C., (1986), Prestressed Concrete Bridges, Springer-Verlag, Wien.
Nawy, E. G., (2008), Concrete Construction Engineering Handbook, 2
nd
edition, CRC Press LLC,
Florida.
OBrien, E. J. and Dixon, A. S., (1999). Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Design, Pearson
Education Limited, Edinburgh.
Prestress Manual, (2005), State of California, Department of Transportation, Engineering Services.
Thelandersson, S., (2009), Design of bridges Structural design project, Lund University,
Structural engineering.
Zhuan M. Q. and Guo. X. J., (1998), PE Shelled Large Pitch Twisted Stay Cable, For Construction
Use, Shanghai PuJiang Cable Co. Ltd. Shanghai.

58

6.2 Computer programs
AutoCAD 2009, Autodesk.
CSI SAP2000, version 14, Computers & Structures.
Microsoft Office Excel 2007, Microsoft.
Microsoft Office Word 2007, Microsoft.
PCFrame, version 2.15, AEC AB.
6.3 Other references
Hafliason, E. (2010), personal communication with Hafliason at ICERA.
Earthquake Engineering Research Centre, University of Iceland.
VSL Post-Tensioning Systems, Technical Data, (2010), VSL International Ltd.
http://www.ingvason.com/
Appendix A
Appendix A
59
Q
1k
= 300
Q1
= 0,9
Q1
Q
1k
= 270 kN
Q
2k
= 200
Q2
= 0,9
Q2
Q
2k
= 180 kN
q
1k
= 9
q1
= 1
q1
q
1k
= 9
kN/m
2
q
2k
= 2,5
q2
= 1
q2
q
2k
= 2,5
kN/m
2
q
3k
= 2,5
q3
= 1
q3
q
3k
= 2,5
kN/m
2
F z M q l z M
ForQ Forq
CALCULATIONSOFGDFFORBRIDGETYPE1
F z M q l z M
R
A
5,6 R
A
x 5,6 R
A
x
135 6,8 918 9 3 5,8 156,6
135 4,8 648 2,5 3 2,8 21
90 3,8 342 2,5 3 0,2 1,5
90 1,8 162 M= 176,1
M= 2070 R
A
= 31,45
R
A
=
369,64
GDF
q
=
1,16
GDF
Q
=
1,37
R
B
=
10,55
R
B
= 80,36
Totalactionsonhalfofthecrosssectionfortrafficloadsinthelengthdirection
1012 kN
37 kN/m q=GDF
q
*R
A
=
R
A
Q=2*GDF
Q
*R
A
=
Appendix A
60
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
x
nr. mm mm mm
2
mm mm
3
mm mm
4
mm
4
mm
4
1 1080 2400 2592000 1200 3,11E+09 431,1 1,24E+12 4,82E+11 1,73E+12
2 1080 2400 2592000 1200 3,11E+09 431,1 1,24E+12 4,82E+11 1,73E+12
3 10000 250 2500000 2525 6,31E+09 893,9 1,30E+10 2,00E+12 2,01E+12
7684000 1,25E+10 5,46E+12
y= 1631,1 mm W
Top
= mm
3
h= 2650 mm W
Bottom
= mm
3
u= 30100 mm
2A/u= 511 mm
= 1,54
E
c,eff
= 14175
N/mm
2
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
x
nr. mm mm mm
2
mm mm
3
mm mm
4
mm
4
mm
4
1 5000 250 1250000 2525 3,16E+09 893,9 6,51E+09 9,99E+11 1,01E+12
2 1080 2400 2592000 1200 3,11E+09 431,1 1,24E+12 4,82E+11 1,73E+12
3842000 6,27E+09 2,73E+12
y= 1631,1 mm W
Top
= 2,68E+09
mm
3
h= 2650 mm W
Bottom
= 1,67E+09
mm
3
InthemiddleofthespanHalfcrosssection
Inthemiddleofthespan
5,36E+09
3,35E+09
Perimeter:
Notionalsize:
Creepcoefficient:
Effectiveelasticmodulus:
CreepEffectiveelasticmodulus
Note:Allcrosssectioncalculationsaredonefromthebottomfibre
CalculationsforArea,MomentofInertiaandSectionModulusforBridgeType1
Appendix A
61
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
x
nr. mm mm mm
2
mm mm
3
mm mm
4
mm
4
mm
4
1 1380 2400 3312000 1200 3,97E+09 363,1 1,59E+12 4,36548E+11 2,03E+12
2 1380 2400 3312000 1200 3,97E+09 363,1 1,59E+12 4,36548E+11 2,03E+12
3 10000 250 2500000 2525 6,31E+09 961,9 1,30E+10 2,31335E+12 2,33E+12
9124000 1,43E+10 6,38E+12
y= 1563,1 mm W
Top
= 5,87E+09
mm
3
h= 2650 mm W
Bottom
= 4,08E+09
mm
3
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
x
nr. mm mm mm
2
mm mm
3
mm mm
4
mm
4
mm
4
1 5000 250 1250000 2525 3,16E+09 961,9 6,51E+09 1,16E+12 1,16E+12
2 1380 2400 3312000 1200 3,97E+09 363,1 1,59E+12 4,37E+11 2,03E+12
4562000 7,13E+09 3,19E+12
y= 1563,1 mm W
Top
= 2,51E+09
mm
3
h= 2650 mm W
Bottom
= 2,04E+09
mm
3
u= 30100 mm
2A/u= 606 mm
= 1,50
E
c,eff
= 14416
N/mm
2
A W
,Top
W
,Bottom
I Weight
mm
2
mm
3
mm
3
mm
4
kN/m
7684000 5,36E+09 3,35E+09 5,46E+12 192,1
3842000 2,68E+09 1,67E+09 2,73E+12 96,05
9124000 5,87E+09 4,08E+09 6,38E+12 228,1
4562000 2,51E+09 2,04E+09 3,19E+12 114,05
25
kN/m
3
2,1
kN/m
2
Selfweightofconcreteforhalfofthebridgesection
96,1 kN/m
10,5 kN/m
106,6 kN/m
36000
N/mm
2
IntheMiddleoftheSpan
Overasupport
Overasupport
Summary
E
c
=
Perimeter:
Notionalsize:
Creepcoefficient:
Effectiveelasticmodulus:
CreepEffectiveelasticmodulus
OverasupportHalfcrosssection
Overasupporthalf
InthemiddleoftheSpanhalf
concrete
=
pavement
=
g
concrete
=
g
pavement
=
g
tot
=
Appendix A
62
Q
1k
= 300
Q1
= 0,9
Q1
Q
1k
= 270 kN
Q
2k
= 200
Q2
= 0,9
Q2
Q
2k
= 180 kN
q
1k
= 9
q1
= 1
q1
q
1k
= 9
kN/m
2
q
2k
= 2,5
q2
= 1
q2
q
2k
= 2,5
kN/m
2
q
3k
= 2,5
q3
= 1
q3
q
3k
= 2,5
kN/m
2
F z M q l z M
ForQ Forq
F z M q l z M
R
A
10 R
A
x 10 R
A
x
135 9 1215 9 3 8 216
135 7 945 2,5 3 5 37,5
90 6 540 2,5 3 2 15
90 4 360 M 268,5
M= 3060 R
A
26,85
R
A
=
306,00
GDF
q
=
0,99
GDF
Q
=
1,13
R
B
=
15,15
R
B
= 144,00
694 kN
27 kN/m q=GDF
q
*R
A
=
R
A
Q=2*GDF
Q
*R
A
=
Appendix A
63
R
e
l
e
v
a
n
t
d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
s
f
o
r
c
r
o
s
s
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
o
f
t
h
e
a
r
c
h
Appendix A
64
P
a
r
t
b
h
t
A
y
0
S
=
A
y
0
y
y
0
I
0
A
(
y
y
0
)
2
I
x
n
r
.
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
2
m
m
m
m
3
m
m
m
m
4
m
m
4
m
m
4
B
o
x
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
9
0
0
1
7
0
0
5
0
2
5
0
.
0
0
0
8
5
0
,
0
0
2
,
1
3
E
+
0
8
0
,
0
9
,
5
4
E
+
1
0
0
,
0
0
E
+
0
0
9
,
5
4
E
+
1
0
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
1
1
8
,
6
9
4
,
6
3
E
+
0
5
7
3
1
,
3
5
,
6
0
E
+
0
6
2
,
0
9
E
+
0
9
2
,
0
9
E
+
0
9
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
1
7
5
,
0
0
6
,
8
2
E
+
0
5
6
7
5
,
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
1
,
7
8
E
+
0
9
1
,
7
9
E
+
0
9
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
4
0
0
,
0
0
1
,
5
6
E
+
0
6
4
5
0
,
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
7
,
9
0
E
+
0
8
8
,
0
3
E
+
0
8
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
6
2
5
,
0
0
2
,
4
4
E
+
0
6
2
2
5
,
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
1
,
9
7
E
+
0
8
2
,
1
1
E
+
0
8
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
8
5
0
,
0
0
3
,
3
1
E
+
0
6
0
,
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
0
,
0
0
E
+
0
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
A
1
9
4
9
,
8
m
m
2
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
1
0
7
5
,
0
0
4
,
1
9
E
+
0
6
2
2
5
,
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
1
,
9
7
E
+
0
8
2
,
1
1
E
+
0
8
I
x
2
,
8
0
E
+
0
6
m
m
4
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
1
3
0
0
,
0
0
5
,
0
7
E
+
0
6
4
5
0
,
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
7
,
9
0
E
+
0
8
8
,
0
3
E
+
0
8
I
y
6
,
7
0
E
+
0
6
m
m
4
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
1
5
2
5
,
0
0
5
,
9
5
E
+
0
6
6
7
5
,
0
1
,
3
4
E
+
0
7
1
,
7
8
E
+
0
9
1
,
7
9
E
+
0
9
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
N
r
.
3
.
9
0
0
1
5
8
1
,
3
1
6
,
1
7
E
+
0
6
7
3
1
,
3
5
,
6
0
E
+
0
6
2
,
0
9
E
+
0
9
2
,
0
9
E
+
0
9
2
8
5
.
0
9
7
2
,
4
2
E
+
0
8
1
,
0
5
E
+
1
1
y
=
8
5
0
,
0
m
m
h
=
1
7
0
0
m
m
W
e
l
=
1
,
2
4
E
+
0
8
m
m
3
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
s
C
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
f
o
r
A
r
e
a
,
M
o
m
e
n
t
o
f
I
n
e
r
t
i
a
a
n
d
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
M
o
d
u
l
u
s
F
o
r
t
h
e
S
t
r
o
n
g
e
r
A
x
i
s
Appendix A
65
P
a
r
t
A
y
n
W
x
i
T
y
p
e
n
r
.
m
m
2
m
m
m
m
3
1
1
9
4
9
,
8
7
3
1
,
3
1
4
5
7
0
3
6
9
0
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
2
1
9
4
9
,
8
6
7
5
,
0
0
4
5
2
6
4
5
1
8
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
3
1
9
4
9
,
8
4
5
0
,
0
0
4
3
5
0
9
6
7
9
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
4
1
9
4
9
,
8
2
2
5
4
1
7
5
4
8
3
9
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
5
8
0
0
0
0
5
3
,
0
0
4
1
,
7
E
+
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7
S
t
i
f
f
e
n
e
r
6
4
5
0
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8
2
5
,
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0
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7
,
4
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+
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7
F
l
a
n
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e
7
8
0
0
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4
0
0
4
1
,
3
E
+
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8
W
e
b
2
,
3
5
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+
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E
N
V
1
9
9
3
1
5
.
4
.
5
a
n
d
5
.
4
.
5
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B
e
n
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M
o
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(
p
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e
6
5
)
5
.
4
.
4
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
(
(
1
)
a
n
d
(
2
)
)
(
p
a
g
e
6
5
)
M
s
d
=
1
5
8
7
5
k
N
m
1
0
9
0
1
k
N
a
)
D
e
s
i
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s
i
s
t
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n
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e
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o
m
p
r
e
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s
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y
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M
P
a
9
2
0
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9
k
N
a
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e
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s
e
c
t
i
o
n
m
o
d
u
l
u
s
o
f
t
h
e
s
e
c
t
i
o
n
W
x
p
l
=
N
S
d
=
N
p
l
.
R
d
=
.
S
d
c
R
d
M
M
p
l
,
R
d
p
l
y
M
0
M
=
W
f
/
.
S
d
c
R
d
N
N
.
0
/
p
l
R
d
y
M
N
A
f
=
2
p
l
,
R
d
.
1
M
S
d
S
d
p
l
R
d
M
N
N
y
3
5
5
M
P
a
9
0
0
9
k
N
M
0
=
1
,
1
M
p
l
.
R
d
=
7
5
9
8
4
k
N
m
5
.
4
.
8
.
1
B
e
n
d
i
n
g
a
n
d
a
x
i
a
l
f
o
r
c
e
D
e
s
i
g
n
1
5
8
7
5
O
K
!
0
,
2
2
1
0
9
0
1
O
K
!
0
,
2
1
0
,
2
2
O
K
!
@
1
/
4
o
f
a
r
c
h
:
@
c
e
n
t
e
r
o
f
a
r
c
h
:
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
[
k
N
]
B
e
n
d
i
n
g
[
k
N
m
]
C
o
m
b
i
n
e
d
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
7
5
9
8
4
9
2
0
0
9
1
,
0
0
N
p
l
.
R
d
.
S
d
c
R
d
M
M
p
l
,
R
d
p
l
y
M
0
M
=
W
f
/
.
S
d
c
R
d
N
N
.
0
/
p
l
R
d
y
M
N
A
f
=
2
p
l
,
R
d
.
1
M
S
d
S
d
p
l
R
d
M
N
N
Appendix A
66
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
y
[mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
4
] [mm
4
] [mm
4
]
TopFlange 300 40 12000 1160 1,39E+07 570 1,60E+06 3,90E+09 3,90E+09
Web 40 1100 44000 590 2,60E+07 0 4,44E+09 0,00E+00 4,44E+09
BottomFlange 300 40 12000 20 2,40E+05 570 1,60E+06 3,90E+09 3,90E+09
68000 4,01E+07 1,22E+10
y= 590 [mm]
h= 1180 [mm]
W
el
= 2,07E+07
[mm
3
]
Part y A W
pl
2 3
5.4RestistanceofcrosssectionsinEC3
MaingirdersBridgetype2
[mm] [mm
2
] [mm
3
]
TopFlange 570 12000 6,84E+06
M0
= 1,1 f
y
= 355 MPa
Web1 275 22000 6,05E+06
Web2 275 22000 6,05E+06
BottomFlange 570 12000 6,84E+06
2,58E+07 Where
44000
mm
2
M
Sd,max
=
7241 kNm
0,81
V
Sd,max
=
2087 kN
d 1100
t
w
40
0,5 8320 kNm OK!
d/t
w
27,5 8198 kN OK!
Class Class1 d/tw33 Noreductionneeded!
c 150
t
f
40
c/tf 3,75
Class Class1 c/tf9
Designvalues:
W
e
b
F
l
a
n
g
e
CrossSectionClass,table5.3.1inEC3
W
pl
=
Combined
Providedthatthedesignvalueoftheshearforce
V
sd
doesnotexceed50%ofthedesignplastic
shearresistanceV
pl.Rd
noreductionneedbe
made
Shear
Moment
Resistance:
Sheararea:A
v
=(dt
w
)=
. Sd c Rd
M M
. Sd pl Rd
V V
. 0
( / 3) /
Sd pl Rd v y M
V V A f =
Appendix A
67
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
y
[mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
4
] [mm
4
] [mm
4
]
TopFlange 200 30 6000 845 5,07E+06 415 4,50E+05 1,03E+09 1,03E+09
Web 30 800 24000 430 1,03E+07 0 1,28E+09 0,00E+00 1,28E+09
36000 1,55E+07 3,35E+09
y= 430 [mm]
h= 860 [mm]
W
el
= 7,79E+06
[mm
3
]
Part y A W
pl
CrossbeamsBridgetype2
[mm] [mm
2
] [mm
3
]
TopFlange 415 6000 2,49E+06
M0
= 1,1 f
y
= 355 MPa
Web1 200 12000 2,40E+06
Web2 200 12000 2,40E+06
9,78E+06 Where
24000 mm
2
M
Sd,max
=
3025 kNm
0,81
V
Sd,max
=
1359 kN
d 800
t
w
30
0,5 3156 kNm OK!
d/t
w
26,67 4472 kN OK!
Class Class1 Noreductionneeded!
c 100
t
f
30
c/tf 3,333
Class Class1
Designvalues:
W
pl
=
Moment
Shear
Combined
Resistance:
V
sd
shearresistanceV
pl.Rd
noreductionneedbe
made
F
l
a
n
g
e
W
e
b
CrossSectionClass,table5.3.1inEC3
Sheararea:A
v
=(dt
w
)=
. Sd c Rd
M M
. Sd pl Rd
V V
. 0
( / 3) /
Sd pl Rd v y M
V V A f =
Appendix A
68
Q
1k
= 300
Q1
= 0,9
Q1
Q
1k
= 270 kN
Q
2k
= 200
Q2
= 0,9
Q2
Q
2k
= 180 kN
q
1k
= 9
q1
= 1
q1
q
1k
= 9
kN/m
2
q
2k
= 2,5
q2
= 1
q2
q
2k
= 2,5
kN/m
2
q
3k
= 2,5
q3
= 1
q3
q
3k
= 2,5
kN/m
2
F z M q l z M
ForQ Forq
F z M q l z M
R
A
10 R
A
x 10 R
A
x
135 9 1215 9 3 8 216
135 7 945 2,5 3 5 37,5
90 6 540 2,5 3 2 15
90 4 360 M 268,5
M= 3060 R
A
26,85
R
A
=
306,00
GDF
q
=
0,99
GDF
Q
=
1,13
R
B
=
15,15
R
B
= 144,00
694 kN
27 kN/m
Q=2*GDF
Q
*R
A
=
q=GDF
q
*R
A
=
R
A
Appendix A
69
M
max
V
max
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
y
[mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
4
] [mm
4
] [mm
4
]
TopFlange 300 30 9000 845 7,61E+06 415 6,75E+05 1,55E+09 1,55E+09
Web 30 800 24000 430 1,03E+07 0 1,28E+09 0,00E+00 1,28E+09
42000 1,81E+07 4,38E+09
y= 430 [mm]
h= 860 [mm]
W
el
= 1,02E+07
[mm
3
]
Part y A W
pl
CrossbeamsBridgetype3
Part y A W
pl
[mm] [mm
2
] [mm
3
]
TopFlange 415 9000 3,74E+06
M0
= 1,1 f
y
= 355 MPa
Web1 200 12000 2,40E+06
Web2 200 12000 2,40E+06
1,23E+07 Where
24000 mm
2
CrossSectionClass
M
Sd,max
=
3237 kNm
0,81
V
Sd,max
=
672 kN
d 800
t
w
30
0,5 3960 kNm OK!
d/t
w
26,67 4472 kN OK!
Class Class1 d/tw33 Noreductionneeded!
c 150
t
f
30
c/tf 5
Class Class1 c/tf9
5.4Restistanceofcross sectionsinEC3
ProvidedthatthedesignvalueoftheshearforceV
sd
doesnotexceed50%ofthedesignplasticshear
resistanceV
pl.Rd
noreductionneedbemade
Moment
Shear
Combined
Resistance:
Designvalues:
W
e
b
Sheararea:A
v
=(dt
w
)=
F
l
a
n
g
e
W
pl
=
. Sd c Rd
M M
. Sd pl Rd
V V
. 0
( / 3) /
Sd pl Rd v y M
V V A f =
Appendix A
70
Part b h A y
0
S=Ay
0
yy
0
I
0
A(yy
0
)
2
I
y
[mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
2
] [mm] [mm
4
] [mm
4
] [mm
4
]
TopFlange 400 30 12000 1185 1,42E+07 585 9,00E+05 4,11E+09 4,11E+09
Web 30 1140 34200 600 2,05E+07 0 3,70E+09 0,00E+00 3,70E+09
58200 3,49E+07 1,19E+10
y= 600 [mm]
h= 1200 [mm]
W
el
= 1,99E+07
[mm
3
]
Part y A W
pl
MaingirderBridgetype3
[mm] [mm
2
] [mm
3
]
TopFlange 585 12000 7,02E+06
M0
= 1,1 f
y
= 355 MPa
Web1 285 17100 4,87E+06
Web2 285 17100 4,87E+06
2,38E+07 Where
34200 mm
2
M
Sd,max
=
7311 kNm
0,81
V
Sd,max
=
1247 kN
d 1140
t
w
30
0,5 7677 kNm OK!
d/t
w
38 6372 kN OK!
Class Class1 d/tw33 Combined Noreductionneeded!
c 200
t
f
30
c/tf 6,67
Class Class1 c/tf9
V
sd
shearresistanceV
pl.Rd
noreductionneedbemade
W
pl
=
Designvalues:
Sheararea:A
v
=(dt
w
)=
Resistance
Moment
Shear
W
e
b
F
l
a
n
g
e
CrossSectionClass
. Sd c Rd
M M
. Sd pl Rd
V V
. 0
( / 3) /
Sd pl Rd v y M
V V A f =
Appendix A
71
Column
t
x L l
t
y B b
mm 300 1500 900 300 2300 1700
A 1920000
mm
2
Reinforcement
Cover x (Pcs.) Sox y (Pcs.) Soy x (Pcs.) Sox y (Pcs.) Soy
mm 50 18 80,9 26 80,6 13 85,4 21 83,0
Outside Bars Inside Bars
3000
CrossSection
ReshapeChartforRightScaling
1500
2000
2500
3000
CrossSection
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
CrossSection
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
CrossSection
Appendix A
72
Materials
Safety Class 3

n 1,2
Concrete C40/50
Outside Bars 1 25 A
slo
490,9
mm
2
/Bar
2
Inside Bars 1 25 A
slo
490,9
mm
2
/Bar
Stirrups 2 10 A
sv
78,5
mm
2
/Bar
Creep, RH % 95 1
Reinforcement #
Ks40 1 55
Ks60 2 Normalt utomhus samt inomhus i icke
Creep, RH %
Innomhus i uppvrmde lokaler
Ks60 2
Ss260S 3
B500B 4 95
Ks600S 5
Ns500 6
Nps500 7
Mycket fuktig milj
75
Normalt utomhus samt inomhus i icke
uppvrmde lokaler
f
cck
f
cc
f
ctk
f
ct
E
ck
E
c
E
c,eff

cu
MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa MPa -
38 19,8 2,4 1,33 35.000 24.306 12.153 0,0035
f
yk
f
st
E
sk
E
s

sy
MPa MPa MPa MPa -
O id B 500 435 200000 200000 000217
Rebars
Concrete
Outside Bars 500 435 200.000 200.000 0,00217
Inside Bars 500 435 200.000 200.000 0,00217
Stirrups 500 435 200.000 200.000 0,00217
Load
k
60.000
70.000
XAxis
N
Sd
= 5121 kN
M
Sd
= 27292 kNm
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
N
(
k
N
)
XAxis
30.000
20.000
10.000
0
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
0 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000
N
(
k
N
)
M(kNm)
XAxis
30.000
20.000
10.000
0
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
60.000
70.000
0 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000
N
(
k
N
)
M(kNm)
XAxis
Appendix A
73
Appendix B
Appendix B
74
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
M
/
M
m
a
x
x/Ltot
InfluenceLinesforMomentinExternal
Spans
0.2*37 0.4*37 0.6*37 0.8*37 1.0*37
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
M
/
M
m
a
x
x/Ltot
InfluenceLinesforMomentinInternal
spans
0.2*48 0.4*48 0.6*48 0.8*48 1.0*48
Appendix B
75
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 R
/
R
m
a
x
x/L
InfluenceLinesforReactionForcesat
Supports
RA RB RC
Appendix B
76
Appendix B
77
Appendix B
78
Appendix B
79
Appendix B
80
Appendix B
81
Calculations of secondary moment with the three-moment
equation
w
1
99.023
kN
m
:= w
2
79.685
kN
m
:=
Span lengths:
L
1
37m := L
2
48m :=
L
4
L
1
:= L
3
L
2
:=
M
A
0kN m := M
E
0kN m :=
M
B
1kN m :=
M
C
1kN m :=
M
D
1kN m :=
EI
1
w
1
L
1
3
24
:= EI
2
w
2
L
2
3
24
:=
EI
4
EI
1
:= EI
3
EI
2
:=
Given
M
A
L
1
2 M
B
L
1
L
2
+
( )
+ M
C
L
2
+ 6 EI
1
EI
2
+
( )
=
M
B
L
2
2 M
C
L
2
L
3
+
( )
+ M
D
L
3
+ 6 EI
2
EI
3
+
( )
=
M
C
L
3
2 M
D
L
3
L
4
+
( )
+ M
E
L
4
+ 6 EI
3
EI
4
+
( )
=
Thus, solving these equations, the total moment, with primary and secondary effects, are:
M
B
M
C
M
D
Find M
B
M
C
, M
D
,
( )
16134
14882
16134
kN m = :=
Appendix B
82
Secondary moment from prestress
Prestress forces at service and eccentrities at corresponding positions after losses:
P
supportA
35890kN := e
A
0mm := M
primaryA
P
supportA
e
A
0 kN m = :=
P
span1
36875kN := e
1
410 mm := M
primaryspan1
P
span1
e
1
15119 kN m = :=
P
supportB
37441kN := e
B
283.6mm := M
primaryB
P
supportB
e
B
10618 kN m = :=
P
span2
35482kN := e
2
420 mm := M
primaryspan2
P
span2
e
2
14902 kN m = :=
P
supportC
34795kN := e
C
283.6mm := M
primaryC
P
supportC
e
C
9868kN m = :=
Hence the secondary moments become:
M
secondaryA
0kN m :=
M
secondaryB
M
B
M
primaryB
5515kN m = :=
M
secondaryspan1
13875
37000
M
secondaryB
2068kN m = :=
M
secondaryC
M
C
M
primaryC
5015kN m = :=
M
secondaryspan2
M
secondaryB
M
secondaryC
M
secondaryB
2
+ 5265kN m = :=
Total bending from prestress:
M
pA
M
secondaryA
M
primaryA
+ 0 kN m = :=
M
p1
M
secondaryspan1
M
primaryspan1
+ 13050 kN m = :=
M
pB
M
secondaryB
M
primaryB
+ 16134 kN m = :=
M
p2
M
secondaryspan2
M
primaryspan2
+ 9637 kN m = :=
M
pC
M
secondaryC
M
primaryC
+ 14882 kN m = :=
Appendix B
83
Calculations of ultimate moment capacity
A
p1
4200mm
2
:= E
p
195000MPa :=
A
p
8 A
p1
:= E
c
36000MPa :=
I
gsupport
1.564810
12
mm
4
:= A
gsupport
3770000mm
2
:=
I
gspan
1.346210
12
mm
4
:= A
gspan
3230000mm
2
:=
Bending from self-weight and traffic loads in ULS:
M
supportA1
0kN m :=
M
span11
30314kN m :=
M
supportB1
40838 kN m :=
M
span21
31954kN m :=
M
supportC1
43737 kN m :=
Bending in ULS with prestress:
M
A.ULS
M
supportA1
M
A
+ 0 kN m = :=
M
1.ULS
M
span11
M
secondaryspan1
+ M
primaryspan1
+ 17264 kN m = :=
M
B.ULS
M
supportB1
M
secondaryB
+ M
primaryB
+ 24704 kN m = :=
M
2.ULS
M
span21
M
secondaryspan2
+ M
primaryspan2
+ 22317 kN m = :=
M
C.ULS
M
supportC1
M
secondaryC
+ M
primaryC
+ 28855 kN m = :=
Appendix B
84
Effective depth, d: Width of the girder:

d
1
1163.3mm := b
span
1100mm :=
d
B
1523.5mm := b
support
1400mm :=
Allowable yield strength of the steel (figure 3.10 in EC2):
d
2
1173.3mm :=
f
pk
1860MPa := f
p0.1k
1640MPa :=
d
C
1523.5mm :=

p
1.15 :=
f
ck
45MPa :=
f
pd
f
p0.1k
p
1426MPa = :=
f
pd
E
p
0.007313 =
c
1.5 :=
ud
0.02 := Strain limit recommended by EC2.
1 :=
Appendix B
85
Ultimate moment capacity at span 1:
Ultimate compressive strain in concrete:
ult
0.0035 :=
Concrete strain due to prestress at the level of the tendon:
ce.1
1
E
c
P
span1
A
gspan
M
p1
e
1
I
gspan
+
0.000428 = :=
Total ultimate strain in concrete at the level of the tendons:
ct.1

ult
d
1
x
1
( )
x
1
=
Tendon strain:
pu.1
P
span1
A
p
E
p

ct.1
+
ce.1
=
Concrete compressive force:
F
c.1
0.8x
1
b
span
f
ck
c
=
Total force in tendon:
F
p.1
A
p
E
p
pu.1
( )
=
Equilibrium of forces:
F
p.1
F
c.1
+ 0 =
Which leads to:
x
1
1mm :=
Given
A
p
E
p
P
span1
A
p
E
p

ult
d
1
x
1
( )
x
1
+
ce.1
0.8b
span
x
1
f
ck
c
+ 0 =
x
1
Find x
1
( )
1.371m = :=
Check if steel stress is ok:
ct.1

ult
d
1
x
1
( )
x
1
0.000531 = :=
pu.1
P
span1
A
p
E
p

ct.1
+
ce.1
0.005525 = := Less than f
pd
/E
p
=0.007313
Appendix B
86
Ultimate moment capacity:
z
1
d
1
0.4x
1

( )
0.615 m = :=
F
c1
0.8b
span
x
1
f
ck
c
36199 kN = :=
M
ult1
F
c1
z
1
22256 kN m = :=
Appendix B
87
Ultimate moment capacity at support B:
ult
0.0035 =
ce.B
1
E
c
P
supportB
A
gsupport
M
pB
e
B
I
gsupport
+
0.000357 = :=
ct.B

ult
d
B
x
B
( )
x
B
=
Tendon strain:
pu.B
P
supportB
A
p
E
p

ct.B
+
ce.B
=
F
c.B
0.8x
B
b
support
f
ck
c
=
F
p.B
A
p
E
p
pu.B
( )
=
F
p.B
F
c.B
+ 0 =
Which leads to:
x
B
1mm :=
Given
A
p
E
p
P
supportB
A
p
E
p

ult
d
B
x
B
( )
x
B
+
ce.B
0.8b
support
x
B
f
ck
c
+ 0 =
x
B
Find x
B
( )
1.301m = :=
ct.B

ult
d
B
x
B
( )
x
B
0.000599 = :=
pu.B
P
supportB
A
p
E
p

ct.B
+
ce.B
0.006671 = := Less than f
pd
/E
p
=0.007313
Appendix B
88
z
B
d
B
0.4x
B

( )
1.003 m = :=
F
cB
0.8b
support
x
B
f
ck
c
43707 kN = :=
M
ultB
F
cB
z
B
43846 kN m = :=
Appendix B
89
Ultimate moment capacity at span 2:
ult
0.0035 =
ce.2
1
E
c
P
span2
A
gspan
M
p2
e
2
I
gspan
+
0.000389 = :=
ct.2

ult
d
2
x
2
( )
x
2
=
Tendon strain:
pu.2
P
span2
A
p
E
p

ct.2
+
ce.2
=
F
c.2
0.8x
2
b
span
f
ck
c
=
F
p.2
A
p
E
p
pu.2
( )
=
F
p.2
F
c.2
+ 0 =
Which leads to:
x
2
1mm :=
Given
A
p
E
p
P
span2
A
p
E
p

ult
d
2
x
2
( )
x
2
+
ce.2
0.8b
span
x
2
f
ck
c
+ 0 =
x
2
Find x
2
( )
1.335m = :=
ct.2

ult
d
2
x
2
( )
x
2
0.000424 = :=
pu.2
P
span2
A
p
E
p

ct.2
+
ce.2
0.00538 = := Less than f
pd
/E
p
=0.007313
Appendix B
90
z
2
d
2
0.4x
2

( )
0.639 m = :=
F
c2
0.8b
span
x
2
f
ck
c
35248 kN = :=
M
ult2
F
c2
z
2
22532 kN m = :=
Appendix B
91
Ultimate moment capacity at support C:
ult
0.0035 =
ce.C
1
E
c
P
supportC
A
gsupport
M
pC
e
C
I
gsupport
+
= :=
ct.C

ult
d
C
x
C
( )
x
C
=
Tendon strain:
pu.C
P
supportC
A
p
E
p

ct.C
+
ce.C
=
F
c.C
0.8x
C
b
support
f
ck
c
=
F
p.C
A
p
E
p
pu.C
( )
=
F
p.C
F
c.C
+ 0 =
Which leads to:
x
C
1mm :=
Given
A
p
E
p
P
supportC
A
p
E
p

ult
d
C
x
C
( )
x
C
+
ce.C
0.8b
support
x
C
f
ck
c
+ 0 =
x
C
Find x
C
( )
1.25m = :=
ct.C

ult
d
C
x
C
( )
x
C
0.000767 = :=
pu.C
P
supportC
A
p
E
p

ct.C
+
ce.C
0.006409 = := Less than f
pd
/E
p
=0.007313
Appendix B
92
z
C
d
C
0.4x
C

( )
1.024 m = :=
F
cC
0.8b
support
x
C
f
ck
c
41990 kN = :=
M
ultC
F
cC
z
C
42982 kN m = :=
Appendix B
93

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TVBK 5185JJweb

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Design of a 170 m span

bridge over the fjord

Effective depth, d: Width of the girder:

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