Flight Mechanics - Part 1

Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
SMF3212 Flight Mechanics

Course Content
1. Introduction Flight Mechanics 2. Basic Aerodynamics and International Standard Atmosphere 3. Aircraft Performance Straight and level flight Climbing Range and Endurance Take-off and Landing Turning Flight 4. Aircraft Stability Longitudinal Static Stability and Control Lateral Static Stability Control Introduction to dynamic stability
Part I:
Aircraft Performance
Chapter 1
1. INTRODUCTION TO FLIGHT MECHANICS
Flight Mechanics involves: Performance Stability Aeroelasticity Performance: take-off, climb, cruising, range & endurance, decent and landing Stability: static and dynamic stability, flight control Aeroelasticity: The effect of structural flesxibility on performance, stability and control In this course we focus on Aircraft Perfomance Static Stability
An aircraft is analised as point mass flying under the effect of weight, aerodynamic forces, thrust, atmospheric.
Basic knowledge on: 1. Aircraft components 2. Basic aerodynamics 3. International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and altitute 4. Engineering mechanics are required.
1.1 AIRCRAFT MAJOR PARTS Fuselage Wing Emphenage Power Plant Landing Gear
Figure shows an aircraft major part.
The function of the major parts: Fuselage It is a space to accommodate internal systems and components, payload, pilot and others in a systematic manner. Should be low in drag, and also function as an attachment for wing, tail and powerplant. Common component seen in the fuselage: Cockpit Pilot sit. Also known as `flight-deck, or `crew-cabin for large transport aircraft Canopy Cockpit cover Tailboom structure to carry emphennage Nacelle space for engine Nose front part of fuselage
Wing To generate lift which able the aircrafte to float. Common component seen in the wing: Wing aerofoil to give lift force, drag force and pitching moment.. Flap trailing edge control surface use to increase lift and stall angle. Slat extended control surface located at the leading or trailing ende of wing section use to modify the wing aerodynamic characteristics. Aileron control surface to make aircraft roll. Terms and notation for wing: S b cr ct c AR wing area wing span root chord tip chord mean chord taper ratio (ct/cr) aspect ratio (b2/S or b/c) sweep angle
Emphenage Emphenage is used to stabilize the aircraft and to control the aircraft motion. Allow aircraft to move in a control manner and safe. Component of emphenage: 1. Vertical Tail-provide directional stability. Also known as fin. 2. Horizontal Tail provide pitching stability. Also known as tailplane or stabilizer. 3. Elevator-a control surface located at the trailing edge of the horizontal tail use to control the aircraft angle of attack. 4. Trim Tab-a control surface located at the back of an elevator use to reduce stick force experience by pilot. 5. Rudder- a control surface located at the back of vertical tail use to control yaw angle.
Powerplant Powerplant generates power to drive aircraft toward its direction. There are four types of powerplant engine: piston-prop, turbo-prop, turbo-fan dan turbo-jet. a) Piston-prop Proston-prop engine is using a reciprocal combustion engine to produce power. Ouput power is measured in Horse Power (HP). The power is not depend on aircraft speed but varies with altitude and throttle. The fuel consumption is proportional to horse power. Propeller converts the shaft power to thrust power. Thrust power is equals to the product of thrust force and aircraft speed.
b) Turbo-Jet The thrust is produced from the expansion of the hot gas combustion through nozzle. The thrust produce is a function of altitude and speed. Normally this type of engine is installed to high speed aircraft. c) Turbo-Fan Turbo-fan is a turbo-jet furnished with fan to increase the driving efficientcy of a low and medium speed aircraft. The operasion of the turbo-fan is quite similar to turbo-jet which is a thrust producing engine.
d) Turbo-Prob Turbo-prob is a piston and turbo-fan engine using propeller to convert engine power to thrust. The operasion of the turbo-prob is quite similar to piston-prob which is power producing engine. Fundamentally both the turbo-fan and turbo-prob engine is a turbo-jet engine where the combustion gas is expanded fully in the turbine in order to produde extra power from what is required to run the compressor. The excess power is used to run the fan. To simplify the study of powerplant, the type of powerplant is classified into two types. 1) Power producing engine which comprises of piston-prob, turbo-prob. 2) Thrust producing engine which comprises of turb-jet and turbo-fan.
Chapter 2
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
2.1 Introduction
Aircraft performance is a measure of the ability of an aircraft to do its specific mission. Civil Aircraft Operation - focus on operational cost and contribution to economical in operation Military Aircraft Operation - under combat conditions, manoeuvring time, optimization time to target, range, manoeuvrability and payload; is a measure of effectiveness and superiority. Performance is also a measure of flight safety. While maintaining an access thurst in level flight, an aircraft must be able to increase potential energy to climb. If the performance of an aircraft is not able to maintain both altitude and airspeed in climbing and decent, clearly this will limit the safety margin and limit the safe operation. The performace aspect is the consideration of airworthiness, airworthiness practices, and performance which they are related. Is not the purpose of airwothiness to limit or creates conflict in determining aircraft performance and flight safety. It gives the code of practice and not to stop an aircraft to have a performace beyond the limit of code of practice. For that the airwothiness code of practice is to determine in a practical way, the safety limit of the aircraft operation for the risk of unsafe operation can be reduced to minimum level. Code of practice varies with aircraft size, number of engine, country of registration, operation requirement and time. In aircraft performance the study is divided into two: Estimation and Measurement. Performance Estimation: Estimation of aircraft performance from the design consideration in aerodynamics, powerplant and state of operation. Applicable for a new designed or modification of existing aircraft. Performance Measurement: Flight performance measurement in true atmospheric, in which the pressure and temperature are different compare to design process, and data variation refer to ISA.
2.2 Atmospheric Model

The performance of air breathing engine is depended on the combination of temperature, pressure and density of surrounding air. The motion of air mass and climate/season change create a dramatic change in the distribution of earth atmosphere. For that, a single atmospheric reference is required to simplify the analysis. The common reference is based to the mid-latitute of the Northern Hemisphere, which is known as an International Standard Atmosphere or I.S.A
The International Standard Atmosphere (I.S.A) represents the average climate/season atmosphere and geograhical atmosphere. An aircraft is assumed to operate far below the range from a cold artic climate to the hot tropical and the aircraft performance has to be estimated through this range. The atmospheric model design is describe of giving an 'off-standard' data of the atmosphere. Basically, the atmospheric model can be obtained through an addition of a temperature rise to the element of I.S.A atmospheric model with an adjustment to give a hot temperature, a cold temperature and the standard model. Figure 3 shows the model used in the 'airwothiness codes of practice' (JAR).
2.3 Relative Atmosphere

The condition of atmosphere is defined as
P = RT
If this equation is related to sea-level, the state of the ISA of the atmosphere is given by:
T P = Po o To
Or can be written as
=
where
P Po
relative pressure
o
T To
relative density
relative temperature
Figure 4 shows the properties of relative atmosphere.
Isothermal Region
dP = g o dh
g dh dp g = o = o dh p RT RT
go dP = p1 P RT
p
h1
dh
ln
g p = o (h ho ) p1 RT
Or
( h ho ) p = e RT p1
go
But
p T = = p1 1T1 1
( hh ) = e RT 1
o
go
Gradient Region
T = T1 + a (h h1 )
dh =
1 dT a
dp g dT = o p aR T
p1
g T dT dP = o P aR T 1 T g p p = o ln p1 aR p1
go aR
ln
p T = p1 T1 But
T p = p1 1T1
Then
T p T = = 1T1 p1 T1 T = 1 T1
(
go aR
go ) 1 aR
2.4 Airspeed Measurement

The relative speed between aircraft and the air mass is known as airspeed. This is a very important parameter because it affects many others flight parameters related to performance such as stalling speed, best climb speed or cruising speed and maximum speed. The airspeed is measured from the different between the pitot pressure (total) and static pressure of atmosphere. The measured airspeed by the instrument is known as an indicated airspeed, Vi. As the pitot-static is located within the air flow around the aircraft, the recorded pressure may be different from the undisturbed free stream pressure. Correction to the air pressure is required (pressure-error correction) and the indicated airspeed is connected to pressure-error, which gives an airspeed is known as calibrated airspeed, Vc. The calibrated airspeed is the measurement of aircpeed referred to an assumption that the atmosphere is having a constant pressure at all altitude.This assumption is used in the altitude correction scale and gives the value of equivalent equivalent airspeed, Ve. This is based on the dynamic pressure which is given as,
q= 1 1 oVe 2 = V 2 2 2
Where V is the true airspeed. So that V = Ve / gives the true relative velocity between aircraft and air mass. The characteristic of the airflow is given in Mach number, M, which gives the ratio between true airspeed and the speed of sound in free stream. M= V a
Where a is the speed of sound which has the relationship with air temperature as;
a = RT
For that the Mach number is not the value if air velocity measured by the instrumentation installed in the aircraft.
2.5 Airworthiness, Safety and Certification

To ensure aircraft operates with the degree of safety approved by the safety authority. Low risk statistic of 1 in 10 events. Airworthiness requirement is somehow specific to the country of registration; generally has similar system, format and contents, probably different in code of practice, determination criteria and type of test to meet the requirement of specific country. American Federal Aviation Regulation, FAR's USA and North America certification European Joint Airwothiness Requirement, JARs European certification FAR's part of Federal Law fail to comply - criminal offence. JAR's is advisory body which leads to negotiation fail to comply not criminal offence but could be charged under civil action. Military code of practice - American Mil.Spec. and Def.Stan. It has similar concept with civil code but considering military operation. Airworthiness performance criteria covers take-off, climbing and landing elemen of high risk operations.
2.6 Aircraft Mission Profiles

Aircraft is designed to meet specific missions and requirements. Elements of mission demand the combination of performance of aircraft and engine. Elements of mission comprise of take-off, climb, cruise, descent and landing. Military operation: combat and attack manoeuvres. Civil aircraft mission: carry payload from one place to other place, mission has to be planned to allow change of path and destination. Military aircraft mission: more than civil, from transportation to interception. Normally return to based and carrying enough fuel for return flight although airborne refueling is allowed to increase range or increase payload as long not exceed take-off weight.
Basic element of mission can be considered based on the engine thrust and fuel mission.
Table 2.1: Aircraft weight distribution (Ref: Ashelby M, Cranfield IT Lecture Notes)
Subsonic Transport Long Range Short Range % Weight F/mg % Weight F/mg 40.0 45.0 10.0 10.0 0.5 2.5 26.0 0.5 0.5 5.0 35.0 15.0 100.0 15,000400,000 0.2-0.3 0.15-0.25 0.06 0.02-0.05 0.15 0.5 0.2-0.3 2.5 0.2-0.25 11.0 0.08 0.5 0.02-0.05 0.5 0.15 5.0 20.0 25.0 100.0 30,000200,000 Fighter % Weight 45.0 20.0 1.0 21.0 0.5 2.5 25.0 10.0 100.0 15,00030,000 F/mg
Accessory Airframe Powerplant Fuel Takeoff Climb Cruise Decent Landing Reserve Total Fuel Payload Total Typical Weight (kg)
1.0 0.7-1.0 0.15-0.25 0.1 0.4
Reserve fuel depends on company policy and operation regulation. Typical for civil aircraft, reserve fuel is enough for 45 minutes loiter plus 10% of total fuel weight.
Takeoff Accelerate to reach takeoff speed within available takeoff distance. Normally required maximum thrust available. For military aircraft, full power is usually apply during takeoff and climb to reach operation altitude and March number in minimum time. Thrust to weight ratio is high around 1:1 and required 1% of aircraft weight for fuel burned (or 4% of total fuel). For transport aircraft require around 0.2 to 0.3 thrust-weight ratio and depend on number of engines. Four engine aircraft require two enjin memerlukan kurang dari 2 enjin dan pesawat 1 kerana kegagalan salah satu enjin menyebabkan kehilangan tujah di dalam kadar yang kecil. Typically around 5% of aircraft weight is used during takeoff as fuel burned. Climbing Civil transport aircraft climbs at slow rate and acceleration can be neglected when compare to military fighter aircraft. Typically between 5 to 10% of fuel is burned during takeoff.
Cruise Cruise is normally the longest segment of flight mission where large amunt of fuel is used. Low thrust-wieght ratio, low specific fuel consumption is required in order to gain optimum range. Optimization process is complex which has to consider aerodynamic quality and powerplant. Decent Descent at low thrust rate which normally close to idle thrust. However, powerplant should be able to produce electrical power, hydraulic pressure and air bleed to limit the minimum engine speed. Fuel requires is typically low. Landing Thrust rate is considered high. This happened due to high drag configurationin order to avoid drag end part of drag curve fenomena. High thrust is necessary to ensure overall power required is able to produce.
2.7 Aerodynamic Forces

Resultant or vectored aerodynamic force is produced from the aircraft motion in atmosphere is resolved in wind-axis component. Component of forces along x-axis is called drag, D. The drag opposes the aircraft motion and function of velocity square. Component of forces along z-axis is called lift, L (normal to velocity). Lift force acting upward against aircraft aircraft weight and to make aircraft floating in the air. Component along y-axis is called side force generates due assymtrical motion or or velocity vector of symmetry aircraft. Sideslip angle is generated. All aircraft external parts generate aerodynamic forces. Wing influences the aerodynamic forces significantly. The coss-section of the wing is called aerofoil. Symetrical aerofoil has symmetry shape about aerofoil cross-section axis. Assymetrial aerofoil id called cambered aerofoil. Positif cambered aerofoil generates negative pitching moment which makes the CLo occurred at negative angle of attack. A vice versa criteria occur for a case of negative camber. Figure shows a positive and negative camber. Lift force L = qSC L = 1 V 2 SC L 2 1 V 2 SC L 2
L
Drag force
D = qSC L =
q V CL CD
- dynamic pressure (N/m2 ), - air density (kg/m ) - true aircpeed (m/s) - lift coefficient - drag coefficient
Lift and drag coefficient is a function of aircraft angle of attack, Mach number, Reynolds number and aerofoil shape. The typical CL curve is shown in figure The equation for drag polar is given by: 2 CL C D = C Do + A Re
C D is drag coeffficient, C L is total lift coefficient contribution of wing, fuselage and horizontal tail. C Do is known as parasite drag coefficient at zero lift (contribution of wing profile drag, friction and pressure drag of tail, fuselage, engine, undercarriage, and other parts expose to air flow.
Term C L / A Re is called induced drag which depends on lift force. While e is known as Oswald efficientcy factor, typical value of e is around 0.7 to 0.9.
2
At low Mach number (i.e. M<0.4), three types of drag are generated, profil drag, boundary layer drag and trailing edge vortex. At high Mach number (i.e. M>1), drag due shock wave exist.
Wing Loading
Wing loading, w is the ratio of aircraft weight to wing mg w= (N/m2) S

Stall Speed
Stall speed is given as

Vs = 2mg SC L max
General equation for aircraft performance
V L T
dH / dt
L = mg kos
& T = D + mg sin + mV
& dH / dt V T D = Excess Thrust = mg + = Potential Energy +Kinetic Energy g V
mg
&=0 Consider aircraft is flying in steady straight and level flight, so that = 0, V
L = mg
L mg = T D
and and
T =D
Lift to drag ratio = E
E is known as aero efficiency. CL = wing loading mg mg / S = 1 = 2 2 dynamic pressure V S 2 V
1 2
Equation for drag polar

C D = C Do + KC L
2
then
CL L CL = = D C D C Do + KC L 2
L d 2 KC L C Do D = 2 dC L (C D 0 KC L )
For
L maximum D
or
KC L = C Do
2
C which C L min imum drag = Do K

2
1 2
So the maximum aero coefficient,
E mak =
1 2 KC Do
Chapter 3
STEADY FLIGHT PERFORMANCE
3.1 Straight and Level Flight
Straight and level flight atconstant velocity is the simplest case in performance analysis. Forces that acting on the aircraft is lift force, L and aircraft weight, W in which they are acting vertically, thrust force,T and drag, D acting horizontally. T =D L =W 2 L=1 2 V SC L
2 W =L=1 2 V SC L
In equilibrium, thrust equals drag and lift equals weight Lift is given by Then for lift equals weight
3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4
3.2 Stalling Speed

From 3.1.4, aircraft speed V is given as
V =
2W SC L
3.2.1
This equation is true if assumed the aircraft is flying weight W and wing area S at specific altitude. The stall conditions occur at maximum lift coefficient CLmax. Stall speed is given by
V=
2W SC L max
3.2.2
V, is the minimum speed for the aircraft to maintain steady fligh. Value of CLmax is also depend on flap and landing gear. Stalling speed is normally determined from flight test.
3.3 Equivalent speed in level flight

In level flight W is equals to lift, L and can be written as
2 W=1 2 V SC L
2 V 2 = 1 2 oV E
From equivalent air speed, Then

W =1 2 oV E SC L
2
1 2
3.3.1
V =
2W o SC L
Equivalent airspeed is given as,
3.3.2
For a given weight, W and wing area, S for an aircraft,
V is proportional to
1 CL
With the weight and wing area the equivalent airspeed for straight and level flight is only depend on lift coefficient and not depend on air density and altitude. If the aircraft is flying at constant altitude or constant angle of attack, for that CL is constant, the estimation of indicated airspeed is equals to equivalent airspeed will indicates constant value.
3.4 Minimum Drag, Vmd

Minimum drag is important for jet engine aircraft. At manimum drag, the aircraft speed gives maximum endurance for jet engine aircraft. While maximum range occur when the aircraft is flying at a speed a little higher than Vmd. Figure shows the variation of drag with aircraft speed.
Determine the relationship between drag force and minimum drag condition. D D = L L But in steady straight and level flight L = W, then
D D =W L D L For given weight, the minimum drag occurs at minimum or at maxsimum. L D

D = L
1 V 2 SC D 2 1 V 2 SC L 2 2 C D C Do + KC L = = CL CL
3.4.2
Differentiate (3.4.2) with respect to CL

d dC L C Do + KC L 2 C Do + KC L 2 C L (2 KC L ) = 2 CL CL
2 2
C Do + KC L 2 KC L = 0 C Do = KC L = C Di
2
3.4.3
At minimum drag condition value of CDo is equals to CDi. For value of CL at mimimum drag is given by: C Lmd = Vmd = C Do K W 1 SC Lmd 2 Vmd W 2 K 4 = 1 2 S C Do
1 1
3.4.4
Can be written as,
3.4.5
Also from (3.4.3)

C D = C Do + KC L = 2C Do
2
3.4.6
Lift to drag ratio C Do L CL = = D CD K 1 1 = 2C Do 2 KC Do 3.4.7
3.5 Thrust Required

Assume aircraft is flying in steady straight and level flight at a given constant altitude. Thrust required for enjin turbojet is equal to drag force. T =D= 1 V 2 SC D 2 1 V 2 SC L 2 3.5.1
and
L =W =
3.5.2
devided
Eq.(3.5.1) by Eq.(3.5.2)
W CL CD W L D
T CD = W CL
3.5.3
Thrust required
T=
3.5.4
T is usually label as TR
Thrust TR (N)
(L/D)max V (m/s) Vmd
For a minimum drag condition, thrust required is mimimum where the aircraft is flying at minimum drag speed, Vmd
3.6 Power Available and Power Required

Thrust required gives the power required of an aircraft PR = TR V = L =W = V= W CL CD V
1 V 2 SC L 2 2W SC L
PR =
W CL CD
2W SC L
Then
1 V 2 S C Do + KC L 2 )V 2 2 C 1 1 = V 2 SC DoV + V 2 SV L 2 2 A Re 2W 2 1 1 V 2 S = V 3 SC Do + V 3 S 2 2 A Re 2W 2 1 1 VS = V 3 SC Do + V 3 S 2 2 A Re PR = TRV = DV =
3.6.1
3.6.1 Pistonprop and Turboprop
TA PA
Power produce by a shaft engine can be assumed constant with airspeed. For a propeller driven aircraft the performance is analyzed in the form of power available. At minimum drag the relation of CDo = KCDL is applied. Maximum endurance of a fan engine can be achived if the aircraft is flying at minimum power required speed, typically a little less than Vmd. While the thrust produce by the fan is inversely propotional with aircraft speed.
Relationship of shaft power to thrust

BHP. = THP = T .V 746
then,
T=
THP BHP. .746 = .746 V V
where is the fan efficiency (typically between 0.75~0.85) and 746 is the conversion unit from Horsepower to watt (i.e. 1 HP = 746 Watt)
3.6.2 Jet Engine (turbojet dan turbofan)
Thrust produce by jet engine is constant with aircraft speed. Power produce is proportional to speed.
TA PA
For a jet angine aircraft, the performance depend on excess thrust (i.e. the different between thrust force and drag force). Maximum endurance is achieved when flying at minimum drag speed, Vmd. At this condition the drag is minimum, and relationship CDo = KCDL is used. The maximum range is achieved when the aircraft is flying at a speed little more than Vmd because at minimum drag, the value of drag is increase a little with speed where that the change of distance increases with fuel consumption.
Power available and power required is a function of altitude.
Figure ## Altitude Effects on Maximum Excess Power
3.7 Minimum Power Required
At minimum power requirement condition, dPR =0 dV dPR 3 2W 2 V 2 S = V 2 SC Do + 2 A Re dV

= =
2 4 2 2W 2 3 3 4 V S V 2 S C Do 2 A Re 2 3 1 CL V 2 S C Do 2 3 A Re
For that a minimum power required occur when C Do = 1 2 KC L 3
Power available is determined by the powerplant characteristics
As a conclusion for a maximum range and endurance, a jet engine aircraft needs a minimum drag and correspondence speed in a straight level flight. While for fan drive engine needs minimum power required in a straight and level flight.
Chapter 4
CLIMBING FLIGHT
Figure 4.1 Forces Acting on an Aircraft in a Climb
When aircraft is in steady climbing at a climb angle, with horizontal, the equilibrium equation of force parallel to the flight path is given T D mg sin dV =0 dt 4.1
The change of altitude with time is given by dH = V sin dt substitute sin term from Eq. 4.2 in Eq.4.1, gives (T D) = rearranged (T D) V dH V dV = + mg dt g dt dV mg dH +m dt V dt 4.3 4.2
If the aircraft is climbing at steady speed,

dH (T D)V = dt mg
dV becomes zero, then the climb rate can be written as dt
and
TV DV is known as excess power dan

(T D)V mg
is known as specific excess power
In general the climb rate can be defined as dH Excess Power = dt W
a) Propeller Driven Engine
b) Jet Engine
Then the maximum climb rate

Maximum Excess Power dH = W dt max
MINIMUM TAKE-OFF THRUST REQUIREMENT
Climb gradient, sin = Typically Assume
excess thrust FN D = mg mg mg
D = 0.1 for the take-off configuration, u/c up mg
FN = mg
0.24; sin = 0.24 0.1 = 0.14; = 8.05o or Grad = 14.1% (grad% = 100 tan )
All engines operating
One engine inoperative 4 eng. 3 eng. 2 eng. 0.18 8 3.0 0.16 6 2.7 0.12 2 2.4
FN/mg Grad % Min grad-oei
0.24 14.1 %
JAR 25.121(b) MIN GRAD %
FN/mg Min. aeo (ISA + 15oC 5,000) 0.203 0.221 0.284
FN/mg equiv. ISA, SL
FN/mg ISA-15, SL
4 eng. 3 eng. 2 eng.
3.0 2.7 2.4
10.4 12.2 18.7
0.234 0.254 0.327
13.5 15.6 23.3
0.243 0.264 0.339
14.4 16.4 24.6
(NB Drag of inoperative engine not included required FN/mg is pessimistic)
EXAMPLE
An aircraft with 16,380 kg weight, wing area S = 42 m2 and wing span 16 m has a drag polar CD = 0.014 + 0.05 CL2. This aircraft is installed with turboprop engine. Maximum speed at sea level is 270 m/s. Power available PAV is assumed not at maxium at the speed when it is occurred. Calculate the maximum rate of climb. Maximum speed occur when PAV = PREQ q= 1 1 V 2 = (1.226)(270) 2 = 44687.7 kg / ms 2 2 2
CL =
W 16380 9.81 = qS 44687.7 42
C D = 0.014 + 0.05(0.086) 2 = 0.0144

D = qSC D = (0.0144)(44687.7)(42) = 26276.4 N PREQ = D.V = (26272.4)(270) = 70.95 x10 5 W
At maximum rate of climb C Do = 1 CL 3 AR

C L = 0.9165
2
1 2 0.014 = (0.05)C L 0.014 3

V =
2W .C L .S =
(2)(16380)(9.81) = 82.5 m / s (1.226)(0.9165)(42)
D =W
CD 0.056 = (16380) (9.81) = 9818.3 N CL 0.9165
PREQ = D.V = (9818.3)(82.5) = 8.1x10 5 W
Maximum Rate of Climb
RC max =
PAV PREQ W
70.95 x10 5 8.1x10 5 = 39.2 m / s (16380)(9.81)
EXAMPLE
Given the characteristics of a jet engine aircraft M = 16380 kg, S = 42 m2, CL = 0.2352 CD = 0.014 + 0.05 CL2 If the thrust given by the engine is 26699 N at sea level. Calculate the maximum rate of climb RCmax and the related speed. Determine the climb angle.
Solution
V = 2w = C L S (2)(16380)(9.81) = 163 m / s (1.226)(0.2352)(42)
C D = 0.014 + 0.05(0.2352) 2 = 0.01676

D =W CD 0.01676 = (16380)(9.81) = 11454.4 N CL 0.2352
sin =
T AV D = 0.0954, = 0.0954, W
= 5.5 o
RC max = V sin = (163)(0.0954) = 15.55 m / s
sin =
T AV D , W
2
Dmin = W
CD CL
and
C D = KC L
0.014 = 0.05C L
C L = 0.529
C D = 0.014 + 0.05(0.529) 2 = 0.028

D =W CD 0.028 = (16380)(9.81) = 8505.2 N CL 0.529
sin max = Sin max =
TAV D 26699 8505.2 = = 0.1132 (16380)(9.81) W

11454 8505.2 16380 9.81
= 0.1132
max = 6.5 o
V =
2W = 108.7 m / s .S .C L
Chapter 5
TAKEOFF AND LANDING
5.1 Introduction
Take-off is the most critical flight phase and should pay more attention. The control system should be angle to rotate the aircraft at good climb position and can be trimmed. An aircraft should be able to demonstrate it ability to avoid yawing and maintain it direction. For example during crosswind disturbance and lost of engine power. Excess power is required for handling the operation and optimum climb speed.
Similar case is considered during landing. Aicraft should be able to rotate to at touchdown position where the aircraft nose can be lift off to required speed. Aircraft has to maintain wing level and crosswind landing. Aircraft has to demonstrate it ability to balance if engine losing power. In term of performance, optimum speed during approach and power for required slope. Touch down speed has to be known and other operation consideration at speed and configuration
5.2 Take-off
Take-off distance is the distance required for an aircraft to gain a lift-off speed and reach 35 ft (10.5 m) or 50 ft (15 m). Take-off distance is divided into two parts. First is the ground run distance, is a required distance to gain lift-off speed, and second is the airborne distance, is the distance from liftoff speed to reach height of 50 or 35 ft.
5.2.1 Take-off Ground Run Distance
Assume an aircraft is under a summation of force F from zero speed to lift-off speed, VLO.
Where
V LO = 1.2Vs = 1.2
2W SC Lmax
5.1
The change in distance the product of aircraft forward speed and time
dS = Vdt
5.2
Acceleration is the change in velocity

a= dV dt
5.3
Substituting the expression of dt from Eq(5.3) in Eq(5.2), gives

dS = V dV a
5.4
Consider forces acting on aircraft during take-off are thrust (T), drag (D), lift (L), weight (mg) and friction (R). Figure shows forces acting on aircraft where is a runway slope which typically small around 5o, R is the reaction force on wheel is the friction coefficient.
Figure
Equilibrium force parallel to flight path

T D mg sin R = ma
(5.5)
Equilibrium force normal to flight path

R + L = mg kos
(5.6)
substitute R term from Eq.(5.6) in Eq.(5.5)

T D mg sin (mg kos L) = ma
Assumed is very small
T D (mg L) = ma
(5.7)
Total distance is the integration of Eq.(5.4)
S = dV =
V a
V LO 2 2a
(5.8)
Substitute term a from Eq.(5.7) in Eq.(5.8) gives

VLO m S= 2[T D (mg L)]
2
Generally T is constant (especially jet aircraft), W is also constant. Except L and D is a function of speed.
2 L=1 2 V SC L 2 CL D = V S C Do + A Re 1 2 2
is known as ground effect, exist when aircraft flow very low to ground and the effect of trailling vortex is reduced.
16h b = 2 16h 1+ b
h height from wing level to ground
b wing span
For simplicity assume t is constant and average value of drag and resistant is reduced to
[D + (W l )]ave
The effective force substitute
Feff = T [D + (W l )]ave = cons tan t F = Feff VLO m SG = 2{T [ D + (W L)]ave }
2
and
[D + (W l )]ave = [D + (W l )]0.7 v
Lo
Conclusion
1. Lift-off distance is sensitive to aircraft weight (reduce with w2). If double the weight, the takeoff distance increase 4 times. 2. Takeoff distance is depend on air density
SLo
3.
Takeoff distance reduces with increase in wing area.
5.2.2 Take-off Airborne Distance

Aircraft has to accelerate to reach climb speed and rotate to climb position. Takeoff reach the final stage when eaches the screen height of typically 50 or 35 ft. Airborne distance can obtained from energy balance. Change of Energy = Excess Thrust x Distance
dE = (T D)ds = (T D) ave S A where S A is the airborne distance. The change of energy between lift-off point to 50 feet is the change of potential and kinetic energy, Energy Change = (K.E + P.E)50 (K.E + P.E) LO
=
(5.9)
1 2
mVh 2 + mgh
] [
1 2
mVLO + 0
2
Vh 2 VLO 2 = mg + h mg 2g 2 V 2 VLO 2 = mg h + h 2g combine Eq.(5.10) and Eq.(5.9), gives (5.10)
Vh 2 VLO 2 mg + h = (T D) ave S A 2g then the airborne distance V2 2 VTD 2 mg SA = + h (T D) ave 2g where h is the screen height.
ST = S L + S A
5.3 Landing
5.3.1 Landing Ground Distance
Ground distance is a distance required for an aircraft to slowing from touchdown, VTD speed until stop. VTD = 1.3 Vs = 1.3 At touchdown, assumed thrust, T=0 2W SC Lmax
D (W L) = ma
V2 V S = dV = a 2a Substitute a from Eq.(5.11) in Eq.(5.12) VTD m SL = 2[D + (W L)]ave where
2
(5.11) (5.12)
[D (W L)]ave = [D (W L)]0.7V
TD
If reverse thrust is applied during landing. T = -TB - TB D - (W L) = ma VTD m SL = 2{TB + [D + (W L)]ave }

Example
2
Estimate the takeoff distance of aircraft B on tarmac of = 0.02. During takeoff the CL maximum is not higher than 1.0. The wing level ground clearance is 1.83 m. Solution: h 1.83 = = 0.17 b 10.91
(16 h b )2 2 1 + (16 h b )
[16(0.17 )]2 2 1 + [16(0.17)]
= 0.88
V Lo = 1.2Vs = 1.2
2W 2.8984 9.81 = 1.2 = 83.75 m/s SC L max 1.225 29.5 1
0.7VLo = 58.63 m/s L=1 V 2 SC L = 1 (1.225)(58.63 2 )(29.54)(1) = 82186.67 N 2 2
D=1 V 2 S C Do + KC L 2 = 1 (1.225)(58.63) 2 (29.54)[0.02 + (0.08)(0.044(1)] = 3149.74 N 2 2
T = 16236(2) = 32472
AR = b 2 16.25 2 = = 8.94 s 29.54 W 2 g V Lo = 2{T [D + (W L)]ave }0.7V = K= 1 1 = = 0.044 AR e (8.94)(0.81)
S Lo
Lo
(8984)(83.75) 2 2{32472 [3649.74 + 0.02(8984 9.81 62186.67]} 63014338 56606.745
= 1113.2 meters
Example
Estimate landing distance at sea level for aircraft B. Reverse thrust is not use during (assume T = 0). Spoiler is used during landing which result of L = 0 and zero lift drag increase by 10%. CLmax during landing at maximum flap 2.5. Assume CLmax is used during landing. Assume fuel tank in landing is at zero state and pilot apply brake which give effect of = 0.4.
Solution: Fuel tank is empty during landing. Weight of fuel is negligible.
Aircraft empty weight, 8984 2862 = 6122 kg VTD = 1.3VS = 1.3 2w 2(6122)(9.81 = 1.3 = 47.35 m/s 1.225(29.54)(2.5) SC Lmax
0.7VTD = 0.7(47.35) = 33.15 m/s
CDo = 0.02 +
L =0,
10 (0.02) = 0.022 100
CL = 0 , CD L = 0
D=1 V 2 SC DO = 1 (1.225)(33.15) 2 (29.54)(0.022) = 437.3 N 2 2

w VT 2 g (47.35) 2 (6122) SL = = 280 m 2[D + (W L ]0.7VT 2[437.3 + 0.4(6122 x9.81)]
Chapter 6
RANGE AND ENDURANCE
6.1 Range
Range covers climb, cruise and decent distance. The cruise range of an aircraft is equal to the total range covers with respect to fuel quantity. Specific range is given by range per unit weight in meter per unit kilogram. specific range =
6.1.1
m kg
For Jet Engine and Turbofan Aircraft
Specific range or distance can be written as m meter per hour (m hr ) V V m / hr = = = = kg fuel flowrate (kg hr ) CT CD (kg / N .hr ).N (6.1)
C is the specific fuel consumption (sfc) in weight per unit thrust per unit hour (kg/N.hr) and D= W D = W L/D L
Substitute in Eq.(6.1) m V V L 1 = = kg C ( D / L)W C D W

(6.2)
V L C D is known as range factor, measure range efficiency from aerodynamic and propulsion
system.
For jet engine, if the average value C and
L can be chosen from aircraft design, the cruise range D
R = wi
R=
m w V L dW dW = wi f C D W kg
(6.3)
w V L log e i CD wf
6.1.2
Propeller Driven Aircraft
The specific distance can be written as m V = kg C BHP (6.4)
C is the specific fuel consumption in kg fuel per horsepower per hour (kg/BHP. hr)
m = kg V V = THP C DV C
m 1 L 1 = = . kg C D C D W BHP Break horse power THP Thrust horse power [1 horse power (HP) = 746 Watt]
(6.5)
Total range Range = wi

w f
m dW kg
For propeller driven aircraft
R = w f C D W
R=
wi
L dW
wi wf
L
CD
log e
(6.6) L is assumed constant during flight. D
Eq.(6.6) is known as Brequet formula where , C and
6.2 Endurance
Endurance is a measure of the flight duration specific endurance = hour fuel N
For a maximum endurance, the minimum fuel flow rate per unit time is required. As sfc is assumed constant, the drag should be at minimum for jet engine. Minimum value of thrust horse power THP is required for a propeller driven aircraft.
6.2.1
Turbojet atau Turbofan Aircraft

wi wi E = w f N fuel = w f C.D dW wi wi E = w f C.[W (L D )] dW = w f C D W
Endurance
hour
1 L dW
E=
w 1 L log e i CD wf
(6.7)
C and
L is assumed constant during flight or base on average value. D
An aircraft is required to fly at minimum drag condition to gain a high endurance, i.e. , wi/wf is L high, maximum. D
6.2.2
Propeller Driven Aircraft
Endurance: E = wi
w
1 THP C
dW = wi f
C DV
dW = wi f
1 dW C DV W
L is a ratio of lift to thrust power required and the value is not constant. DV
but
L=W=
1 2
V2SCL
then
V=
2W SC L
wi
E = w f C C D
CL
SCL dW
2 W3 2
Assumed CD, CL, , C and are constant at certain altitude, then

E=
2 CL 3 2 S C CD 2
12
[W ]
1 2 wi wf
For maximum endurance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. High propeller efficiency Low sfc High Wf , where Wo = Wi + Wf C Fly at L CD
32
maximum
Fly at sea level E 1/2
Range
1) JET
C = s.f.c x
1 g 1 g
2) PROP C = s.f.c x
Endurance 1) JET
C = s.f.c x
1 g 1 g 32
2) PROP C = s.f.c x
Example
Estimate maximum range and endurance for aircraft C.
Solution: For a fan drive aircraft R=
CL
C CD
log e
Wi Wf
given
s.f.c. = 0.204 kg/HP. hr C= 0.204 g 0.204 9.81 = 746 3600 746 3600 1 = 7.450 x 10 -7 m
At minimum drag, 0.025 =
CDo = KCL2
1 CL2 ARe
A =
b 2 10.912 = = 7.361 s 16.17
CL = 0.025 AR e = 0.68
1 1 = = 0.054 A Re 7.361 0.8
CD = CDo + KCL2 = 0.025 + 0.054(0.68) 2 = 0.0499
CL C D
0.68 = = 13.6 max 0.05
Gross weight, Wi = 1337.63 kg Fuel capacity = 166.22 kg
Weight without fuel capacity Wf= 1337.63 166.22 = 1171.41 kg R =
CL
1337.63 log e C C D max 1171.41
= 1940772.5 m = 1940.7 km E=
Endurance,
CL3/ 2
C CD
(2 S )
1 1 1 1 W f 2 Wi 2
C 32 L CD
= 12.8 max
Maximum endurance can be achieved if aircraft is flying at sea level = 1.225 kg/m3 E =
0.8 7.456 10
7
(12.8)(2(1.225)(16.17))1/2
1171.41
1337.63 1
= 164242.56 secs
AIRCRAFT DATA
AIRCRAFT A (BRITISH AEROSPACE JETSTREAM) Power plant = 2 engine propeller driven Power Rating = 900 horse power per engine Wing span, b = 15.85 Wing area, S = 25.1 m Wing chord, c = 1.71 m CDo = 0.0175 Oswold efficiency factor, e = 0.82 Fan efficiency = 0.82 Aircraft gross weight = 5570 kg Fuel Capacity = 635 kg gasoline type Specific fuel consumption, s.f.c = 0.204 kg/HPhr
AIRCRAFT B (CESSNA 650 CITATION III) Type = Executive Jet Aircraft Powerplant = 2 turbofan engine Power Rating = 16236 N per engine Wing Span, b = 16.52 m Wing Area, S = 29.54 m Gross Weight = 8984 kg Fuel Capacity = 2862 kg kerosin Specific fuel consumption, s.f.c = 0.272 kg/N hour CDo = 0.02 Oswald Efficiency Factor, e = 0.81
AIRCRAFT C (CESSNA SKYLANE) Type = Private Light Aircraft Powerplant = 1 propeller driven engine Power Rating = Single Piston 230 HP at sea level Wing Span = 10.91 m Wing Area = 16.17 m Gross Weight = 1337.6 kg Fuel Capacity = 166.22 kg (gasoline) Specific Fuel Consumption, s.f.c = 0.204 kg/HP hour CDo = 0.025 Oswald Efficiency Factor, e = 0.8 Blade Efficiency = 0.8
AICRAFT D (Scruggs-Plummmet SP10-99 Tri-cruiser) WEIGHT Gross Weight Empty Weight Maximum Payload Maximum Fuel Weight
240,000 kg 122,000 kg 46,000 kg 96,000 kg
DIMENSION Wing Area (gross) Wing Span Horizontal Tail Area Overal Length
415 m2 54 m 99 m2 56 m
AERODYNAMIC DATA Cruise CDo CDL o fuselage 0.0145 0.0540 -4 deg 5.4/rad 1.6 Takeoff/Climb Landing 0.0180 0.0585 -6 deg 5.4/rad 0.0225 2.0 0.0470 0.0620 -8 deg 5.4/rad 0.0225 2.5
dCL / d
Undecarriage drag coef Maximum CL
POWERPLANT 3 Engine Aircraft, Pratt & Witney NBG-20 Maximum Thrust, Sea Level I.S.A Specific Fuel Consumption, sfc, Sea Level I.S.A Cruise Thrust, 35000 ft, Mach 0.85 Specific Fuel Consumption, 35000 ft, Mach 0.85 179 KN 10.6 mg/Ns 48 KN 18.2 mg/Ns
At Sea Level Air density, Speed of Sound, Gas Constant,
= 1.225 kg/m3
ao = 340.29 m/s (661.5 knots) R = 287.05 Nm/kgK
Conversion Unit 1 Horse Power = 746 Watt 1 knots = 0.5144 m/s

Flight Mechanics - Part 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flight Mechanics - Part 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flight Mechanics Part I (Aircraft Performance) Dr Shuhaimi Mansor, Aeronautical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.

SMF3212 Flight Mechanics

Figure shows an aircraft major part.

2.2 Atmospheric Model

2.3 Relative Atmosphere

Figure 4 shows the properties of relative atmosphere.

2.4 Airspeed Measurement

2.5 Airworthiness, Safety and Certification

2.6 Aircraft Mission Profiles

1.0 0.7-1.0 0.15-0.25 0.1 0.4

2.7 Aerodynamic Forces

Wing loading, w is the ratio of aircraft weight to wing mg w= (N/m2) S

Stall speed is given as

General equation for aircraft performance

E is known as aero efficiency. CL = wing loading mg mg / S = 1 = 2 2 dynamic pressure V S 2 V

Equation for drag polar

C which C L min imum drag = Do K

So the maximum aero coefficient,

3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4

3.2 Stalling Speed

3.3 Equivalent speed in level flight

From equivalent air speed, Then

Equivalent airspeed is given as,

For a given weight, W and wing area, S for an aircraft,

3.4 Minimum Drag, Vmd

D D =W L D L For given weight, the minimum drag occurs at minimum or at maxsimum. L D

Differentiate (3.4.2) with respect to CL

Can be written as,

Also from (3.4.3)

Lift to drag ratio C Do L CL = = D CD K 1 1 = 2C Do 2 KC Do 3.4.7

3.5 Thrust Required

(L/D)max V (m/s) Vmd

3.6 Power Available and Power Required

Relationship of shaft power to thrust

THP BHP. .746 = .746 V V

3.6.2 Jet Engine (turbojet dan turbofan)

Power available and power required is a function of altitude.

Figure ## Altitude Effects on Maximum Excess Power

3.7 Minimum Power Required

At minimum power requirement condition, dPR =0 dV dPR 3 2W 2 V 2 S = V 2 SC Do + 2 A Re dV

For that a minimum power required occur when C Do = 1 2 KC L 3

Power available is determined by the powerplant characteristics

Figure 4.1 Forces Acting on an Aircraft in a Climb

If the aircraft is climbing at steady speed,

dV becomes zero, then the climb rate can be written as dt

TV DV is known as excess power dan

is known as specific excess power

In general the climb rate can be defined as dH Excess Power = dt W

a) Propeller Driven Engine

Then the maximum climb rate

MINIMUM TAKE-OFF THRUST REQUIREMENT

Climb gradient, sin = Typically Assume

D = 0.1 for the take-off configuration, u/c up mg

All engines operating

FN/mg Grad % Min grad-oei

JAR 25.121(b) MIN GRAD %

FN/mg Min. aeo (ISA + 15oC 5,000) 0.203 0.221 0.284

FN/mg equiv. ISA, SL

4 eng. 3 eng. 2 eng.

3.0 2.7 2.4

10.4 12.2 18.7

0.234 0.254 0.327

13.5 15.6 23.3

0.243 0.264 0.339