Plastic Deformation of Single Crystals

{4.2-4.7, 4-10, 4-11, 4-14, 6-2 p.187}

Fig.4.18 RSS= cos cos yielding when RSS CRSS or = m CRSS m depends on the orientation of the slip system (slip plane & slip direction) & slip occurs on the system with the lowest m (or highest cos cos) CRSS depends on the material & varies with the test conditions (T and strain-rate) CRSS = * + a * is thermally activated & a is athermal (see text Eq.8-82)

i.e. * is temperature and dependent (kT to overcome short-range obstacles) at T=Tc, =0 and =a T high enough that short-range obstacles do not offer any resistance while long-range stress fields lead to =a

Commonly observed slip systems close packed planes & close packed directions fcc bcc hcp {111} <110> {110} <111>
basal slip: {0001} <11 2 0> or prism slip: {10 1 0}<11 2 0> depends on c/a-ratio

Generalized Case : (use cut surface method)

unit vector along slip direction ( n =0) = unit vector normal to slip plane, s .s n ) along s = resolved shear stress due to ij (shear stress in the plane n
j=1

 3 = S1s1 + S 2 s 2 + S 3 s 3 ---- where S is the Stress-Vector S i = ij n j and = S s

Polycrystals : average value of <cos cos> = ( m) 1 = 1/3

{6-2 : geometrically necessary dislocations Fig. 6-2 for grain-to-grain compatibility} slip constraint 5-independent systems necessary for accomodating grain-tograin constraints. For lower number of systems (< 5), very low ductility expected. Not true for single crystals since there exist no such constraints of neighboring grains. Because, there are 6 parameters ij has - 11, 22, 33, 12, 13, and 23 but 11 + 22 + 33 = = 0 2 3 4 5 Thus ij = 1 ij + ij + ij + ij + ij from the 5 independent slip systems

Theoretical Yield Stress (Strength of a Perfect Crystal)

= 4-5 of text : y = m = . (Eq. 4.6) 2a 2 Gb G

Dislocations
(Ch. 4 - 6 of text except 4-8 to 4-10; notes; Hull & Bacon) t and b ) (note: t and b are vectors should be Dislocation Line : line of demarcation between slipped and unslipped regions (Fig.5-5, p.153) - dislocations cannot end in a crystal - they loop around or split (b1 b2+b3) such that - (i) b=0 and (ii) b1 b2+b3 (Franks Rule) - energetically favorable - Burgers vector : vector of nonclosure of the Burgers circuit (Fig. 5-6) Edge Dislocation : b r to t and n=t x b y (j) - in the fig. b=bi, t=k so that n=j {+ive and -ive edges} Screw Dislocation : b || to t and thus n = t x b = 0 not uniquely defined {+ive and -ive screws}
x (i)

z (k)

Core : ro _ 5b - around the where the atomic displacements are difficult to be traced or elasticity does not hold (p.162) Slip / Glide : conservative motion of a (4-6, p.120) Slip Plane / Glide Plane : of a contains both t and b (= n) (5-3 etc pp.150-) Change of Glide Plane : (i) Edge - climb non-conservative motion requiring atoms or vacancies to migrate to the core by jog formation (5-10) (ii) Screw - can cross-slip (since no well defined glide plane n=txb=0) (5-3, p.152) Characteristics of Dislocations (Table 5-1)

Characteristics
Relation between t and b Slip Direction Change of glide plane Direction of motion relative to b

Edge perpendicular parallel to b climb parallel

Screw parallel parallel to b cross-slip perpendicular

Direction of motion relative to t perpendicular perpendicular Peierls-Nabarro Stress : lattice resistance (friction) experienced by a gliding dislocation (Eq. 4.7, p.121)
P-N =

2G 2w exp() b 1-

where w=1- note as w P-N

Mixed Dislocation : b = b E + b s loops : (i) Glide loop - b is in the plane of the loop and thus the loop expands or contracts under an applied stress (the loop has edge, screw and mixed types of components) - see 5-3 on mixed dislocations (ii) Prismatic loop - pure edge loop : b is r to the plane of the dislocation {b=bj and t-around the circle in the x-z plane the glide plane is the cylinder perpendicular to the loop this loop cannot expand or contract in the plane of the loop conservatively} Glissile s - mobile s vs Sessile s - immobile (p. 140 / 157)
KL Murty page 2 MAT 450

 Dislocation Density : ( =[cm-2] = hL , p.123) : total length of dislocations per unit volume or number of dislocation intersections per unit area D = bv Orowan Equation (Eq. 4-12) Strain due to movement : = b x or

velocity : v =( )m , m from 1.5 to 40 (text p.123) o a 1 Dislocations in REAL Metals : (p.153) bfcc = 2<110> = 2<110>
a a 1 1 bbcc = 2<111> = 2<111> bhcp = 3<11 2 0> = 3<11 2 0> Elastic Strains and Stresses around a (or due to a ) : (5-7; Eq.5-1 to 5-5) Screw (b=t=k) xz, yz are non-zero (or in polar coordinates : z -non-zero) Edge (b=bi, t=k) xx, yy, zz, xy - non-zero

Strain Energy Density of a : (elastic strain energy per unit volume at r) recall U el = 1 2 ij ij Gb2 Gb2 Eel (screw) = 2 2 Eel (edge) = 2 8 r 8 (1-)r2 line tension - of a : (Total Elastic Strain Energy per unit length) is given by :
r1 r Gb 2 Gb 2 ln( ) ; Tedge = screw = ln( 1 ) where r1 is of the order of grain diameter or in general 4 4(1 ) r r = Gb2 where 0.5 1 (5-7; Eq.5-15) note : (i) energy is minimized for b lowest - b usually along cpd (ii) in reactions b2 is minimized {Franks rule b1 splits into b2 and b3 if and only if b=0 and b1_b2+b3 - as noted in the beginning} Force on a due to an applied stress () : F = b (5-8; Eq.-16)
Effects of External Stresses on Dislocations
1. Normal stresses (ijij) have no influence on Screw dislocations; i.e. only shear stresses have forces on them only ijs on the glide plane of the dislocation have non-zero forces : if b = b k and t = k , then xy has no effect 2. Normal stresses on edge dislocations induce forces perpendicular to the glide/slip plane has to climb (nonconservative process) 3. Aglide loop expands or contracts under the appropriate applied shear stress
2 2 2

Forces between dislocations (per unit length) : F = G x t = ( . b) x t (5-9, pp.166-) Like-Screw Dislocations repel : Opposite sign attract to annihilate _ Forces between 2Edge Dislocations (Fig. 5-17) depend on their relative positions like s y-force is repulsion and - x-force is repulsion when the angles are between 45o45o; 135o-225o (see Fig.) and attraction between 45 o -135 o and 225 o -315 o

2 1

x-force on b2

y-force on b2

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lead to 3 stable configurations (see Fig.)

1
45 o 45

2
o

Gb2 Gb , ~0.5 (Fig. 5-16) Force on a curved dislocation (per unite length) : F= R = b or R= thus s tend to be straight when there is no stress Energy required to form a dislocation : ~Gb2 per unit length too large compared to kT (Dislocation Multiplication) Gb Gb Frank-Read source : FR = 2 l/ l l is the distance between the pinning points on a dislocation (5-13, 5-14; Fig.5-26)

Path of a mobile edge due to a sessile edge on a parallel plane : Gb } - interaction parameter {h = 8(1-)xy - defined by force balance between F and F - if yo > h, no interaction and the mobile 1 escapes the force due to sessile 2
Subgrain boundaries (tilt and twist) p.195

b D

tilt boundary

large angle grain-boundary - the obstacle could be a lead dislocation from another F-R source on a parallel slip plane (Fig. 5.27) F-R source would generate another when the lead s climb for mutual annihilation
3. At large r ( L), the stress in the medium is the same as if a giant with Burgers vector nb situated at 3L
4 1

Dislocation pile-Up : (5-16; Fig.5-27) due to dislocations generated from a F-R source held up at an obstacle L = nGb xy

Consequences of a Pile Up (text 5-16)

1. Just ahead of the pile-up (i.e., r is small and ~0) : (1-) L 2 = n xy = xy Gb 2. At large r but smaller than L (such as at point P in fig.), there exists a stress concentration due to the pile up :
at P ~xy
L r

from the source (and 4L from the obstacle) replaces the pile-up

( 70 )
o

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 Partial s (FCC): stacking faults (5-4, p.155) a a a a Shockley - glissile b = 6<112> 2[ 1 01] 6[ 2 11] + 6[ 1 1 2] 2 2 2 a a check (i) b1 = b2 + b3 {=6[ 3 03]=2[ 1 01]} and (ii) b1 > b2 + b3 (Franks rule) a S-Frank Frank - sessile (Fig. 5-11) b = 3<111> {D-Frank Lomer lock (sessile ):
(text p.158 / Hull & Bacon pp. 106-108)

a2

a2 a2 a2 > 2 6 + 6 = 3 OK

a - 2 perfect s of 2<110>-type on 2 intersecting {111} planes Lomer-Cottrell Barriers (locks) stair-rod (Fig.5-12) Dislocations in bcc (5.6, Fig.5-13) s in Ordered Structures (Courtney 3.7D) super-lattice dislocations - Figs. 3.32, 3.33 s in Non-metals (ionics) (Fig. 3.31 Courtney) Dislocation Intersections : Kinks and Jogs (5-11, 5-12) - steps formed in the plane of a are kinks - steps on planes other than that of the are termed jogs
note : jogs on screw dislocations are of edge type and these jogs cannot glide along with the screw - the edge-jogs need to climb for them to keep up with the gliding screw

Motion of Jogged Screw Dislocation

Fig. 5-24

Yield Points in well grown (low) crystals : D = bv (Orowan eqn); refer to Fig. v (to keep the strain-rate constant) - Yield Point Phenomena : y = s + i (Eq.6-18) Strain-Aging : bcc (s>0) Blue Brittleness
(Portevin LeChatelier Effect) in mild steel (due to N & C)

Fig. 6-8

vs fcc (s~0) DSA (Portevin LeChatelier Effect) 1. Well-Annealed (Johnston-Gilman Model) : (p. 200 of text) 2. BCC Metals : In bcc metals (e.g., steels with interstitial impurity elements such as C and N) we find upper and
lower yield points along with Luder's strain (L). This is due to C and N being mobile even at RT are attracted to the cores of edge dislocations (below the glide plane). These atoms at the dislocation core form impurity clouds / atmospheres (Cottrell atmospheres - pp. 198-199 of text) and lock the dislocations from moving. This pheomenon leads to relatively (wrt fcc) large values of source hardening (s) in : y = i + s) which require higher stresses for plastic flow and when the stress reaches the UYP, the dislocations get freed resulting in a sudden increase in m which leads to decreased dislocation velocity. This results in a sudeen drop in the load - LYP. A Luder's band then propagates along the specimen gauge length and when the entire specimen is traversed, uniform elongation or flow occurs and work-hardening results as in fcc metals. KL Murty page 4 MAT 450-96

 Geometrically necessary dislocations (G) : (Eq. 6-2) G = 4bd , d is the grain size

Strengthening Mechanisms ( =
Mechanism Solutes Interaction Effect Size misfit Electrical + others Size misfit Precipitate shearing Non-shearable (Orowan mechanism) Dislocation "cutting" Boundary "crossing" Unstable equilibrium Primary bonding Spacing formula
C at. Frac =
b2 L2

Gb ) L
Text 6-7 6-9 6-9

Comments s << 1 (increases with misfit) p _ 1 (increases with D) =1 (c = FR) d 1 1/2 (d/dplastic > 0) Ky = interaction parameter rmin = L/2 at = FR (sets upper limit, = 1) Low for metallic High for covalent/ionic

Precipitates Dispersoids Dislocations

(work hardening)

2 f v = vol. frac. = D L2 2 f v = vol. frac. = D L2

= disln. density =

1 L2

5-3 6-3

Grain boundaries Frank-Read source Lattice resistance (P-N force)

d = grain size

L = pinned length L=b

5-14 4-6

Stress Fields Around Dislocations (Text pp. 161-162) Screw Dislocation Edge Dislocation
b=bk ; t=k Cylindrical Coordinates : Gb z = z = 2r b=bi; t=k Cylindrical Coordinates : Gb sin rr = = 2 (1) r Gb cos r = r = 2 (1) r zz = (rr + )

Cartesian Coordinates Gb y Gb sin xz = zx = = 2 2 2 x + y 2 r Gb x Gb cos yz = zy = = 2 x2 + y2 2 r

Cartesian Coordinates xx = yy = Gb 3x2+y2 y (x2 + y2)2 2(1) Gb x2 - y2 y (x2 + y2)2 2(1) Gb x2 - y2 x (x2 + y2)2 2(1)

Forces between dislocations Peach-Koehler formula 

F = (.b) x t

xy = yx =

zz = (xx + yy)

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