CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE- TRANSLATION STRATEGIES- A MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVE (NIDA, NEWMARK, HOUSE, REISS ,VERMEER)

CHAPTER TWO- A CORPUS BASED APP TO TRANSLATION STRATEGIES

CHAPTER THREE INVESTIGATING THE USABILITY

CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA FACULTATEA DE LITERE MASTER SPECIALIZAREA LIMBA ENGLEZA I LIMBA FRANCEZA- TRADUCERE I INTERPRETARE JURIDICA EUROPEANA

LUCRARE DE DISERTAIE

NDRUMTOR: LECT. UNIV. DR. VLCEANU TITELA CRAIOVA 2012

ABSOLVENT: CANCIU-MIERE ECATERINA-IRINA

UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA FACULTATEA DE LITERE MASTER SPECIALIZAREA LIMBA ENGLEZA I LIMBA FRANCEZA- TRADUCERE I INTERPRETARE JURIDICA EUROPEANA

INVESTIGATING THE USABILITY OF TRANSLATION STRATEGIES

NDRUMTOR: LECT. UNIV. DR. VLCEANU TITELA CRAIOVA 2012

ABSOLVENT: CANCIU-MIERE ECATERINA- IRINA

CONTENT

Introduction . .. Chapter 1. . Chapter 2. Chapter 3. Conclusions References.. .

INTRODUCTION

Translation typically has been used to transfer written or spoken SL texts to equivalent written or spoken TL texts. In general, the purpose of translation is to reproduce various kinds of textsincluding religious, literary, scientific, and philosophical textsin another language and thus making them available to wider readers. If language were just a classification for a set of general or universal concepts, it would be easy to translate from an SL to a TL; furthermore, under the circumstances the process of learning an L2 would be much easier than it actually is. In this regard, Culler believes that languages are not nomenclatures and the concepts of one language may differ radically from those of another, since each language articulates or organizes the world differently, and languages do not simply name categories; they articulate their own. Translation procedures are methods applied by translators when they formulate an equivalence for the purpose of transferring elements from the Source Text to the Target Text. Translation methods vs. translation procedures Translators distinguish between global translation strategies and local translation strategies: global translation strategy : the overall strategy you apply to a text as a whole- the primary choice you have to make here is how close to the source text you want your target text to be. local translation strategy: strategies you apply in the translation of individual expressions in the source text, such as words, grammatical constructions, idioms.

Global translation strategies / translation methods You have to make the choice between imitative translation and functional translation the first striving to retain as much of the purely formal aspects of the source text, and the latter aims at getting the message of the source text across, even if it takes drastic changes in the formal aspects of the text. Different types of translations No statement of the principles of correspondence in translating can be complete without recognizing the many different types of translations. Traditionally, we have tended to think in terms of free or paraphrastic translations as contrasted with close or literal ones. Actually, there are many more grades of translating than these extremes imply. There are, for example, such ultraliteral translations as interlinears; while others involve highly concordant relationships, e.g. the same source-language word is always translated by one and only onereceptor-language word. Still others may be quite devoid of artificial restrictions in form, but nevertheless may be over traditional and even archaizing. Some translations aim at very close formal and semantic correspondence, but are generously supplied with notes and commentary. Many are not so much concerned with giving information as with creating in the reader something of the same mood as was conveyed by the original. Differences in translations can generally be accounted for by three basic factors in translating: the nature of the message, the purpose or purposes of the author and, by proxy, of the translator, and the type of audience. Messages differ primarily in the degree to which content or form is the dominant consideration. Of course, the content of a message can never be completely abstracted from the form, and form is nothing apart from content; but in some messages the content is of primary consideration, and in others the form must be given a higher priority.

CHAPTER I- TRANSLATION STRATEGIES- MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES

CHAPTER I- TRANSLATION STRATEGIES- MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES

The translating procedures, as depicted by Nida are as follow: I. Technical procedures: A. B. II. analysis of the source and target languages; a through study of the source language text before making attempts translate it;

Organizational procedures: constant reevaluation of the attempt made; contrasting it with the existing available translations of the same text done by other translators, and checking the text's communicative effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate its accuracy and effectiveness and studying their reactions. Krings defines translation strategy as "translator's potentially conscious plans for solving

concrete translation problems in the framework of a concrete translation task," and Seguinot believes that there are at least three global strategies employed by the translators: (i) translating without interruption for as long as possible; (ii) correcting surface errors immediately; (iii) leaving the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the revision stage. Newmark mentions the difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes that, "[w]hile translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language" . He goes on to refer to the following methods of translation:

Word-for-word translation: in which the SL word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Literal translation: in which the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context.

Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.

Semantic translation: which differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text.

Adaptation: which is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays (comedies) and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten.

Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original.

Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original.

Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership .

Newmark writes of a continuum existing between "semantic" and "communicative" translation. Any translation can be "more, or less semanticmore, or less, communicative even a particular section or sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically." Both seek an "equivalent effect." Zhongying who prefers literal translation to free translation, writes that, "[i]n China, it is agreed by many that one should translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation." In order to clarify the distinction between procedure and strategy, the forthcoming section is allotted to discussing the procedures of translating culture-specific terms, and strategies for rendering allusions will be explained in detail. Different translation procedures that Newmark proposes:

Transference: it is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. It includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey named "transcription." Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the TL. (Newmark)

Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one. however, "they are not accurate" (Newmark)

Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word. (Newmark) Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained in several words. (Newmark)

Componential analysis: it means "comparing an SL word with a TL word which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components." (Newmark)

Synonymy: it is a "near TL equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy. (Newmark) Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It can also be called: calque or loan translation. (Newmark)

Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an SL verb to a TL word, change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth. (Newmark)

Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective. (Newmark)

Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." (Newmark)

Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is compensated in another part. (Newmark)

Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained. Here the explanation is much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent. (Newmark)

Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different procedures. (Newmark) Notes: notes are additional information in a translation. (Newmark)

Translation types
Jakobsons semiotic classification > intralingual, interlingual, intersemiotic

Binary classifications: free vs. literal covert vs. overt (House) semantic vs. communicative (Newmark) documentary vs. instrumental (Nord)

Classification based on text types (Reiss) > informative, expressive, operative; multi-medial

 Classification used in the EU: depends on purpose of the translation (Wagner) straight (nothing corrected) tidied (errors corrected) naturalized (adapted to local or international readership) reduced (gist translation) A typology can be useful in negotiating with clients They should specify their wishes with respect to different variables, such as translation purpose, content equivalence, formal equivalence, stylistic equivalence, source text revision, level of acceptability required.

A typology is also useful for scholars wanting to study the general features of particular translation types.

Translation strategies
The general characteristics of translation strategies: They apply to a process They involve text manipulantion They are goal-oriented Problem-centred Potentially conscious They are intersubjective, meaning that they can be experienced and understood by someone other than the person using them.

Most researchers agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problemusually this means that a direct, literal translation is not sufficient for the task they are working on. Different researchers have investigated and described various types of translation strategies depending on the aspect of the phenomenon of translation they were studying. One way of categorizing translation strategies is in terms of which actor or phase of the translation process we are looking at. For example, we can concentrate on translators and on what they do before, during or after the actual translation process. The resulting comprehension strategies, transfer strategies and production strategies are all examples of translation strategies.

Strategies are also known as shifts or procedures or techniques. Early classifications: by Nida: changes of order, omission, structure, addition by Vinay and Darbelnet: loan, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, total syntagmatic change, adaptation.

A summary list of some frequent strategies (with Finnish terms added): Syntactic strategies Literal translation Loan Calque Transposition kirjaimellinen knns laina knnslaina sanaluokan muutos

Unit change Structural change Cohesion change Rhetorical scheme change

yksikn muutos (eg. word > phrase) rakenteen muutos koheesion muutos retorisen kuvion muutos (alliteration...)

Semantic strategies Using a synonym Using an antonym Using a hyponym Using a hyperonym Condensing Expanding Modulation synonyymi antonyymi alaksite (hyponyymi) ylksite (hyperonyymi) tiivistminen laajentaminen modulaatio (e.g. concrete > abstract) Rhetorical

trope change kielikuvan muutos (metaphor, irony...) Pragmatic changes Addition Omission lisminen poistaminen

Explicitation Implicitation Domestication Foreignization Formality change Speech act change Transediting

eksplisitointi implisitointi kotouttaminen vieraannuttaminen muodollisuusasteen muutos puheaktin muutos toimittaminen, uudelleen muokkaamine

Eugene Nida- principles of correspondence Since no two languages are identical, either in the meanings given to corresponding symbols or in the ways in which such symbols are arranged in phrases and sentences, it stands to reason that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. Hence there can be no fully exact translations. The total impact of a translation may be reasonably close to the original, but there can be no identity in detail.

CHAPTER II CORPUS BASED TO TRANSLATION STRATEGIES

CHAPTER II CORPUS BASED TO TRANSLATION STRATEGIES As we all know, good translation is not usually just a question of translating each word in turn of the source text into the target language. Nor does it consist, however, of the translator skimming through the source text, putting it aside and then jotting down the general idea of it in his or her own words in the target language. In between the two extremes there is a wide variety of techniques or strategies , many of which translators will use intuitively for any given text. I chose Great Expectations to give an example of how the strategies can be identified because it is one of the most important novels of its time. It follows the life of young Pip, from his awakening to life. This first chapter is worth memorizing for you or to impress your friends. Great literature! It goes on to tell the story of a young working class lad in England, who inherits a fortune from an unknown source and becomes a gentleman. In this process, he meets the beautiful Estelle and falls in love. The fact that he feels unworthy and the truth about his benefactor loom large. It is the answers to these questions that leave us thinking about this novel, these characters and what it means to have status.
<<You young dog, said the man, licking his lips, what fat cheeks you ha got. I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and not strong. Darn me if I couldnt eat em, said the man, with a threatening shake of his head, and if I hant half a mind tot!>> VS:

- Mi putiule, fcu omul, lingndu-i buzele, dar dolofan obraji mai ai. Cred c, ntr-adevr, aveam obrajii dolofani, dei pe atunci era cam mititel i nu prea voinic pentru vrsta mea.

- S fiu al naibii, dac nu i-a mnca! spuse omul, cltinnd amenintor din cap. Zu dac n-a face-o. <<Young dog>>, was translated in romanian as pustiule, and that can be as a reformulation, sometimes known as equivalence. Here you have to express something in a completely different way, for example when translating idioms . << Darn me if I couldnt eat em>> is translated as S fiu al naibii, dac nu i-a mnca, in this translation I may say it was used the modulation, which is slightly more abstract than transposition, this consists of using a phrase that is different in the source and target languages to convey the same idea.
<<I fully expected to find a Constable in the kitchen, waiting to take me up. But not only was there no Constable there, but no discovery had yet been made of the robbery. Mrs. Joe was prodigiously busy in getting the house ready for the festivities of the day, and Joe had been put upon the kitchen door-step to keep him out of the dust-pan - an article into which his destiny always led him sooner or later, when my sister was vigorously reaping the floors of her establishment. And where the deuce ha you been? was Mrs. Joes Christmas salutation, when I and my conscience showed ourselves. I said I had been down to hear the Carols. Ah! well! observed Mrs. Joe. You might ha done worse. Not a doubt of that, I thought.>> VS: Eram sigur c voi gsi comisarul n buctrie, ateptnd s m ridice. Dar, nu numai c nu am gsit nici urm de comisar, dar hoia mea nici nu fusese descoperit. Doamna Joe era nespus de prins cu pregtirile; ornduia casa pentru ziua cea mare i Joe fusese aezat n ua buctriei, ca s nu stea n calea fraului un obiect spre care destinul l mpingea ntotdeauna mai devreme sau mai trziu, ori de cte ori sor-mea mtura podelele. - Unde naiba ai fost? a fost urarea de Cr ciun a doamnei Joe, cnd eu, mpreun cu cugetul meu vinovat, ne-am fcut apariia.

Am rspuns c fusesem n sat, ca s aud cntecele de Crciun. - Bine, fcu doamna Joe, bine c n-ai fcut ceva mai ru. Nici vorb, gndeam eu.

Literal Translation Just what it says <<I fully expected to find a Constable in the kitchen, waiting to
take me up>> - Eram sigur c voi gsi comisarul n buctrie, ateptnd s m ridice, Again, sometimes it works and sometimes it doesn't.

Ornduia casa was adapted to << getting the house ready>>.

<<Now! How much is forty-three pence? To which I replied, after a long interval of reflection, I dont know. And I was so aggravated that I almost doubt if I did know. Mr. Pumblechook worked his head like a screw to screw it out of me, and said, Is forty-three pence seven and sixpence three fardens, for instance?>> VS: - Ei i acum! Ct fac patruzeci i trei de penny? i eu am rspuns, dup o lung gndire: -Nu tiu. i ntr-adevr eram att de scos din fire, nct m ndoiesc dac tiam. Domnul Pumblechook a fcut un gest de urub cu capul, ca s-mi scoat rspunsul din creier i spuse: - De pild, patruzeci i trei de penny fac trei farthing i ase penny? << Aggravated>> is literally translated with scos din fire, by one of the strategies techniques.

<<To screw it out of me>>, was adaptated at s-mi scoat rspunsul din creier, that was is expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to the

target language culture.

<<As I was getting too big for Mr. Wopsles great-aunts room, my education under that preposterous female terminated. Not, however, until Biddy had imparted to me everything she knew, from the little catalogue of prices, to a comic song she had once bought for a halfpenny. Although the only coherent part of the latter piece of literature were the opening lines, When I went to Lunnon town sirs, Too rul loo rul Too rul loo rul Wasnt I done very brown sirs? Too rul loo rul Too rul loo rul - still, in my desire to be wiser, I got this composition by heart with the utmost gravity; nor do I recollect that I questioned its merit, except that I thought (as I still do) the amount of Too rul somewhat in excess of the poetry.>> VS: Deoarece eram prea mare pentru coala mtuii domnului Wopsle, educaia mea de sub conducerea femeii aceleia zpcite lu sfrit. Nu, ns, nainte ca Biddy s-mi fi mprtit tot ce tia, ncepnd cu catalogul de pre uri i sfrind cu un cntec caraghios, pe care-l cump rase ea odat cu jumtate de penny. Dei, singura parte de neles din aceast lucrare erau primele rnduri: Cnd m-am dus n oraul Lummon, oameni buni; Tralala, tralala, Tralala, tralala, Nu m-am ntors oare acas negru, oameni buni. Tralala, tralala, Tralala, tralala, totui n dorina mea de a deveni mai nelept, am nvat aceast compoziie pe dinafar cu toat srguina; i nici nu-mi amintesc s-mi fi pus ntrebri cu privire

la valoarea ei, doar c gndeam (cum de altfel gndesc i acum) c erau prea multe tralala-uri fa de restul poeziei. << Too rul loo rul Too rul loo rul>> has the cultural equivalent Tralala, tralala,, and by translating it this way we replace a cultural word. << With the utmost gravity>> was translated in romanian as cu toat srguina, using faithful translation which attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures. <<I had scarcely had time to enjoy the coach and to think how like a straw-yard it was, and yet how like a rag-shop, and to wonder why the horses nose-bags were kept inside, when I observed the coachman beginning to get down, as if we were going to stop presently. And stop we presently did, in a gloomy street, at certain offices with an open door, whereon was painted MR. JAGGERS.>> VS: Nici nu apucasem s m bucur de trsur, s m gndesc ct de mult seamn cu o grmad de paie i, n acelai timp, cu o prvlie de vechituri i s m ntreb de ce oare traistele din care mncau caii erau inute nuntru, cnd bgai de seam c vizitiul ncetinete mersul, ca i cum ar fi avut de gnd s se opreasc ndat. i, ntr-adevr, ne oprirm ndat, ntr-o strad ntunecoas, n faa unor birouri i a unei ui deschise, pe care era scris: Domnul Jaggers. << The horses nose-bags>> was adapted , and I think it was also used free translation to traistele din care mncau caii, and it expresses an appropriate translation to the target language. <<On our arrival in Denmark, we found the king and queen of that country elevated in two armchairs on a kitchen-table, holding a Court. The whole of the Danish nobility were in attendance; consisting of a noble boy in the wash-leather boots of a gigantic ancestor, a venerable Peer with a dirty face who seemed to have risen from the people late in life, and the Danish chivalry with a comb in its hair and a pair of white silk legs, and presenting on the whole a feminine appearance. My gifted townsman stood gloomily apart, with folded arms, and I could have wished that his curls and forehead had been more probable.>>

VS: Cnd am ajuns n Danemarca, am gsit pe regele i pe regina acestei ari aezai pe dou jiluri cocoate pe o mas de buctrie i innd sfat cu toi curtenii. Toat nobilimea danez era de fa; adic un tnr nobil n cizmele cine tie crui strmo, un venerabil lord cu faa murdar, care prea s se fi ridicat din popor la btrnee, i floarea cavalerimii daneze, adic nite tineri cu piepteni n pr i ciorapi albi de mtase, care aveau cu toii o nfiare cam feminin. nzestratul meu concetean sttea posomort ntr-un col, cu braele ncruciate i tare ar fi fost de dorit ca buclele i fruntea lui s arate mai adevrate. << We found the king and queen of that country>> is translated by using word-for-word translation in am gsit pe regele i pe regina acestei ari , the order is preserved and the words singly by their most common meanings, out of context. << Two arm-chairs>> has the cultural equivalent dou jiluri. <<With a comb in its hair and a pair of white silk legs>> is translated in cu piepteni n pr i ciorapi albi de mtase using idiomatic translation that reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances. <<Dear boy and Pips comrade. I am not a-going fur to tell you my life, like a song or a story-book. But to give it you short and handy, Ill put it at once into a mouthful of English. In jail and out of jail, in jail and out of jail, in jail and out of jail. There, you got it. Thats my life pretty much, down to such times as I got shipped off, arter Pip stood my friend. Ive been done everything to, pretty well - except hanged. Ive been locked up, as much as a silver tea-kettle. Ive been carted here and carted there, and put out of this town and put out of that town, and stuck in the stocks, and whipped and worried and drove. Ive no more notion where I was born, than you have - if so much. I first become aware of myself, down in Essex, a thieving turnips for my living. Summun had run away from me - a man - a tinker - and hed took the fire with him, and left me wery cold.>>

VS: - Mi biete i tu, prietenul lui Pip. N-am de gnd s v spun viaa mea ca pe un cntec sau ca o poveste. Dar ca s-o fac scurt i pe nelesul tuturor, o s-o spun n cteva cuvinte englezeti. Iar la nchisoare i iar afar din nchisoare i iar la nchisoare i iar afar i iar la nchisoare i iar afar. Acum tii tot. Cam asta-i viaa mea, pn cnd m-au mbarcat, dup ce Pip s-a purtat cu mine ca un prieten. De toate am pit, dar spnzurat n-am fost nc. Am fost inut sub cheie ca un ceainic de argint. Ba m-au crat aici, ba colo, ba m-au scos dintr-un ora, ba din altul i m-au pus i la stlp i m-au btut cu biciul i m-au chinuit i m-au fugrit. Nu mai tiu unde m-am nscut. Cnd am nceput s judec ct de ct, eram n Essex i furam ridichi ca s am ce mnca. Mi-amintesc c-mi plecase cineva din cas, nu tiu cine, parc un tinichigiu i c a luat focul cu el i m-a lsat n frig. <<Dear boy and Pips comrade>> is translated in Mi biete i tu, prietenul lui Pip- by using free translation. << Ive been done everything to, pretty well - except hanged>> is translated in De toate am pit, dar spnzurat n-am fost nc by using communicative translation that attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership.

I also chose Wuthering Heights because I wanted to give an example of how the translation strategies can be identified. In the novel Wuthering Heights, a story about love that has turned into obsession, Emily Bronte manipulates the desolate setting and dynamic characters to examine the self-destructive pain of compulsion. Emily Brontes Wuthering Heights is a novel about lives that are intertwined with one another. All the characters in this novel are commingled in their relationships with Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange

http://www.gradesaver.com/wuthering-heights/ http://www.shmoop.com/wuthering-heights/literary-devices.html http://www.online-literature.com/bronte/wuthering/

CHAPTER III- INVESTIGATING THE USABILITY

CHAPTER III- INVESTIGATING THE USABILITY

In CHAPTER II I have analized different types of translation strategies. Some of those are quite interesting. Their usability is presented further in this part:

Literal Translation- in which the SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context. Transposition- Grammatical structures are not often identical in different languages. Transposition is often used between English and Romanian because of the preferred position of the verb in the sentence: English wants the verb up near the front; Romanian can have it closer to the end. Adaptation- Here something specific to the source language culture is expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to the target language culture. Sometimes it is valid, and sometimes it is problematic, to say the least. Compensation- Another model describes a technique known as compensation. This is a rather amorphous term, but in general terms it can be used where something cannot be translated from source to target language, and the meaning that is lost in the immediate translation is expressed somewhere else in the TT. Fawcett defines it as: "...making good in one part of the text something that could not be translated in another". Translation works at different levels - from words and phrases up to the level of the whole text. Gouadec, who ought to know, says that the mark of novice translators is that they only work at the lowest level, so be warned. For years translations were considered as derivatives, copies, and translators as mechanical devices replacing linguistic codes from one language into another, and the

translator's autonomy was always questioned by those who thought of him/her as a monkey, with no choice save to make the same grimaces as his master , until recent years when, under the influence of poststructuralism and functionalism, the focus of attention has been shifted to the issue of translators agency and subjectivity, and the notions of originality and equivalence and also authors superiority over translator have been severely questioned. Bassnett (1996) stresses the need for reassessing the role of the translator by analyzing his/her intervention in the process of linguistic transfer, when she argues Once considered a subservient, transparent filter through which a text could and should pass without adulteration, the translation can now be seen as a process in which intervention is crucial . Awareness of complexity of translation process and avoidance of the simplistic view of regarding translation as mere process of transferring words from one text to another, lvarez & Vidal claim, will result in realizing the importance of the ideology underlying a translation. The exercise of ideology in translation is as old as the history of translation itself. Throughout the centuries, individuals and institutions applied their particular beliefs to the production of certain effect in translation . An ideological approach to translation can be found in some of the earliest examples of translation known to us. Nevertheless, the linguistics-oriented approaches to translation studies have failed to address the concept of ideology through years of their prevalence, because such approaches are limited to their scientific models for research and the empirical data they collect, so that they remain reluctant to take into account the social values and ideologies that enter into translating as well as the study of it . The term ideology has been always accompanied by its political connotation as it is evident in its dictionary definition as a system of ideas and ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic orpolitical theory and policy . Scholars in the field of language-related, cultural and translation studies, however, often tend to extend the concept of ideology beyond political sphere and define it in a rather politically neutralized sense as a set of ideas, which organize our lives and help us understand the relation to our environment The ideology of translation could be traced in both process and product of translation which are, however, closely interdependent. The ideology of a translation, will be a combination

of the content of the source text and the various speech acts represented in the source text relevant to the source context, layered together with the representation of the content, its relevance to the receptor audience, and the various speech acts of the translation itself addressing the target context, as well as resonance and discrepancies between these two utterances. However, she further explains that the ideology of translation resides not simply in the text translated, but in the voicing and stance of the translator, and in its relevance to the receiving audience . Ideological aspect can be determined within a text itself, both at the lexical level and the grammatical level . Ideological aspects can be more or less obvious in texts, depending on the topic of a text, its genre and communicative purposes. Ideological aspects can also be examined in the process of text production and the role of the translator as a target text producer as well as a source text interpreter. These aspects along with two major influencing schools of post-structuralism and functionalism will be further explained in details in the following paragraphs. This shift of idea from structuralism toward poststructuralism resulted in extreme revisions in different domains of language, for example, developing of the death of author thinking which later found its way into Translation Studies. From instability of the signifiers and signifieds, Barthes concludes that reading texts in terms of authorial intention or what we think the author meant by such and such a statement, and referring the source of meaning and authority of a text back to its author is no more acceptable . Barthes argues that since writers only write within a system of language in which particularized authors are born and shaped, texts cannot be thought of in terms of their authors intentions, but only in relationship with other texts: in intertextuality . In the absence of the author, Barthes explains, the readers interpret texts by setting them against their backdrop of known words and phrases, existing statements, familiar conventions, anterior texts, or, in other words, their general knowledge which is ideological; and the meaning of a text becomes what individual readers extract from it, not what a supreme Author put in.

Translators are those people who let their knowledge govern their behavior. And that knowledge is ideological. It is controlled by ideological norms. If you want to become a translator you must submit to the translators submissive role, submit to being possessed by what ideological norms inform you. What brings de facto the individual interpretations close together is the likeness of the intertextual and ideological configurations the individuals are located in. Translators are hardly aware of ideological factors governing their process of the source text interpretation Nevertheless, sometimes it becomes extremely difficult for a translation scholar to justify whether the ideological discrepancies observed between the source text and the target text are results of the translators subconscious ideological interpretation or of his/her intentional ideological intervention which will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Ideology and the translator as a writer of the target text: Functionalism While one of the pivotal achievements of the poststructuralist approaches is dethroning the author and his/her authorial intention by emphasizing the role of the translator as an autonomous reader of the source text, functionalist approaches try to dethrone the source text itself by emphasizing the role of the translator as a creator of the target text and giving priority to purpose of producing target text. The translator may be held responsible for the result of his/her translational acts by recipients and clients. In order to act responsibly, however, translators must be allowed the freedom to decide in co-operation with their clients what is in their best interests. An awareness of the requirements of the skopos, Vermeer maintains, expands the possibilities of translation, increases the range of possible translation strategies, and releases the translator from the corset of an enforced and hence often meaningless literalness. The translator thus becomes a target-text author freed from the limitations and restrictions imposed by a narrowly defined concept of loyalty to the source text alone . Hnig usefully contrasts the characteristics of functional approaches vs. non-functional approaches as follows:

FUNCTIONALIST Translator Is loyal to his client Must be visible Translation processes should be Target text oriented Aim of translation is Communicative acceptability Translation tools taken from Psycho-, sociolinguistics, text linguistics (supporting decisions) Analogy Building bridge

NON-FUNCTIONALIST Faithful to the author Should be invisible Source text oriented Linguistic equivalence Contrastive linguistics lexical semantics (applying rules) Crossing river

More severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure. It is further explained that parallels in culture often provide a common understanding despite significant formal shifts in the translation. According to him cultural implications for translation are thus of significant importance as well as lexical concerns. Nida's definitions of formal and dynamic equivalence in 1964 considers cultural implications for translation. According to him, a "gloss translation" mostly typifies formal equivalence where form and content are reproduced as faithfully as possible and the TL reader is able to "understand as much as he can of the customs, manner of thought, and means of expression" of the SL context. Contrasting with this idea, dynamic equivalence "tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" without insisting that he "understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context". According to him problems may vary in scope depending on the cultural and linguistic gap between the two (or more) languages concerned. It can be said that the first concept in cultural translation studies wascultural turn that in 1978 was presaged by the work on Polysystems and translation norms by Even-Zohar and in 1980 by Toury. They dismiss the linguistic kinds of theories of translation and refer to them as having

moved from word to text as a unit but not beyond. They themselves go beyond language and Figure 1: A schematic view of functionalist and non-functionalist approaches

As it is evident in Hnigs schematic view, visibility of the translator is a key concept in functional approaches. According to Hnig (1998: 1213), in functionalism the translator inevitably has to be visible, since functional approaches do not establish rules but support decision-making strategies and the translator has to make critical decisions as to how define the translation skopos and which strategies can best meet the target recipients requirements; s/he should be visible, making his/her decisions transparent to his/her client and accepting theresponsibility of his/her choices. A visible translator has to accept the consequences of his/her translational decisions, as Toury (1999) declares, it is always the translator herself or himself, as an autonomous individual, who decides how to behave, be that decision fully conscious or not. Whatever the degree of awareness, it is s/he who will also have to bear the consequences (p. 19). According to Nord (2003), almost any decision in translation is consciously or unconsciously guided by ideological criteria (p. 111). Ideological factors are very decisive in defining the translation skopos(target-text intended purpose) and selecting the functionally appropriate strategies by the translator, based on the expectations of the translation clients. These factors which affect and regulate the translators behavior are further investigated in the following section under the title of norms. Norms According to Toury (1999), all human beings have an inherent tendency toward socializing and social acceptability; as a result, under normal conditions, people tend to avoid behaviors which are prohibited or sanctioned as well as to adopt behaviors which are considered as being appropriate within the group they belong to (pp. 1519). There is a socially shared knowledge between members of every community as to what is considered correct or appropriate as a communicative behavior. This knowledge exists in the form of norms. They serve consciously as a pattern of behavior, and they also regulate expectations concerning both behavior itself and the products of this behavior (Schffner, 1999: 5). Toury (1999) defines norm in terms of the translation of general values or ideas shared by a groupas to what is conventionally right and wrong, adequate and inadequateinto performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to particular situations (p. 14). Taking into consideration the definition of ideology by van Dijk (1996) as the organized evaluative beliefs shared by social groups, normsas defined by Toury (1999)seem to have much in common with ideology; in other words, norms can be understood as ideological realization of the concept of appropriateness and correctness. Decision-making is a key concept in the discussion of norms. Norms exist only in situations which allow for alternative kind of behavior, involving the need to select among these, with the additional condition that selection be non-random (Toury, 1999: 15). This selection, according to Toury (1999), could be posited between two constraining extremes of relatively absolute rules on one hand, and pure idiosyncrasies on the other (p. 16).

Toury applies the norms concept to translation studies presuming that translating involves playing a social role subject to several types of socio-cultural constraints of varying degree. He, consequently, argues that the acquisition of a set of norms for determining the suitability of translational behavior, and for maneuvering between all factors which may constrain it, is a prerequisite for becoming a translator within a cultural environment (Toury, 2000: 198). Toury (2000) claims that norms govern every level of decision-making in the translating process from choice of text to translate to the very final choices of translation strategies of action. He, consequently, introduces three kinds of norm: 1) initial norm; 2) preliminary norms; and 3) operational norms. Initial norm governs the translators overall decisions to adhere either to the original text, with the norms it has realized, or to the norms active in the target culture, or in that section of it which would host the end product (Toury, 2000: 201). Toury (2000), however, denies the necessity of full conformity between an overall decision made and every single decision be made in the lower-levels of translation process; and, consequently, denies the existence of absolute regularity in translational behaviors (p. 201). The options which are made available to the translator by Tourys initial norm are very similar to those which Venuti (1998b: 240) talks about in his foreignizing and domesticatingstrategies of translation. Preliminary norms govern the decisions to be made concerning translation policy and directness. According to Toury (2000: 202), translation policy refers to those factors that govern the choice of text types; or individual texts, to be imported through translation into a particular culture/language at a particular point in time. He further explains that considerations concerning directness of translation involve the threshold of tolerance for translating from languages other than the ultimate source language (p. 202). Operational norms direct the actual decisions made during the act of translation and are subdivided into matricial and textual-linguisticnorms. Matricial norms govern the segmentation and distribution of textual materials in the target text. Textual-linguistic norms govern the selection of material to formulate the target text in, or replace the original textual and linguistic material with (Toury, 2000: 2023). It should be noted that, according to Toury (2000), There is no necessary identity between the norms themselves and any formulation of them in language (p. 200). He believes that the observed regularities in translational behaviors are not themselves the norms; they are rather external evidence which reflect the existence of norms (Toury, 1999: 15). Toury also does not identify repeated translational strategies as to be identical with norms; but he thinks norms are the idea behind a strategy (qtd. in Schffner, 1999: 84). Therefore, Bakers interpretation of norms as regularities of translational behavior within a specific socio-cultural situation (Baker, 1998: 163) or strategies of translation which are repeatedly opted for, in preference to other available strategies, in a given culture or textual system (qtd. in Shuttleworth & Cowie, 1997: 114) seems to be an oversimplification of this concept. Chesterman (1993) looks at the concept of norms from a different perspective. Whereas Toury does not pay too much heed to the role of the readership and their feedback in norm construction,

Chesterman (1993: 8) puts distinction between expectancy norms, which are the expectations of the target readership and the client etc., and the professional norms which explain the translator's tendency to observe these expectancy norms. According to Toury (2000), norms themselves actually are not observable. He declares that what are actually available for observation are rather norm-governed instances of behavior or the products of such behavior (p. 206). Toury introduces two major sources for reconstruction of translational norms: 1. Textual: the translated text themselves, for all kinds of norms, as well as analytical inventories of translation (i.e., virtual texts), for various preliminary norms; 2. Extratextual: semi-theoretical or critical formulations, such as perspective theories of translation, statements made by translators, editors, publishers, and other persons involved in or connected with the activity, critical appraisals of individual translations, or the activity of a translator or school of translators, and so forth. (Toury, 2000: 207) Likewise, Baker (1998) introduces studying of a corpus of authentic translations as a means for identifying regular instances of translational behavior which are represented in that corpus by the translator, and, thus, for identifying the translational norms (p. 164). Concluding Point After so many years of the dominance of the prescriptive approaches over translation teaching, maybe the time has come for a serious revision in translation teaching methods. Translation teaching should no longer be seen as a set of rules and instructions prescribed by translation teachers to the students as to what strategies will lead to a good or correct translation and what to a wrong and incorrect one. Understanding the importance of decision-making in translation, the translation teachers should try to describe the actual translational decisions made by actual translators under different socio-cultural and ideological settings in real life and real situations, and explain the perlocutionary consequences resulted from adoption of such decisions for the students. They should allow the students to select voluntarily between different options they have at hand, reminding them that they will be responsible for the selections they make. Translation teachers should make it clear for the students that every translation has its own aim determined by its translator, and that they could freely choose the options that best serve their intended aim of translation.

Culture and intercultural competence and awareness that rise out of experience of culture, are far more complex phenomena than it may seem to the translator. The more a translator is aware of complexities of differences between cultures, the better a translator s/he will be. It is probably right to say that there has never been a time when the community of translators was unaware of cultural differences and their significance for translation. Translation theorists have been

cognizant of the problems attendant upon cultural knowledge and cultural differences at least since ancient Rome. Cultural knowledge and cultural differences have been a major focus of translator training and translation theory for as long as either has been in existence. The main concern has traditionally been with words and phrases that are so heavily and exclusively grounded in one culture that they are almost impossible to translate into the terms verbal or otherwise of another. Long debate have been held over when to paraphrase, when to use the nearest local equivalent, when to coin a new word by translating literally, and when to transcribe. All these untranslatable cultural-bound words and phrases continued to fascinate translators and translation theorists. The first theory developed in this field was introduced by Mounin in 1963 who underlined the importance of the signification of a lexical item claiming that only if this notion is considered will the translated item fulfill its function correctly. The problem with this theory is that all the cultural elements do not involve just the items, what a translator should do in the case of cultural implications which are implied in the background knowledge of SL readers? The notion of culture is essential to considering the implications for translation and, despite the differences in opinion as to whether language is part of culture or not, the two notions of culture and language appear to be inseparable. In 1964, Nida discussed the problems of correspondence in translation, conferred equal importance to both linguistic and cultural differences between the SL and the TL and concluded that differences between cultures may cause focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way culture impacts and constraints translation and on the larger issues of context, history and convention. Therefore, the move from translation as a text to translation as culture and politics is what they call it a Cultural Turn in translation studies and became the ground for a metaphor adopted by Bassnett and Lefevere in 1990. In fact Cultural Turn is the metaphor adopted by Cultural Studies oriented translation theories to refer to the analysis of translation in its cultural, political, and ideological context. Since 1990, the turn has extended to incorporate a whole range of approaches from cultural studies and is a true indicator of the interdisciplinary nature of contemporary translation studies. As the result of this so called Cultural Turn, cultural studies has taken an increasingly keen interest in translation. One consequence of this has been bringing together scholars from different disciplines. It is here important to mention that these cultural theorists have kept their own ideology and agendas that drive their own criticism. These cultural approaches have widened the horizons of translation studies with new insights but at the same there has been a strong element of conflict among them. It is good to mention that the existence of such differences of perspectives is inevitable. In the mid 1980s Vermeer introduced skopos theory which is a Greek word for aim or purpose. It is entered into translation theory in as a technical term for the purpose of translation and of action of translating. Skopos theory focuses above all on the purpose of translation, which determines the translation method and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. The result is TT, which Vermeer calls translatum. Therefore, knowing why SL is to be translated and what function of TT will be are crucial for the translator.

In 1984, Reiss and Vermeer in their book with the title of Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation concentrated on the basic underlying rules of this theory which involve: 1A translatum (or TT) is determined by its skopos, 2- A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and TL considering an offer of information in a source culture and SL. This relates the ST and TT to their function in their respective linguistic and cultural context. The translator is once again the key player in the process of intercultural communication and production of the translatum because of the purpose of the translation. In 1988 Newmark defined culture as "the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as its means of expression", thus acknowledging that each language group has its own culturally specific features. He also introduced Cultural word which the readership is unlikely to understand and the translation strategies for this kind of concept depend on the particular text-type, requirements of the readership and client and importance of the cultural word in the text. Peter Newmark also categorized the cultural words as follows: 1) Ecology: flora, fauna, hills, winds, plains 2) Material Culture: food, clothes, houses and towns, transport 3) Social Culture: work and leisure 4) Organizations Customs, Activities, Procedures, Concepts: Political and administrative Religious artistic 5) Gestures and Habits He introduced contextual factors for translation process which include: 1- Purpose of text 2- Motivation and cultural, technical and linguistic level of readership 3- Importance of referent in SL text 4- Setting (does recognized translation exist?) 5- Recency of word/referent 6- Future or refrent. He further clearly stated that operationally he does not regard language as a component or feature of culture in direct opposition to the view taken by Vermeer who stated that "language is part of a culture" (1989:222). According to Newmark, Vermeer's stance would imply the impossibility to translate whereas for the latter, translating the source language (SL) into a suitable form of TL is part of the translator's role in transcultural communication.

Language and culture may thus be seen as being closely related and both aspects must be considered for translation. When considering the translation of cultural words and notions, Newmark proposed two opposing methods: transference and componential analysis. According to him transference gives "local colour," keeping cultural names and concepts. Although placing the emphasis on culture, meaningful to initiated readers, he claimed this method may cause problems for the general readership and limit the comprehension of certain aspects. The importance of the translation process in communication led Newmark to propose componential analysis which he described as being "the most accurate translation procedure, which excludes the culture and highlights the message". Newmark also stated the relevance of componential analysis in translation as a flexible but orderly method of bridging the numerous lexical gaps, both linguistic and cultural, between one language and another:

Some strategies introduced by Newmark for dealing with cultural gap: 1) Naturalization: A strategy when a SL word is transferred into TL text in its original form. 2) Couplet or triplet and quadruplet: Is another technique the translator adopts at the time of transferring, naturalizing or calques to avoid any misunderstanding: according to him it is a number of strategies combine together to handle one problem. 3) Neutralization: Neutralization is a kind of paraphrase at the level of word. If it is at higher level it would be a paraphrase. When the SL item is generalized (neutralized) it is paraphrased with some culture free words. 4) Descriptive and functional equivalent: In explanation of source language cultural item there is two elements: one is descriptive and another one would be functional. Descriptive equivalent talks about size, color and composition. The functional equivalent talks about the purpose of the SL cultural-specific word.

5) Explanation as footnote: The translator may wish to give extra information to the TL reader. He would explain this extra information in a footnote. It may come at the bottom of the page, at the end of chapter or at the end of the book. 6) Cultural equivalent: The SL cultural word is translated by TL cultural word 7) Compensation: A technique which is used when confronting a loss of meaning, sound effect, pragmatic effect or metaphor in one part of a text. The word or concept is compensated in other part of the text. In 1992, Lawrence Venuti mentioned the effective powers controlling translation. He believed that in addition to governments and other politically motivated institutions which may decide to censor or promote certain works, there are groups and social institutions which would include various players in the publication as a whole. These are the publishers and editors who choose the works and commission the translations, pay the translators and often dictate the translation method. They also include the literary agents, marketing and sales teams and reviewers. Each of theses players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agenda of their time and place. Power play is an important theme for cultural commentators and translation scholars. In both theory and practice of translation, power resides in the deployment of language as an ideological weapon for excluding or including a reader, a value system, a set of beliefs, or even an entire culture. In 1992, Mona Baker stated that S.L word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the target culture. It can be abstract or concrete. It maybe a religious belief, a social custom or even a type of food. In her book, In Other Words, she argued about the common non-equivalents to which a translator come across while translating from SL into TL, while both languages have their distinguished specific culture. She put them in the following order: a) Culture specific concepts b) The SL concept which is not lexicalized in TL c) The SL word which is semantically complex d) The source and target languages make different distinction in meaning e) The TL lacks a super ordinate f) The TL lacks a specific term (hyponym) g) Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective h) Differences in expressive meaning i) Differences in form j) Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms k) The use of loan words in the source text Mona Baker also believed that it is necessary for translator to have knowledge about semantics and lexical sets. Because in this case: S/he would appreciate the value of the word in a given system knowledge and the difference of structures in SL and TL. This allows him to assess the value of a given item in a lexical set.

S/he can develop strategies for dealing with non-equivalence semantic field. These techniques are arranged hierarchically from general (superordinate) to specific (hyponym). In 1992, Coulthard highlightd the importance of defining the ideal reader for whom the author attributes knowledge of certain facts, memory of certain experiences ... plus certain opinions, preferences and prejudices and a certain level of linguistic competence. When considering such aspects, the extent to which the author may be influenced by such notions which depend on his own sense of belonging to a specific socio-cultural group should not be forgotten. Coulthard stated that once the ideal ST readership has been determined, considerations must be made concerning the TT. He said that the translator's first and major difficulty is the construction of a new ideal reader who, even if he has the same academic, professional and intellectual level as the original reader, will have significantly different textual expectations and cultural knowledge. In the case of the extract translated here, it is debatable whether the ideal TT reader has "significantly different textual expectations," however his cultural knowledge will almost certainly vary considerably. Applied to the criteria used to determine the ideal ST reader it may be noted that few conditions are successfully met by the potential ideal TT reader. Indeed, the historical and cultural facts are unlikely to be known in detail along with the specific cultural situations described. Furthermore, despite considering the level of linguistic competence to be roughly equal for the ST and TT reader, certain differences may possibly be noted in response to the use of culturally specific lexis which must be considered when translating. Although certain opinions, preferences and prejudices may be instinctively transposed by the TT reader who may liken them to his own experience, it must be remembered that these do not match the social situation experience of the ST reader. Therefore, Coulthard mainly stated that the core social and cultural aspects remain problematic when considering the cultural implications for translation. Postcolonialism In 1993 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak was the one who introduced postcolonialism. Postcolonialism is one of the most thriving points of contact between Cultural Studies and Translation Studies. It can be defined as a broad cultural approach to the study of power relations between different groups, cultures or peoples in which language, literature and translation may play a role. Spivaks work is indicative of how cultural studies and especially post-colonialism has over the past decade focused on issues of translation, the translational and colonization. The linking of colonization and translation is accompanied by the argument that translation has played an active role in the colonization process and in disseminating an ideologically motivated image of colonized people. The metaphor has been used of the colony as an imitative and inferior translational copy whose suppressed identity has been overwritten by the colonizer. The postcolonial concepts may have conveyed a view of translation as just a damaging instrument of the colonizers who imposed their language and used translation to construct a

distorted image of the suppressed people which served to reinforce the hierarchal structure of the colony. However, some critics of post-colonialism, like Robinson, believe that the view of the translation as purely harmful and pernicious tool of the empire is inaccurate. Like the other cultural theorists, Venuti in 1995 insisted that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take the account of the value-driven nature of sociocultural framework. He used the term invisibility to describe the translator situation and activity in Anglo-American culture. He said that this invisibility is produced by: 1- The way the translators themselves tend to translate fluently into English, to produce an idiomatic and readable TT, thus creating illusion of transparency. 2- The way the translated texts are typically read in the target culture: A translated text, whether prose or poetry or non-fiction, is judged acceptable by most publishers, reviewers and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, giving the appearance that it reflects the foreign writers personality or intention or the essential meaning the foreign text_ the appearance, in other words, that the translation is not in fact a translation, but the original. (Venuti, 1995) Venuti discussed invisibility hand in hand with two types of translating strategies: domestication and foreignization. He considered domestication as dominating AngloAmerican (TL) translation culture. Just as the postcolonialists were alert to the cultural effects of the differential in power relation between colony and ex-colony, so Venuti bemoaned the phenomenon of domestication since it involves reduction of the foreign text to the target language cultural values. This entails translating in a transparent, fluent, invisible style in order to minimize the foreignness of the TT. Venuti believed that a translator should leave the reader in peace, as much as possible, and he should move the author toward him. Foregnization, on the other hand, entails choosing a foreign text and developing a translation method along lines which excluded by dominant cultural values in target language. Ventuti considers the foreignizing method to be an ethno deviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad. According to him it is highly desirable in an effort to restrain the ethnocentric violence translation. The foreignizing method of translating, a strategy Venuti also termed resistancy , is a non-fluent or estranging translation style designed to make visible the persistence of translator by highlighting the foreign identity of ST and protecting it from the ideological dominance of the target culture. In his later book The Scandals of Translation Venuti insisted on foreignizing or, as he also called it, minoritizing translatin, to cultivate a varied and heterogeneous discourse. As far as language is concerned, the minoritizing or foriegnizing method of Venutis translation comes through in the deliberate inclusion of foreignizing elements in a bid to make the translator visible

and to make the reader realize that he is reading a translation of the work from a foreign culture. Foreignization is close adherent to the ST structure and syntax. Venuti also said that the terms may change meaning across time and location. In 1996, Simon mentioned that cultural studies brings to translation an understanding of the complexities of gender and culture and it allows us to situate linguistic transfer. She considered a language of sexism in translation studies, with its image of dominance, fidelity, faithfulness and betrayal. She mentioned the seventeenth century image of les belles infidels (unfaithful beauties), translations into French that were artistically beautiful but unfaithful. She went further and investigated George Steiners male-oriented image of translation as penetration. The feminist theorists, more or less, see a parallel between the status of translation which is often considered to be derivative and inferior to the original writing and that of women so often repressed in society and literature. This is the core feminist translation that theory seeks to identify and critique the tangle of the concepts which relegate both women and translation to the bottom of the social and literary ladder. Simon takes this further in the concept of the committed translation project. Translation project here can be defined as such: An approach to literary translation in which feminist translators openly advocate and implement strategies (linguistic or otherwise) to foreground the feminist in the translated text. It may seem worthy to mention that the opposite of translation project occurs when gender-marked works are translated in such a way that their distinctive characteristics are affected. With the spread of deconstruction and cultural studies in the academy, the subject of ideology became an important area of study. The field of translation studies presents no exception to this general trend. It should also be mentioned that the concept of ideology is not something new and it has been an area of interest from a long time ago. The problem of discussing translation and ideology is one of definition. There are so many definitions of ideology that it is impossible to review them all. For instance as Hatim and Mason (1997) stated that ideology encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems which are shared collectively by social groups. They make a distinction between the ideology of translating and the translation of ideology. Whereas the former refers to the basic orientation chosen by the translator operating within a social and cultural context. In translation of ideology they examined the extent of mediation supplied by a translator of sensitive texts. Here mediation is defined as the extent to which translators intervene in the transfer process, feeding their own knowledge and beliefs into processing the text. In 1999 Hermans stated that Culture refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life. According to him translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice. He said that we bring to translation both cognitive and normative expectations, which are continually being negotiated, confirmed, adjusted, and modified by practicing translators and by all who deal with translation. These expectations result from the communication within the translation system, for instance, between actual translations and statements about translation, and between the translation system and other social systems. In 2002, regarding cultural translation Hervey and Higgins believed in cultural translation rather than literal one. According to them accepting literal translation means that theres no cultural

translation operation. But obviously there are some obstacles bigger than linguistic ones. They are cultural obstacles and here a transposition in culture is needed. According to Hervey & Higgins cultural transposition has a scale of degrees which are toward the choice of features indigenous to target language and culture rather than features which are rooted in source culture. The result here is foreign features reduced in target text and is to some extent naturalized. The scale here is from an extreme which is mostly based on source culture (exoticism) to the other extreme which is mostly based on target culture (cultural transplantation): Exoticism< Calque< Cultural Borrowing< Communicative Translation< cultural transplantation 1) Exoticism The degree of adaptation is very low here. The translation carries the cultural features and grammar of SL to TL. It is very close to transference. 2) Calque Calque includes TL words but in SL structure therefore while it is unidiomatic to target reader but it is familiar to a large extent. 3) Cultural Borrowing It is to transfer the ST expression verbatim into the TT. No adaptation of SL expression into TL forms. After a time they usually become a standard in TL terms. Cultural borrowing is very frequent in history, legal, social, political texts; for example, La langue and La parole in linguistics. 4) Communicative Translation Communicative translation is usually adopted for culture specific clichs such as idioms, proverbs, fixed expression, etc. In such cases the translator substitutes SL word with an existing concept in target culture. In cultural substitution the propositional meaning is not the same but it has similar impact on target reader. The literal translation here may sound comic. The degree of using this strategy some times depends on the license which is given to the translator by commissioners and also the purpose of translation. 5) Cultural Transplantation The whole text is rewritten in target culture. The TL word is not a literal equivalent but has similar cultural connotations to some extent. It is another type of extreme but toward target culture and the whole concept is transplanted in TL. A normal translation should avoid both exoticism and cultural transplantation. In 2004, Nico Wiersema in his essay globalization and translation stated that globalization is linked to English being a lingua franca; the language is said to be used at conferences (interpreting) and seen as the main language in the new technologies. The use of English as a global language is an important trend in world communication. Globalisation is also linked to the field of Translation Studies. Furthermore, globalisation is placed in the context of changes in

economics, science, technology, and society. Globalization and technology are very helpful to translators in that translators have more access to online information, such as dictionaries of lesser-known languages. According to him such comments can be extended to the readers of translations. Should the target text be challenging for a reader, the internet can help him understand foreign elements in the text. Thus the text can be written in a more foreignising / exoticising manner. He mentioned a relatively new trend wherein culturally bound elements (some, one might say, untranslatable), are not translated. He believed that this trend contributes to learning and understanding foreign cultures. Context explains culture, and adopting (not necessarily adapting) a selection of words enriches the target text, makes it more exotic and thus more interesting for those who want to learn more about the culture in question. Eventually, these new words may find their way into target language dictionaries. Translators will then have contributed to enriching their own languages with loan words from the source language (esp. English). He considered this entering loan words into TL as an important aspect of translation. Translation brings cultures closer. He stated that at this century the process of globalization is moving faster than ever before and there is no indication that it will stall any time soon. In each translation there will be a certain distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but there is currently an option for including more foreign words in target texts. Therefore, it is now possible to keep SL cultural elements in target texts. In each translation there will be a certain distortion between cultures. The translator will have to defend the choices he/she makes, but there is currently an option for including more foreign words in target texts. According to him translator has three options for the translation of cultural elements: 1- Adopting the foreign word without any explanation. 2- Adopting the foreign word with extensive explanations. 3- Rewriting the text to make it more comprehensible to the target-language audience. According to Nico Wiersema (2004), Cultures are getting closer and closer and this is something that he believed translators need to take into account. In the end it all depends on what the translator, or more often, the publisher wants to achieve with a certain translation. In his opinion by entering SL cultural elements: a- The text will be read more fluently (no stops) b- The text remains more exotic, more foreign c- The translator is closer to the source culture d- The reader of the target texts gets a more genuine image of the source culture. In 2004, ke Ping regarding translation and culture paid attention to misreading and presupposition. He mentioned that of the many factors that may lead to misreadings in translation is cultural presuppositions. Cultural presuppositions merit special attention from translators because they can substantially and systematically affect their interpretation of facts and events in the source text without their even knowing it. He pinpointed the relationship between cultural presuppositions and

translational misreadings. According to him misreadings in translation are often caused by a translators presuppositions about the reality of the source language community. These presuppositions are usually culturally-derived and deserve the special attention of the translator. He showed how cultural presuppositions work to produce misreadings in translation. According to ke Ping Cultural presupposition, refers to underlying assumptions, beliefs, and ideas that are culturally rooted, widespread. According to him anthropologists agree on the following features of culture: (1) Culture is socially acquired instead of biologically transmitted; (2) Culture is shared among the members of a community rather than being unique to an individual; (3) Culture is symbolic. Symbolizing means assigning to entities and events meanings which are external to them and which cannot be grasped alone. Language is the most typical symbolic system within culture; (4) Culture is integrated. Each aspect of culture is tied in with all other aspects. According to ke Ping culture is normally regarded as comprising, with some slight variations, the following four sub-systems: (1) Techno-economic System: ecology (flora, fauna, climate, etc.); means of production, exchange, and distribution of goods; crafts, technology, and science; artifacts. (2) Social System: social classes and groups; kinship system (typology, sex and marriage, procreation and paternity, size of family, etc.); politics and law; education; sports and entertainment; customs; general history. (3) Ideational System: cosmology; religion; magic and witchcraft; folklore; artistic creations as images; values (moral, aesthetic, etc.); cognitive focus and thinking patterns; ideology. (4) Linguistic System: phonology and graphemics; grammar (morphology and syntax); semantics and pragmatics. Each ingredient in these four sub-systems can lead to presuppositions that are fundamentally different from those bred by other cultures, and hence might result in misreading when translation or other forms of communication are conducted across two cultures. ke Ping introduced some of these culture-bound presuppositions as observed in mistranslated texts which include: a- Cultural presupposition related to techno-economic system. b- Cultural presupposition related to social systems.

c- Cultural presupposition related to ideational system. d- Cultural presupposition related to linguistic systems.
CONCLUSION The first theory regarding cultural translation introduced by Mounin in 1963 who underlined the importance of the signification of a lexical item claiming that the best translation is the one which just the cultural items are correctly translated that only if this notion is considered will the translated item fulfill its function correctly. Nida in 1964 believed that differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than do differences in language structure. Regarding translation of cultural elements he paid more attention to dynamic equivalence which tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture without insisting that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context. According to him this method is more tangible for TL reader. The first concept in cultural translation studies was cultural turn that in 1978 was presaged by the work on Polysystems and translation norms by Even-Zohar and in 1980 by Toury. The move from translation as a text to translation as culture and politics is what they call it a Cultural Turn in translation studies. In the mid 1980s Vermeer introduced skopos theory which focuses above all on the purpose of translation, and determined the translation method and strategies that are to be employed in order to produce a functionally adequate result. Accordingly cultural elements will be translated according to the purpose of the translation, keeping the local color of SL depends on the purpose of translation. Newmark in 1988 categorized cultural words into Ecology (flora, fauna, hills, winds, plains); material Culture( food, clothes, houses and towns, transport); social Culture (work and leisure); organizations Customs, Activities, Procedures, Concepts (Political and administrative, religious ,artistic); gestures and habits. He proposed two opposing methods: a- transference which gives "local color," keeping cultural names and concepts, bcomponential analysis which excludes the culture and highlights the message. In 1992, Lawrence Venuti mentioned the effective powers controlling translation like governments and other politically motivated institutions that may decide to censor or promote certain works, value system, a set of beliefs, or even an entire culture. He said that they effect cultural translation by their power. In 1992, Mona Baker believed that it is necessary for translator to have knowledge about semantics and lexical sets and the value of the words in source language. She mentioned that a translator can develop strategies for dealing with non-equivalence semantic field. These strategies are arranged hierarchically from general (superordinate) to specific (hyponym). In 1992, Coulthard highlighted the importance of defining the ideal reader for whom the author attributes knowledge of certain facts, memory of certain experiences ... plus certain opinions, preferences and prejudices and a certain level of linguistic competence. Then the translator should identify TL reader for whom he is translating and match the cultural differences between two languages.

Spivaks work in 1993 is indicative of how cultural studies and especially post-colonialism has over the past decade focused on issues of translation. The ideology and beliefs of colonizers affected the way the texts of colonized countries should be translated. Venuti discussed invisibility hand in hand with two types of translating strategies: domestication as dominating TL culture and foreignization which is to make the translator visible and to make the reader realize that he is reading a translation of the work from a foreign culture and it is close to SL structure and syntax. In 1996, Simon mentioned that cultural studies brings to translation an understanding of the complexities of gender and culture and it allows us to situate linguistic transfer. She sees a language of sexism in translation studies, with its image of dominance, fidelity, faithfulness and betrayal and how the translations are affected by the womens ideologies. According to him feminist translators openly advocate and implement strategies (linguistic or otherwise) to foreground the feminist in the translated text. Hatim and Mason (1997) stated that ideology encompasses the tacit assumptions, beliefs and value systems which are shared collectively by social groups. They make a distinction between the ideology of translating and the translation of ideology. Whereas, the former refers to the basic orientation chosen by the translator operating within a social and cultural context. In the translation of ideology they examined the extent of mediation supplied by a translator of sensitive texts. According to Hermans in 1999 translation can and should be recognized as a social phenomenon, a cultural practice. He said that we bring to translation both cognitive and normative expectations, which are continually being negotiated, confirmed, adjusted, and modified by practicing translators and by all who deal with translation, In 2002, regarding cultural translation Hervey mentioned that for dealing with the cultural gaps cultural transposition is needed. According to him cultural transposition has a scale of degrees which are toward the choice of features indigenous to target language and culture rather than features which are rooted in source culture. In 2004, Nico Wiersema mentined the concept of globalization and translation. He stated that TT can be written in a more foreignizing / eroticizing manner wherein culturally bound elements (some, one might say, untranslatable), are not translated. He believed that this trend contributes to learning and understanding foreign cultures.

The Importance of Language Translation Services Nowadays, the world economy has created a spectrum of marketplaces for global companies. This means that businesses are routinely communicating with foreign clients and dealing with contracts and documents in a language that is not their own.

Often times a business will rush into selecting language translation services to quickly solve their language problems. Unfortunately, there are some translation services that produce inaccurate and culturally irrelevant translations. A company can run into trouble very quickly if they begin using these the wrong translation services. It is crucial for a business to find language translation services that will meet all of their requirements for accuracy, efficiency, and quality. At 7Brands, we offer professional, official and affordable language translation services produced by native speakers who are extremely experienced and knowledgeable. Why Use Language Translation Services? Legal Demands The first is legal and court translations, which need language specialists who understand and can apply legal terminology to the translation. Using this service ensures that documents are accepted in courts for their authenticity and are pinpoint accurate with every detail. Website Demands If a business is making provisions to launch an multilingual website, there are usually concerns that the content within the site may not translate as intended. An experienced language translation service will know that the best way to ensure accuracy in such a situation will be through website localization. Website localization produces an Internet presence that allows a company to have accurate and culturally viable content in the desired target language for their website(s). Financial & Technical Demands Another type of translation is investment and financial translation. At 7Brands, our financial translators are well equipped to accurately translate numerous types of complex financial documents such as banking translations. Additionally, we offer technical translations. Technical writing is challenging and requires an experienced translator who is well versed within relevant technical fields. At 7Brands, our professional translators deliver quality results on every document translation. We provide language translation services in all major industries and in over 200 languages. When Language Translation Services Are Helpful Language translation services can be helpful in numerous situations. To illustrate, if an Englishspeaking employee has an innovative idea about ways to increase the companys global presence then this creative information can easily be shared with other non-English-speaking employees and offices throughout the global company. For this reason, 7Brands offers trade and business translations. A key part of successful foreign business is having accurate, culturally relevant translations in order to properly convey the message a business desires.

If the employee were to suggest translation services to their boss, it would display that they have thought about the idea thoroughly and have gone through every potential obstacle. These services would also aid and comfort a company if they are concerned about not being prepared to enter a foreign market with a vastly different culture. 7Brands doesnt just translate documents; we assist in localizing a companys message so it is understood clearly in different cultures.

Imagine that you are on a space voyage in the star trek era. You are the ultimate warrior of human race, who is leading the human exploration. On earth you have mitigated world peace and are revered no less than a demi-god. You are now heading towards a newly discovered planet X, which boasts of intelligent life. As your spacecraft alights, a crowd of inhabitants looking like little blue babies gather around the landing site. The town head comes to the front as you open the door, raise your hand and say Hello. SLOP!!! A ray of blue light hits you and your whole self is now just a pair of eyes drifting in a pool of slime and your conscience. You fail to understand anything while your crew quickly wipes you up and escapes the planet. You spent the rest of your life in a jar in the space research lab only to realize years later that in planet Xs language hello sounds like I will destroy you. May be thats why they have translator devices in all sci-fi flicks. Something you missed? Slime ball!! On a serious note, translation is one of the most critical jobs in modern society. As the whole globe is coming together based on information sharing and communicative advances, it is only natural that there has been a constant demand and an unprecedented need for translation of ideas from one language to another. Translation plays a vital role in the performance of international companies and governments alike. We have had incidences in human history, where entire wars were initiated just because of misinterpretations and business relations severed due to failure of communications. Translation is no longer just the process of translating words, but has evolved into the transformation of meaning and intentions. Here we have listed some points relating to importance of translation. Significance Of Translation Vital For Multinationals For companies which operate in multiple countries, translation is inevitable. Sometimes they need to pass information or collect data from all the employees or branches across the world. In this scenario, it is necessary that they translate the information to and fro. Moreover, in scenarios where they need to negotiate terms with international governments or other local companies for tie-ups, they need to have proper translation of proposals and demands. External Affairs Of A Nation In todays world, international diplomacy is the most important of all external affairs. Many a times the world leaders are expected to present their ideas on situations arising in other parts of the world. It is important that those ideas are translated properly when expressed; else they can result in major catastrophes. Moreover, international dialogues on different matters rest heavily on successful translation. Cultural Interchange Translation of various art forms like music, films and literature from a region is necessary for global understanding of a region and its life. The plight of Palestine refugees, the poverty in Brazilian streets, the colorful life in Spanish cities

and the myths and legends of ancient India are spreading across the world, riding on the shoulder of good translation. Translated films and subtitled films generate more revenue for global film industry, while translated music and literature provides added royalties to the artists. Recognition from the world stage and international fame is an added bonus. Transfer Of News World events can only be transmitted accurately if the correct information is received by news agencies. This involves proper translation of news coming from local bodies and regional centers. Unless proper translation is done, the news will be ambiguous and unreliable. An example for this can be seen when the government of China recently banned international news agencies from entering local regions for covering a major problem. However, information was still passed on to the world. Insiders covered all the important news, which was later translated and presented to the world. For The Realization Of Global Village The global citizenship can only be achieved through sharing and caring. We need to be able to communicate our ideas and thoughts without delay or ambiguity. Different people around the world use different languages and are most comfortable handling their online activities in their own regional languages, but they translate their thoughts in English, so that global friends can understand them. To Boost Tourism Tourists around the world complain of being short-changed and tricked, as they are unfamiliar with the destinations. The primary reason for such negative experiences is the absence of proper translation. When we can offer proper translation to tourists along with genuine guidance, we assure the quality of our region as a tourist friendly destination and ensure success. This not only makes the country as a popular tourist destination, but also helps in increasing the revenue of the country men and the country as a whole. Translation The Importance of Culture

Some difficulties can arise when translating. One key factor is cultural sensitivity: Not only do translators have to communicate the message from the source language into the target language, but they also have to take into account the culture of the target language. In order to avoid misunderstandings, translators have to look out for the lexical content and syntax, as well as ideologies, value systems and ways of life in a given culture translators need to know their audience in both languages and also consider the variants of the target language, like European French and Canadian French, among other things. There are a variety of cultural elements to take into consideration when starting a translation. For example, the name of a company or a product may have a damaging impact on its success. When rolling out a global product marketing or branding campaign it is always important to verify the connotation of the product name in a foreign language. Humor may also be a problem as the target audience may not appreciate or even understand it. The style of the language and the target audience have to be studied because the grammar, punctuation and vocabulary will be different if the audience are, for instance, college students, or conversely, if a text is targeted at an audience of older business professionals. Pictures, symbols and colors are important cultural factors too. Indeed, some pictures, images, symbols and colours may have negative connotations in some countries. For example, white is usually associated with mourning in Japan while in the UK, among others, grief would be denoted by the colour black; icons used in computing are sometimes different like the icon for Mail that is represented by a mailbox but all the mailboxes dont look the same in every country. Among pictures, for example, even maps can have a cultural or political implication. For example, the depiction of the

disputed area of Kashmir between India and Pakistan can sometimes cause a problem with the target audience. Preferences and prejudices may be a problem since the social context is different depending on the country. Translation and linguistic expression always have to be viewed within the wider societal and cultural environment. Material culture as expressed by food, for example, is always a true reflection of a national culture. Translating food terminology can be done in a great number of ways; and sometimes the translation may lose some of its true meaning. Gestures, habits, traditions as well as cultural references have to be known by translators in order to correctly convey a cultural equivalent in the target language. Culture may thus be a source of difficulties for translators. Beyond their linguistic expertise, they need to have a thorough understanding of the culture of the source language as well as that of the target language. At times, a text with cultural implications may lose some meaning in translation or information may have to be added because it is impossible to communicate all the levels of meaning that a cultural reference may imply.

1. Cultural Consideration in Translation It has been long taken for granted that translation deals only with language. Cultural perspective, however, has never been brought into discussion. This can be seen in most of the following definitions. The first definition is presented by Catford (1965: 20). He states that translation is the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language. In this definition, the most important thing is equivalent textual material. Yet, it is still vague in terms of the type of equivalence. Culture is not taken into account. Very much similar to this definition is that by Savory (1968) who maintains that translation is made possible by an equivalent of thought that lies behind its different verbal expressions. Next, Nida and Taber (1969) explain the process of translating as follows. Translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. In Translation: Applications and Research, Brislin (1976: 1) defines translation as: "the general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to another (target), whether the languages are in written or oral form; whether the languages have established orthographies or do not have such standardization or whether one or both languages is based on signs, as with sign languages of the deaf." Identical with the above definition is the one proposed by Pinhhuck (1977: 38). He maintains that "Translation is a process of finding a TL equivalent for an SL utterance". In the definitions appearing in 1960s-1970s, some similarities have been found: (1) there is a change of expression from one language to the other, (2) the meaning and message are rendered in the TL, and (3) the translator has an obligation to seek for the closest

equivalent in the TL. Yet, there is no indication that culture is taken into account except in that of Nida and Taber. Actually Nida and Taber themselves do not mention this matter very explicitly. Following their explanation on "closest natural equivalent", however, we can infer that cultural consideration is considered. They maintain that the equivalent sought after in every effort of translating is the one that is so close that the meaning/message can be transferred well. The concept of closest natural equivalent is rooted in Nida's concept of dynamic equivalent. His celebrated example is taken from the Bible, that is the translation of "Lamb of God" into the Eskimo language. Here "lamb" symbolizes innocence, especially in the context of sacrifice. As a matter of fact, Eskimo culture does not know "lamb". Thus, the word does not symbolize anything. Instead of "Lamb of God", he prefers "Seal of God" to transfer the message. Here he considers cultural aspects. The inclusion of cultural perspective in the definition of translation unfortunately does not continue. The later ones keep on not touching this matter. See the following definition. "Translation involves the rendering of a source language (SL) text into the target language (TL) so as to ensure that (1) the surface meaning of the two will be approximately similar and (2) the structure of the SL will be preserved as closely as possible, but not so closely that the TL structure will be seriously distorted (McGuire, 1980: 2). In the following definition, Newmark does not state anything about culture. "Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language" (Newmark, 1981: 7). Finally, Wills defines translation more or less similarly as follows. "Translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a written SL text into an optimally equivalent TL text, and which requires the syntactic, the semantic and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the SL" (Wills in Noss, 1982: 3). It is known that out of 8 definitions above only one takes cultural aspects into account, the one by Nida and Taber. This definition is actually a specific one, rooted from the practice of the Bible translation. By nature, it is understood that the translation should be done to every language. As the content addresses all walks of life and culture plays an important role in human life, culture, therefore, should be considered. The other definitions, however, are meant to explain the experts' view on translation theory to be applied in the translation of all types of material, including scientific or technical texts which are not deeply embedded in any culture. Thus, it can be momentarily hypothesized that cultural consideration must be taken if the material to translate is related to culture. For material that is not very much embedded into a specific culture, cultural consideration may not be necessary. According to Snell-Hornby (1988: 39), however, this exclusion of cultural aspect from the discussion of translation theory is due to the view of the traditional approach in linguistics which draws a sharp dividing-line between language and "extralinguistic reality" (culture,

situation, etc.). The contemporary approach, according to her, sees language as an integral part of culture. This view can be seen in Hymes (1964) and Halliday and Hasan (1985), for example. 2. Language and Culture Culture in this discussion should be seen in a broad sense, as in anthropological studies. Culture is not only understood as the advanced intellectual development of mankind as reflected in the arts, but it refers to all socially conditioned aspects of human life (cf. SnellHornby, 1988: Hymes, 1964). In practical wordings, Goodenough (1964: 36) puts: "As I see it, a society's culture consists of whatever it is one has to know or believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to its members, and do so in any role that they accept for any one of themselves. Culture, being what people have to learn as distinct from their biological heritage, must consist of the end product of learning: knowledge, in a most general, if relative, sense of the term. By definition, we should note that culture is not material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behavior, or emotions. It is rather an organization of these things. It is the forms of things that people have in mind, their models of perceiving and dealing with their circumstances. To one who knows their culture, these things and events are also signs signifying the cultural forms or models of which they are material representation." It can be summarized that this definition suggests three things: (a) culture seen as a totality of knowledge and model for perceiving things, (b) immediate connection between culture and behavior and events, and (c) culture's dependence on norms. It should be noted also that some other definitions claim that both knowledge and material things are parts of culture. See, for example, Koentjaraningrat (1996: 80-81) and Hoijer (1967: 106) According to Snell-Hornby (1988: 40), the connection between language and culture was first formally formulated by Wilhelm Von Humboldt. For this German philosopher, language was something dynamic: it was an activity (energia) rather than a static inventory of items as the product of activity (ergon). At the same time language is an expression of culture and individuality of the speakers, who perceive the world through language. Related to Goodenough's idea on culture as the totality of knowledge, this present idea may see language as the knowledge representation in the mind. In 1973, Humboldt's view was echoed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in their Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. This principle states that thought does not "precede" language, but on the contrary thought is conditioned by it. The system of honorific style used in Javanese, for example, affects the speakers' concepts of social status. Halliday (in Halliday and Hasan (1985: 5) states that there was the theory of context before the theory of text. In other words, context precedes text. Context here means context of situation and culture (Halliday and Hasan, 1985: 7). This context is necessary for adequate understanding of the text, which becomes the first requirement for translating. Thus, translating without understanding text is non-sense, and understanding text without understanding its culture is impossible. Humboldt's idea, Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and Halliday's idea have a far-reaching implications for translation. In its extreme, the notion that language conditions thought and that language and thought is bound up with the individual culture of the given community

would mean that translation is impossible. We cannot translate one's thought which is affected by and stated in language specific for a certain community to another different language because the system of thought in the two languages (cultures) must be different. Each language is unique. If it influences the thought and, therefore, the culture, it would mean that ultimate translation is impossible. Another point of view, however, asserts the opposite. Ironically this also goes back to Humboldt's idea bout inner and outer forms of language. Later it is developed into the concepts of deep structure and surface structure by Chomsky. Inner form and deep structure is what generally known as idea. Following this concepts, all ideas are universal. What is different is only the surface structure, the outer from. If it is so, translation is only a change of surface structure to represent the universal deep structure. Accordingly, translation is theoretically always possible. All in all, we are faced with two extremes. Which one is right? The answer, according to Snell-Hornby (1988: 41) lies not in choosing any of the two. If the extremes are put at the ends of a cline, the answer lies between the two. In brief, theoretically the degree of probability for perfect translation depends on how far the source language text (SLT) is embedded in its culture and the greater the distance between the culture between SLT and target language text (TLT), the higher is the degree of impossibility. See the following excerpts for illustration. The source language (SL) is Indonesian and the target language (TL) is English.

(1.) SL: Sebuah lembaga penelitian mengadakan penelitian tentang jumlah tabungan perbulan dari para buruh sebuah perusahaan negara di ibukota. Penelitian tersebut menggunakan sampel yang terdiri dari 100 keluarga dan hasilnya dinyatakan sebagai persentasi dari jumlah pendapatan per bulan. (Anto Dajan, 1974: 18) TL: A research institution conducted a research on the amount of saving deposited by workers of a company located in a capital city. The research took 100 family as a sample and the result was presented in percentage of their monthly wages. (2) SL: Dalam masyarakat Jawa bila seseorang wanita atau istri sedang hamil, menurut tradisi perlu diadakan bermacam-macam selamatan dan upacara-upacara lainnya. Hal ini perlu dilaksanakan dengan maksud agar bayi yang dikandung akan lahir dengan mudah dan selamat sehingga si anak akan mendapat kebahagiaan hidup dikemudian hari. (Bratawidjaja, 1996: 11). TL: In a Javanese community, based on traditions, a pregnant woman or wife should be celebrated with various kinds of selamatan (traditional fiest?) and rituals. These should be done so that she can give a birth to a child easily and safely and the newly-born will get happy life later. (3) SL: Upacara siraman dilakukan pada pagi hari sekitar pukul 09.00. Upacara siraman dilakukan oleh ibu dari anak yang diruwat dengan air kembang setaman. Setelah dibersihkan anak itu mengenakan busana adat Jawa yang secara khusus dibuat. Anak yang diruwat diajak oleh Ki Dalang serta didampingi oleh para pisisepuh (neneknya, budenya, dan lain sebagainya) untuk bersujud di hadapan ayah dan ibunya (Bratawidjaja, 1996: 49)

TL: Siraman (showering?) ceremony is held in the morning around 09:00 oclock. This ritual is led by the mother of the child being "ruwat"(cleansed?) by showering him with "kembang setaman" (flower??)water. After being cleansed, the child is dresed in Javanese traditional clothes specially designed for him. The ("ruwat") child is then guided byKi Dalang (the puppeteer??) and accompnied by the elders (the grandmother, aunts, etc.) to pay a homage to by bowing down to earth in front of the father and mother. Reading the texts, we can imagine that translating the first text is easier than the second, and the second is easier than the last. The difficulty is caused by the culturally-bound words (concepts) found in each text. Practically, however, the depth of embededness of a text into its culture is not the first consideration. The purpose of translating is the first determinant. If the purpose of translating text (2) and (3), for example, is to give general introduction of a certain type of text or culture, the TL should not carry all the meaning possessed by the SLT. The words underlined and put in the brackets will do. In this case there are a lot of possibilities for the TL. However, if the purpose is to present the Javanese culture before the English readership, the italicized words should be used and accompanied with a lot of explanation. Supposed the two paragraphs are parts of a novel, and the translator wants to keep the local color, only the italicized words should be used. These different purposes govern the choice of translation procedures. Yet, if the purpose of translating text (2) and (3) is to present all the meaning, beauty, and style contained in it, then, translation is impossible. 3. Translation Procedures to Translate Culturally-bound Words or Expressions From the previous discussion, it is known that perfect translation of culturally-bound text is impossible. The translation focusing on the purpose of the SL text writing is, however, always possible. This can be proven with the translation of so many literary works into other languages. One of them is the translation of Mangunwijaya's Burung-burung Manyar into English by Thomas M. Hunter. Hariyanto (1997) surveys both groups of SL and TL readers and comes up with the result saying that the readers get the same impressions in terms of the meaning, message and style. Based on the result, Hariyanto (1999) studied further the appropriate procedures used to translate culturally-bound sentences, words, and expressions which are embedded in Javanese culture into English using the same novel translation as a case. The result shows that to translate culturally-bound words or expressions, the translator used addition, componential analysis, cultural equivalent, descriptive equivalent, literal translation, modulation, recognized translation, reduction, synonymy, transference, deletion, and combination. Some, however, are typically appropriate for certain classification of cultural words. For detailed description about the translation procedures, see Newmark (1988) or Hariyanto (1999). The brief description on the procedures can be seen in Appendix 1. On the appropriateness of the procedures to translate culturally-bound words and expressions, these conclusions are taken.

Recognized translation is best used to translate institutional terms whose translation are already recognized, such as TNI, kabupaten, kecamatan, and Kowilhan. The use of new translation with whatever procedure will make the readers may misinterpret, especially if they already have some degree of knowledge of the source language. The establishment of this recognized translation by the Indonesian Language Center or the people themselves has, of course, undergone a certain process of creation and acceptance. When something about language has been accepted, it means it is a convention: that is the heart of language or vocabulary. Professions are appropriately translated with cultural equivalents as they exist in both Javanese and English cultures. There are some differences between the two, but they are so minute. The examples can be seen in the following quotations. The SL is Indonesian and the TL is English. SL: Dan Nah, tentu saja tak mau ketinggalan si gelatik cantik tetapipencuri-pencuri padi yang nakal itu, dengan pipinya putih dan picinya biru hitam. (p. 17) TL: And not to be left out were the Java finches. With their white cheeks and their velvetlike caps of deep blue, they were lovely to look at, but as rice thieves they were a troublesome bunch. (p. 27) The other professions and the translation found in the novel are the following.

The SL words (4/1) babu-babu (8/1) sepandri (22/4) jongos (24/1) sepandri atau serdadu krocuk (36/2) abdi dalem (85/2) abdi (101/2) pencuri- pencuri padi (103/2) penjahit (106/1) pemburu angkatan udara (122/1) tukang kebun (124/1) garong, perampok (135/5) Pak Lurah

The translation nursemaids privates bellhop corporals or privates maid servants servant rice thieves tailor air force fighter gardener thieves and robbers village chief

(145/2) jongos (157/1) carik (157/2) ulu-ulu (178/1) Pak Bupati (178/2) bupati penjabat (191/2) maling

servant clerk the waterworks overseer the regent acting regent thief

Descriptive equivalents are appropriate to translate culturally-bound words or expressions that are not found in the English culture but considered important enough in the text. When they are not, synonyms will do. See this example. SL: Langsung ia berbahasa ngoko kepadanya, seperti kepada jongos (Mangunwijaya, 1989: 106-107) TL: He rudely ordered Karjo about, using language that one might use with a servant. (Mangunwijaya, 1993: 136) The example of this case is berbahasa ngoko which is translated intowith language that one might use with a servant. If this expression was not considered very important, the synonym with hostile language could be used. Literal translation can be used to translate a Javanese word that refers to a general meaning such as sinyo Londo, which is translated into a Dutch boy. This procedure, however, should not be used to translate proper name. Expansion is found not very significant. It means that without it, the translation was still acceptable. See the following quotation. SL: Mana Si Karjo. Dikunjungi malah lari. Mandi barangkali. Atau menggodog teh barangkali (p. 156) TL: Where was Karjo? A person comes to visit and he disappears. May be he was taking a bath, or boiling water for tea? In the above example, instead of translating menggodog teh into boiling water for tea, the translator actually could translates it into preparing for tea, which is more idiomatic. Reduction is found to be useful to translate traditional address + proper name constructions as the terms of address are not found in the TL and an explanation is not possible. The examples are the translation of Kang Glati into Glati. See the following excerpt.

SL: Pelpolisi Belanda dan resisir mantri polisi dengan cepat melacak Si Bajingan dan Kang Glati masuk bui. (p. 111) TL: ... the Dutch detectives and constables had tracked him down and thrown Glati into Jail. (p. 141) Transference is very useful to translate tradition title, terms of address, and proper name. In the context, a reduction of the title or term of address would naturally distort the meaning or message. Few of the examples can be seen below:

The SL words (37/1) Gusti Nurul (43/2) Den Ayu (53/3) Mbok Naya (57/1) Mbok Ranu (119/1) Meener Antana (123/1) Mbok Nem

The translation Gusti Nurul Den Ayu Mbok Naya Mbok Ranu Meener Antana Mbok Nem

Next, modulation can be used best to handle a word that has no exact equivalent in the TL and the context demands the translator to emphasize the economy and smoothness of the sentence flow. This situation usually happens in a direct quotation where cultural notes are impossible. In addition, with this procedure the translator can still recreate the smooth flow and beauty of the text. The example is the translation of mbak ayu into you and kakangmu into I. SL: Mbakayu itu macam-macam saja usulnya. (p. 15) TL: You do come up with some strange suggestions sometimes," Mbok Ranu commented. SL: Maka Kakangmu pikir: ah, tidak baik membebani orang dengan perkara-perkara yang lebih memberatkan (p. 160) TL: So I thought to myself that it wouldn't be right to do something that might make even more trouble. (p. 196)

In the following example the translator also employs modulation and the combination of modulation and addition. Read it closely.

SL: Bila mereka berkomentar ayam itu gemuk dan bertanya apa betul itu ayam Kedu sungguh, maka petang harinya seorang anak disuruh ayahnya mempersembahkan ayam itu kepada mereka. Tetapi bagaimana bila mereka memuji Si Tinem atau Piyah cantik? (p. 109) TL: Or if one said that a certain hen looked plump and ready for the pot, that same evening the owner would order his son or daughter to offer the chicken to the soldiers. And, because it hadn't been possible to evacuate all the young women of the village, what about when the soldiers began to praise one of the marriage-age girls? (p. 139)

Ayam Kedu in the SLT which means a type of chicken renown for its tasty meat is replaced with ready for the pot. One sense is replaced with another; this is an example of modulation. In the following sentence, the modulation is combined with addition. The reason for the action is added in. Si Tinem or Si Piyah are general names which are here used to refer to grown-up single women. The translator replaces them with the referent marriage-age girls. Some other modulations are of different types. See the following example. SL: Mereka meminta Mbok Rukem, janda nakal yang biasanya mereka gerutui untuk menampung lahar birahi tentara itu. (p. 109) TL: They went to Mbok Rukem, a divorcee whose rumored or real dalliances had so often been the target of their complaints, and asked her assistance in soothing the soldiers' passion. (p. 139)

In the example above, the phrase mereka gerutui is an action, a cause. In the translation the translator gives the effect, the consequence of the action, i.e. the target of their complaints. This is also a modulation. Finally, there are some culturally-bound words deleted or dropped during the translation process. The translator seems to take this strategy if the word's meaning is not found in the TL culture and the importance is minor. Anyhow, he should try to transfer to meaning or message, especially if it is not merely terms of address. Such words or expressions that have been deleted are: The SL words (160/4) ngono ya ngono, ning aja ngono (168/3) lamat-lamat (179/1) kepangrehannya (213/1) basa-basi

(213/2) jiwa raga (223/4) akal trenggiling (235/1) berambut ijuk (236/2) bermata bandeng

4. Conclusions Finally, it can be concluded that theoretically a text which is embedded in its culture is both possible and impossible to translate into other languages. If practicality is considered first, however, every translation is possible. The degree of its closeness to its source culture and the extent to which the meaning of its source text to be retained is very much determined by the purpose of the translation. To close, it is suggested that in the translator considered the procedures explained above to translate culturally-bound words or expressions.

TO TRANSLATE CULTURALLY-BOUND WORDS OR PHRASES Translation procedures defined below do not have a clear-cut division from one another. A particular procedure may contain in some degrees the characteristics of other procedures. The procedure is named based on its dominant characteristics. When more than one procedures, through their characteristics, equally dominate the translation of a word or expression, the procedure is called combination procedure. 1. Transference -The SL word is brought into the target language text (TLT). 2. Naturalization -The SL word is brought into the TLT and the writing is adjusted to the TLT writing system. 3. Using cultural equivalent -The SL word is replaced with the TL cultural word. 4. Using synonym -The SL word is translated into neutral TL word. 5. Using descriptive equivalent The translator explains the description and/or function of the idea embodied in the SL word. Usually it results in long wording.

6. Using recognized translation The SL word is replaced with previously recognized translation of the SL word in the TL. 7. Using componential analysis SL word is replaced with a more general TL word plus one or more TL sense components to complete the meaning which is not embodied within the first TL word. At a glance it is like descriptive equivalent, but much shorter and does not involve the function of the idea of the SL word. 8. Reduction SL word or phrase, as a translation unit, is replaced with a TL word or phrase which does not embrace part of the SL word meaning. 9. Expansion Sl word or phrase as a translation unit, is replaced with a TL word or phrase which covers the SL word meaning plus something else. 10. Addition and note An addition or note is added after the translation of the TL word or phrase. This addition is clearly not a part of the translation. 11. Deletion SL word or phrase, as a translation unit, is dropped in the TLT. 12. Modulation The SL word or phrase, as a translation unit, is translated into a TL word or phrase; and this involves change in the point of view. The translator sees the phrase from different point of view, perspective or very often category of thought in translating it. The general types: (a) abstract for concrete (sleep in the open for tidur beratap langit) (b) cause for effect (you are a stranger for saya tak mengenal Anda) (c) one part for another (from cover to cover for dari halaman pertama sampai halaman terakhir) (d) reversal of term (the French assurance-maladie for English health insurance). 13. Literal translation

If a SL word or phrase, as a translation unit, is translated into a TL word or phrase, without breaking the TL syntactic rules.

CONCLUZII Although some stylists consider translation "sprinkled with footnotes" undesirable, their uses can assist the TT readers to make better judgment of the ST contents. In general, it seems that the procedures 'functional equivalent' and 'notes' would have a higher potential for conveying the concepts underlying the CSCs embedded in a text; moreover, it can be claimed that a combination of these strategies would result in a more accurate understanding of the CSCs than other procedures. Various strategies opted for by translators in rendering allusions seem to play a crucial role in recognition and perception of connotations carried by them. If a novice translator renders a literary text without paying adequate attention to the allusions, the connotations are likely not to be transferred as a result of the translator's failure to acknowledge them. They will be entirely lost to the majority of the TL readers; consequently, the translation will be ineffective. It seems necessary for an acceptable translation to produce the same (or at least similar) effects on the TT readers as those created by the original work on its readers. This paper may show that a translator does not appear to be successful in his challenging task of efficiently rendering the CSCs and PNs when he sacrifices, or at least minimizes, the effect of allusions in favor of preserving graphical or lexical forms of source language PNs. In other words, a competent translator is wll-advised not to deprive the TL reader of enjoying, or even recognizing, the allusions either in the name of fidelity or brevity. It can be claimed that the best translation method seem to be the one which allows translator to utilize 'notes.' Furthermore, employing 'notes' in the translation, both as a translation strategy and

a translation procedure, seems to be indispensable so that the foreign language readership could benefit from the text as much as the ST readers do.

The focus of this article is to bring together, analyse and classify various studies on the operations performed by a translator during the transfer process from one language to another. Within the field of translation theory, these operations have been researched from a wide range of perspectives and have been assigned a multitude of labels, among which we have procedures, techniques, strategies, processes, methods, etc. In this article I refer to them under the generic name of translation process operators. The confusing use of terminology and concepts has encouraged the fragmentation of a branch of translation research that proves to be more homogeneous than may appear at first sight. This article draws on and analyses the overwhelming profusion of terms and concepts concerning translation process operators, based on the most commonly used notions employed by many scholars.

The article has two main aims: to illustrate the productive potential of the norms concept as an analytical tool in studying translations, and to explore the implications of the concept for the way we speak about translation. Part one takes up an historical case (Adrianus de Buck translating Boethius in 1653) and uses the concept of norms to inquire into the translator's choices. It is suggested that sociological concepts deployed by Bourdieu and Luhmann may offer useful ways forward in applying norm concepts as tools to study translation. Part two begins by positing a connection between norms and values. If translation is norm-governed it cannot be value-free. Three points are discussed following from this. First, its lack of transparency is what makes translation significant as a cultural and historical phenomenon. Second, the notion of equivalence can only be an ideological construct. Its presence in the historical discourse on translation is worth investigating, for it reveals key aspects of the conceptual self-positioning of translation. Finally, if our speaking about translation is itself a form of translating, then the implication must be that our translations of translation cannot be value-free either.

The idea of investigating translation and interpreting through corpora was first put forward by Baker (1993). At the time it was envisaged that in this new partnership corpus linguistics would provide the methodology for carrying out empirical investigations while translation theory would identify the areas of enquiry and elaborate operational hypotheses. The two partners would work in harmony mainly for the benefit of the advancement of the descriptive branch of the discipline. Since then the partnership has acquired a clear identity with a specific denomination, corpusbased translation studies (CTS), and has grown strong. Its areas of research are varied, ranging from descriptive to applied studies, and concern many different languages. The state of the art of corpus-based translation studies has been covered elsewhere (Laviosa 2002a). This

article (re)examines, in the light of recent developments, what type of relationship holds between CTS and descriptive translation studies (DTS), on the one hand, and CTS and corpus linguistics, on the other. The aim is to try and establish which claims and predictions put forward in the past still hold true and which are the most promising areas of long-term CTS research.

The idea of investigating translation and interpreting through corpora was first put forward by Baker (1993). At the time it was envisaged that in this new partnership corpus linguistics would provide the methodology for carrying out empirical investigations while translation theory would identify the areas of enquiry and elaborate operational hypotheses. The two partners would work in harmony mainly for the benefit of the advancement of the descriptive branch of the discipline. Since then the partnership has acquired a clear identity with a specific denomination, corpusbased translation studies (CTS), and has grown strong. Its areas of research are varied, ranging from descriptive to applied studies, and concern many different languages. The state of the art of corpus-based translation studies has been covered elsewhere (Laviosa 2002a). This article (re)examines, in the light of recent developments, what type of relationship holds between CTS and descriptive translation studies (DTS), on the one hand, and CTS and corpus linguistics, on the other. The aim is to try and establish which claims and predictions put forward in the past still hold true and which are the most promising areas of long-term CTS research.

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