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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 45

Unit 2 Notes
__________________
__________________
Crew Alerting Management __________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Objectives __________________
__________________
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
__________________
y Describe EICAS
__________________
y Understand different Types of ACAS Equipments
y Understand various types of Aircraft Emergencies
y Describe Unlawful Interference and Aircraft Bomb Threat
y Describe various inflight Contigencies

General
Aircraft while in flight is prone to various types of emergency
situations, which become risky if not attended in time. The
flight crew members (Pilots, Co-pilots, Flight Engineers,
Cabin crew, stewards etc.) are expected to handle such
situations of their own, since it may not be possible to provide
any kind of fruitful assistance by ground personnel in the
air. However, under such circumstances, ground people
(ATC, Airlines, Fire Staff, Ground handling staff, Military
and Defence authorities etc.) make efforts to allow the
aircraft to land in a safe, expeditious and efficient manner
and then provide full ground assistance; and also help in
search & rescue efforts.

In order to resolve any such eventuality, the best possible

assistance that can be given to the pilot by the system is in
the form of an early warning, so that he is able to take the
necessary preventive action at the earliest. In order to meet
this requirement, modern aircraft are equipped with various
facilities and gadgets, which provide early alert warning of
an emergency situation in the aircraft.
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Notes Some such installations are given below;

__________________
__________________ Stall Warning System
__________________ If the speed of the aircraft becomes dangerously low (Known
__________________ as stalling speed) this particular warning appears, so that
__________________ the pilot can take preventing action to increase the speed of
__________________ the aircraft.
__________________
Fire Warning System
__________________
__________________ In the event of fire in the aircraft the Fire Warning appears
in the form on bell, buzzer and light, thereby causing the
__________________
pilot to apply fire extinguishers and can take other
preventing actions.

Door Warning System

If any of the aircraft doors remain open during flight, “Door
warning” comes and suitable necessary actions are taken by
the air crew.

Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (EICAS)

It is an integrated system used in modern aircraft to provide
aircraft crew with aircraft engines and other systems
instrumentation and crew annunciations.

EICAS typically includes instrumentation of various engine

parameters, including for example Revolution per Minute
(RPM), temperature values, fuel flow & quantity, oil pressure
etc. Typical other aircraft systems monitored by EICAS are
for example hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, de-icing,
environmental and control surface systems. As EICAS has
high connectivity, it provides data acquisition and routing.

EICAS is a key function of a Glass cockpit system, which

replaces all analogue gages with software-driven electronic
displays. Most of the display area is used for navigation and
orientation displays, but one display or a section of a display
is set aside specifically for EICAS.

The Crew Alerting System (CAS) is used in place of the

annunciator panel on older systems. Rather than signalling
a system failure by turning on a light behind a translucent
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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 47
button, failures are shown as a list of messages is shown in a Notes
small window near the other EICAS indications. The CAS __________________
system is, in essence, and electronic version of the light __________________
Warning system of old generation aircraft. __________________
__________________
Ground proximity warning system (GPWS)
__________________
Ground proximity warning system (GPWS) is a system __________________
designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate __________________
danger of flying into the ground or high terrain. Another
__________________
common name for such a system is ground-collision warning
__________________
system (GCWS).
__________________
The system monitors an aircraft’s height above ground as
determined by a radar altimeter. A computer then keeps
track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the
captain with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in
certain defined flying configurations (“modes”), like “Whoop
Whoop Pull up”.

The modes are:

Risk Warning (Aural/Visual)

1. Excessive descent rate (“PULL UP” “SINKRATE”)

2. Excessive terrain closure rate (“TERRAIN” “PULL UP”)

3. Altitude loss after take off (“DON’T SINK”)

4. Unsafe terrain clearance (“TOO LOW - TERRAIN” “TOO

LOW - GEAR” “TOO LOW - FLAPS”)

5. Excessive deviation below glide slope (“GLIDE

SLOPE”)

6. Bank angle protection (“BANK ANGLE”)-[With EGPWS]

7. Wind shear protection (“WINDSHEAR”)-[With EGPWS]

Prior to the development of GPWS in US, large passenger

aircraft were involved in 3.5 fatal CFIT accidents per year,
falling to 2 per year in the mid-1970s. Since the U.S. Federal
Aviation Administration required large airplanes to carry
such equipment in 1974, there has not been a single
passenger fatality, in a CFIT crash by a large jet in U.S.
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Notes airspace. In 2000 the FAA extended this requirement to

__________________ smaller commuter planes as well. In India also, DGCA has
__________________ made it mandatory for civil aircraft to be equipped with
__________________ GPWS.
__________________ Basic GPWS, however, provide warning for the obstacles,
__________________ which are directly below the aircraft, and, it does give
__________________ information about the obstructions just ahead of it. Thus if
__________________ there is a sudden change in terrain, such as a steep slope,
__________________ GPWS will not detect the aircraft closure rate until it is too
__________________
late for evasive action.
__________________ In 2002 an advanced version of GPWS, known as “Enhanced
Ground Proximity Warning System” (EGPWS) or “Terrain
avoidance System (TAWS)” based on new technology was
introduced, which could solve this problem by presenting
information about obstacles ahead of the aircraft. In addition
it could also give warnings about the wind shear and
excessive bank angle on approach.

TCAS or ACAS
On 12th Nov. 96, a tragic aircraft accident occurred over
Village Charkhi Dadari near Delhi. On that day one B747 of
Saudi Arab Airlines and an IL-76 aircraft of Kazakhstan
Airlines collided in the air while Saudia was climbing to
14,000ft and Kazakh was descending to 15,000ft. All the 351
innocent passengers and crew of both the aircraft got killed
and the debris of the ill-fated aircraft mingled with the dead
bodies fell over the fields. The mid-air collision left the world
stunned.

It was evident that at least one of the aircraft was not

maintaining proper height. Since Delhi Air Traffic Control
was not equipped with the Secondary Surveillance Radar
(SSR), ATC was not aware of the heights maintained by the
two aircraft, as the Primary Radar available with Delhi ATC
does not show the heights of the aircraft over the Radar
screen. And then questions were raised whether the sad
mishap somehow could have been averted.

Within six months of the Saudia-Kazakh mid-air, another

incident was reported. ‘Air-Force One’ (also known as the
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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 49
‘flying White’ House), the VIP Jumbo jet (B747-200) aircraft Notes
which is the official aircraft used by the President of the __________________
United States, came dangerously close to another US Cargo __________________
plane while they were about 400 Kms off the European Coast. __________________

These aircraft were operating flights between USA and __________________

Europe on reciprocal tracks and they came close to each __________________

other within 2 to 3 nautical miles (4 to 6 Kms) laterally and __________________
less than 1000 ft. vertically. At a combined speed of about __________________
1500-2000 Kms an hour (or about 25 to 30 Kms per minute), __________________
these aircraft should have been hardly 15 to 20 seconds away __________________
from each other creating a critically dangerous situation.
__________________
However immediate alert warnings in the cockpit were
given by the state-of-the-art equipment known as “Traffic
Alert Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)” and the pilots
could manoeuvre the aircraft safely taking them out of
danger. Thus because of the presence of a particular
equipment, a possible disaster could be averted.

This important equipment TCAS (also called Airborne

Collision Avoidance System or ACAS) is thus getting the
recognition as one of the primary requirement for the safety
of the passenger aircraft.

ACAS or Airborne Collision Avoidance System is an air-to-

air communication system that gives audio visual warnings
in the cockpit in the event of a potential danger being faced
in the form of a conflicting aircraft dangerously coming in
the close proximity. ACAS provides avoidance protection &
air space situational awareness for the aircraft and is
completely independent of ground-based equipment. ACAS
can track as many as 45 aircraft and display up to 30 of them
at a time.

ACAS works on the principal of Secondary Surveillance

Radar (SSR), where in radio signals are sent and received in
the form of questions-answers (or Interrogator-transponder)
between the aircraft and the ground control (Air Traffic
Control Centre). The only difference between SSR and the
ACAS is that, while in case of a SSR the question-answer is
between ground and the aircraft, in case of ACAS the
interrogation is between aircraft to aircraft.
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Notes TYPE OF EQUIPMENT:

__________________
There are 3 type of ACAS equipment presently available.
__________________
__________________ ACAS-I provides traffic information (Known as Traffic
__________________ Advisories or TAs) and it acts as an aid to “SEE & AVOID
__________________ ACTION”. This type of warning is known as traffic advisories
__________________ (TAs). However, this equipment does not have the capability
for generating Resolution Advisories (RAs), which is the
__________________
advisory type of manoeuvre for altering the flight path for
__________________
avoiding the conflict. ACAS is found to be very useful
__________________
equipment for the pilot as it immediately issues alert
__________________ warnings for avoidance of collision. This warning issued by
ACAS-I, known as Traffic Advisories (TA) is in the form of
lights as well as audio signals. Audio Signal is a synthesized
human voice in the form of different kinds of spoken warnings
(sometime it appears as if some ghost is shouting). For
example:

- TRAFFIC; TRAFFIC

In other words, ACAS-I can issue only “TRAFFIC TRAFFIC”

aural warnings and the relevant visual warnings, but it cannot
advise the pilot to take steps for avoiding the conflicting
traffic. ACAS I is intended for use in smaller commuter and
general aviation aircraft.

ACAS-II: This equipment provides coordinated vertical

Resolution Advisories (RAs) such as “CLIMB, CLIMB” in
addition to Traffic Advisories (TAs) in the event of the aircraft
facing threat from a conflicting traffic. This is one of the most
important equipment that has been accepted for international
implementation and standardization by ICAO. ACAS II is
intended for use in air transport category aircraft and large
commuter aircraft.

In addition to TAs, the advanced version of ACAS known as

ACAS-II, also issues Resolution Advisories (RA) alerting the
pilot to take evasive action for avoidance of collision. For
example:

- CLIMB; CLIMB; CLIMB

- CLIMB - CROSSING CLIMB; CLIMB - CROSSING CLIMB;

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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 51
- DESCENT; DESCENT; DESCENT Notes
__________________
- REDUCE DESCEND; REDUCE DESCEND
__________________
- INCREASE CLIMB; INCREASE CLIMB __________________
__________________
- MONITOR VERTICAL SPEED; MONITOR VERTICAL
SPEED __________________
__________________
- CLEAR OF CONFLICT, and so on...
__________________
ACAS-III: ACAS III provides vertical as well as horizontal __________________
Resolution Advisories in addition to Traffic Advisories. __________________
__________________
ACAS-IV: ACAS IV is being designed to meet the operational
requirements of Free Flight and Future Air Navigation
Systems (FANS) and may include GPS composition
capabilities, horizontal Resolution Advisories, extended
Range and other enhancement over existing TCAS/ACAS
equipment. Similar type higher versions of the equipment
are also under development.

LIMITATIONS:
ACAS has got a limitation that both the aircraft which are
coming within the close proximity to each other must be
equipped with ACAS on board, in order to have Traffic
Advisories (TAs) as well as Resolution Advisories (RAs).
However, in case the intruding aircraft is not fitted with
ACAS, still the alert warning in the form of Traffic Advisories
(TAs) will be received by the pilot.

Looking into all these aspects, Govt. of India has made it

mandatory for passenger aircraft to get themselves equipped
with ACAS System.

Various types of Emergencies

There can be a number of aircraft emergencies, which may
create various problems for the pilot. ATC is the first and
most important unit to interact with the pilot during aircraft
emergencies. Some such problems are discussed below;

Abandoned Take Off

The Pilot can abort take-of, in case of any problem during T/
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Notes O provided the aircraft has not crossed the V1 speed.

__________________
__________________ Engine failure on Take Off
__________________ If an engine fails during or immediately after T/O, the Pilot
__________________ normally tries to land straight without delay. ATC will
__________________ provide full assistance to clear the runway and divert all
__________________ other traffic.
__________________
Precautionary Landing
__________________
__________________ A precautionary landing is made by the pilot when the aircraft
and engines may be functioning normally, however, there
__________________
may be some small problem causing the pilot to take the
landing as a precautionary step.

Some such cases could be

l One engine shut down due oil loss, heavy vibration or

similar such malfunctions etc. (Other engines working
normally).

l Minor Instrument failure

l Bad weather

l Other minor snags

l Fuel leakage or not having sufficient fuel to reach to the

desired destination

l Smoke warning

l Any other warning, which is assumed to be False

indication.

Emergency Landing
In case of any serious trouble the pilot can not continue the
flight and makes an Emergency Landing. The ATC unit under
such an event would provide full assistance and top priority
to the aircraft.

Some typical examples of problems leading to Emergency

Landing are given below;

l Fire on aircraft
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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 53
l Malfunction of any Control system Notes
__________________
l Major Failure of any critical part/Instrument
__________________
l Aircraft loosing height due multi engine failure __________________
__________________
l Acute Fuel shortage
__________________
l Aircraft in distress due to any other reason. __________________
__________________
Pressurization Failure
__________________
Pressurisation is needed in the cabin of an aircraft flying at __________________
an altitude above 8000 ft. Normally modern aircraft cruise
__________________
at an altitude of 30,000 ft. to 50,000 ft. Thus in the event of
Pressurization Failure at high altitudes, the passengers and
the crew would face acute discomfort and serious medical &
biological problems.

Thus the aircraft would need immediate descent below 9000

ft. Thereafter, the flight can be continued in normal manner
(Provided the aircraft has not remained with Pressurization
Failure for a long duration, when the passengers may need
immediate medical attention).

Hydraulic Failure
Many controls of the aircraft like flaps, Landing Gears, Brake
actuating systems etc. are normally operated hydraulically.
In case of Hydraulic Failure, the pilot may face tremendous
problems in operating the controls/ systems etc, and may
need priority landing. The aircraft on landing may require
longer length of runway for landing, and may block the
runway as it will not be able to taxi on its own; and may have
to be towed out.

Landing Gear Problems

In case the pilot of an aircraft gets the warning indication
that the wheels are not extended and locked, there can be
two possibilities.

First the wheels might be extended but the warning may be

false due to some reason. In such cases the pilot flies the
aircraft low across the Air Traffic Control Tower for visual
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Notes inspection of the Landing Gears. However, if the Landing

__________________ Gears are actually not extended, the pilot make attempts to
__________________ extend the gears through mechanical methods or manually.
__________________ If all efforts fail, the pilot tries to make a belly-landing which
__________________ is a case of full emergency.
__________________ There may be a case when the pilot is not able to retract the
__________________ L/G after it is airborne. In such cases the pilot would not like
__________________ to continue the flight and instead would return for landing.
__________________ This may be a precautionary landing.
__________________
Role of ATC
__________________
Upon receipt of information regarding any emergency
situation, the Air traffic control (ATC) unit will declare an
alert in the form of a;

l LOCAL STANDBY

l FULL EMEGENCY

Subsequent action will be taken by ATC and other concerned

agencies based on the type of emergency to handle the
situation.

During an emergency Air traffic control units are expected

to maintain full and complete coordination and give top
priority for any type of ATC Clearance required by the aircraft
in distress and in landing.

For example, the progress of an aircraft in emergency is

monitored on the ATC radar display until the aircraft passes
out of radar coverage, and position information is then
provided to all air traffic services units which may be able to
give assistance to the aircraft. Radar transfer to adjacent
radar sectors shall also be effected when appropriate.

When an emergency is declared by an aircraft, the ATS unit

should take appropriate and relevant preventive action.

a) unless clearly stated by the flight crew or otherwise

known, take all necessary steps to ascertain aircraft
identification and type, the nature of emergency, the
intentions of the flight crew as well as the position and
level of the aircraft;
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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 55
b) decide upon the most appropriate type of assistance Notes
which can be rendered; __________________
__________________
c) enlist the aid of any other ATS unit or other services
__________________
which may be able to provide assistance to the aircraft;
__________________
d) provide the flight crew with any information requested __________________
as well as any additional relevant information, such as
__________________
details on suitable aerodromes, minimum safe altitudes,
__________________
weather information;
__________________
e) obtain from the operator or the flight crew such of the __________________
following information as may be relevant: number of __________________
persons on board, amount of fuel remaining, possible
presence of hazardous materials and the nature thereof;
and

f) notify the appropriate ATS units and authorities as

specified in local instructions

Manoeuvring instructions to an aircraft experiencing engine

failure should be limited to a minimum. When appropriate,
other aircraft operating in the vicinity of the aircraft in
emergency should be advised of the circumstances.

Priority
An aircraft known or believed to be in a state of emergency,
including being subjected to unlawful interference, shall be
given maximum consideration, assistance and priority over
other aircraft as may be necessitated by the circumstances.

Unlawful interference and aircraft bomb threat

Air traffic services personnel shall be prepared to recognize
any indication of the occurrence of unlawful interference
with an aircraft

Whenever unlawful interference with an aircraft is known

or suspected or a bomb threat warning has been received,
ATS units shall promptly attend to all requests made by, or
to anticipated needs of, the aircraft, including requests for
relevant information relating to air navigation facilities,
procedures and services along the route of flight and at any
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Notes aerodrome of intended landing, and shall take such action

__________________ as is necessary to expedite the conduct of all phases of the
__________________ flight, especially the safe landing of the aircraft
__________________
ATS units shall also:
__________________
__________________ a) transmit, and continue to transmit, information
pertinent to the safe conduct of the flight, without
__________________
expecting a reply from the aircraft;
__________________
__________________ b) monitor and plot the progress of the flight with the
__________________ means available, and coordinate transfer of control with
__________________
adjacent ATS units without requiring transmissions or
other responses from the aircraft, unless communication
with the aircraft remains normal;

c) inform, and continue to keep informed, appropriate ATS

units, including those in adjacent Flight Information
Regions (FIRs), which may be concerned with the
progress of the flight;

d) notify: the airline operator, the appropriate rescue

coordination centre, the designated security authority
(In case of hijacking or security threat)

An aircraft known or believed to be the subject of unlawful

interference or which for other reasons needs isolation from
normal aerodrome activities shall be cleared to the
designated isolated parking position.

Emergency descent
Upon receipt of advice that an aircraft is making an
emergency descent through other traffic, the air traffic
control units shall immediately instruct other aircraft flying
in the area to clear the path of the aircraft in distress.

Air-Ground Communications Failure

As soon as it is known that two-way communication between
aircraft and ATC has failed, separation shall be maintained
between the aircraft having the communication failure and
other aircraft, and the aircraft will be given freedom to
continue to fly as per standard procedures.
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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 57
Assistance To VFR Flights Notes
__________________
A VFR flight reporting that it is uncertain of its position or
__________________
lost, or encountering adverse weather conditions, should be
__________________
considered to be in a state of emergency and handled as such.
__________________
Navigation assistance to help the pilot determine the aircraft __________________
position may be provided by use of radar, direction-finder,
__________________
navigation aids or sighting by another aircraft. Care must
__________________
be taken when providing navigation assistance to ensure that
__________________
the aircraft does not enter cloud.
__________________
OTHER IN-FLIGHT CONTINGENCIES __________________

Strayed or unidentified aircraft

The terms “strayed aircraft” means “An aircraft which has
deviated significantly from its intended track or which reports
that it is lost.” and “unidentified aircraft” means “An aircraft
which has been observed or reported to be operating in a given
area but whose identity has not been established.”

As soon as an air traffic services unit becomes aware of a

strayed aircraft, it shall take all necessary steps to assist
the aircraft and to safeguard its flight including Navigational
assistance, Radar Assistance.

Interception of civil aircraft

As soon as an air traffic services unit learns that an aircraft
is being intercepted in its area of responsibility, it shall
inform the pilot of the intercepted aircraft of the interception
and relay messages between the intercepting aircraft and
the intercept control unit, as necessary. In close coordination
with the intercept control unit take all necessary steps to
ensure the safety of the intercepted aircraft

Fuel dumping
An aircraft in an emergency or other urgent situations may
need to dump fuel so as to reduce to maximum landing mass
in order to effect a safe landing. Under such circumstances,
the ATC unit should then coordinate with the flight crew
and give clearance for the route to be flown, which, if possible
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Notes (should be clear of cities and towns, preferably over water,

__________________ and clear of weather); the level (should be not less than 6 000
__________________ ft); and duration of the fuel dumping.
__________________
References
__________________
__________________ 1. Aeronautical Information Circular No. 03 of 2006 issued
__________________ by DGCA Dt 19th May 2006.
__________________ 2. ICAO Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137) Part 1 —
__________________ Rescue and Fire Fighting.
__________________
3. DGCA, Civil Aviation Requirement, Aircraft Instrument,
__________________
Equipment And Accessories-GPWS, Series I-Part VII,
Issue II, Dated 28-5-99

4. DGCA, Civil Aviation Requirement, Aircraft Instrument,

Equipment And Accessories-ACAS, Series I-Part VIII,
Issue II, Dated 24-4-97

5. AAI Air Traffic Services Manual

6. AAI Airport Operations Manual

7. DGCA Website http://dgca.nic.in/ also http://dgca.gov.in/

8. AAI website http://aai.aero/AAI/

9. Indian Aircraft Manual

10. FAA Advisory circulars on various Cockpit Warning

Instruments.

Questions
General Questions.
1. What is the Airborne Collision Avoidance System
(ACAS) or TCAS. How it functions?

2. An aircraft is coming for emergency landing due to

‘Landing Gears’ not extending? What actions are required
to be taken by the pilot and different ground agencies?

3. In case the aircraft is met with a bomb threat or an

unlawful interference (Threat of Hijacking), what action
is required to be taken by the ATC Unit.
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UNIT 2 Crew Alerting Management 59
4. Describe the functioning of GPWS equipment. Notes
__________________
Objective Type of questions __________________

a. In case of hydraulic failure the aircraft may experience __________________

the following problems; __________________
__________________
b. If two aircraft come dangerously close to each other, an
__________________
alert warning will be issued by — equipment installed
in the aircraft. __________________
__________________
c. GPWS is the equipment installed for safety of aircraft
__________________
to avoid of collision with high terrain and hills etc. It
__________________
stands for ——-

d. In case of Pressurization failure, the aircraft may need

the following assistance;

i. ——

e. EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System);

i. ——

ii. It only provides engine information

iii. It shuts down all aircraft engines in case the pilot

receives a smoke warning.

iv. It is another form of ACAS.

f. GPWS issues alert warning “Terrain-Terrain”,

whenever;

i. —

g. In case of a fire on one of its engines, the aircraft may;

i. Make an Emergency landing.

ii. Make a precautionary landing

iii. Fly near control tower for visual confirmation

iv. Continue its flight as long as there is no fuel shortage.

h. Prior to an emergency landing, the Fuel dumping is

necessary so as to;
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Notes i. To cool down the temperature of the aircraft.

__________________
ii. reduce the landing weight of the aircraft to bring it
__________________
within the maximum permissible & safe limit of
__________________
landing.
__________________
iii. To increase the flying speed of the aircraft.
__________________
__________________ iv. Achieve a quick descent rate.
__________________ General Questions.
__________________
5. What is the Airborne Collision Avoidance System
__________________
(ACAS) or TCAS. How it functions?
__________________
6. An aircraft is coming for emergency landing due to
‘Landing Gears’ not extending? What actions are required
to be taken by the pilot and different ground agencies?

7. In case the aircraft is met with a bomb threat or an

unlawful interference (Threat of Hijacking), what action
is required to be taken by the ATC Unit.

8. Describe the functioning of GPWS equipment.

Answers to Objective Type of questions
a. On landing the aircraft may need longer runway to stop
due to less effective brakes, and may need towing as it
may not be able to turn.

b. ACAS .

c. Ground Proximity Warning System

d. Immediate descent to a height of 8000 ft or low.

e. EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System)

It is an integrated system used in modern aircraft to
provide aircraft crew aircraft engines and other systems
instrumentation and crew annunciation.

f. Aircraft comes in close proximity of a high hill or high

ground.

g. Make an Emergency landing.

h. reduce the landing weight of the aircraft to bring it

within the maximum permissible & safe limit of landing.