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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 1

Unit 1 Notes
__________________
__________________
Airport Surface Operations __________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Objectives __________________
__________________
After reading this unit, you will be able to:
__________________
y Define Aerodrome and Runway
__________________
y Understand PEPI and AGL
y Discuss Instrument Landing System (ILS)
y Know about RADAR
y Have Control of Departing Aircraft

Part-I
AIRPORT LAYOUT
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Notes AIRPORT
__________________
Aerodrome or airport is defined as a defined area on land or
__________________
water (including any buildings, installations and equipment)
__________________
intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival,
__________________
departure and surface movement of aircraft.
__________________
__________________ Airport is a wide term, used in a broad manner. Normally,
what a passenger feels that the airport consists of only the
__________________
terminal building where he purchases his air ticket, boards
__________________
and disembarks the plane. In fact the terminal building is
__________________
just one part of the airport, and in totality it includes a lot
__________________ many other features, some of them extremely important, such
as runways, taxiways, apron, air traffic control, apron (With
Parking Stands), Hangar, Radio Navigational aids,
Communication facilities etc. etc.

Normally the airport is divided into two basic parts, 'city


side' and 'air side'. 'City side' is what a travelling passenger
is well familiar with and includes airport terminal building,
ticket counters, airline and other offices, waiting halls,
security lounges, customs, immigration, outside car park,
cargo building, outside roads etc. The 'air side' consists of
the areas of the airport used mainly for aircraft operation
purposes like runways, taxiways, apron, Radio Navigational
aids, landing aids etc.

In addition, Airport support elements include air traffic


control tower, aircraft rescue and fire fighting (ARFF)
facilities, airport administration facilities, fuel storage, City
maintenance facilities, Medical Centre, Catering and utility
systems etc.

To start with we can discuss these items one by one in brief.


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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 3
Runway Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
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__________________
__________________

Runway (RWY) is a defined rectangular area on a land


aerodrome used for landing and take-off of aircraft. Runways
on an established aerodrome may be a man-made surface
(often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both), and for small
aerodromes it could also be a natural surface (grass, dirt, or
gravel).

Orientation and dimensions


The runways are named according to their Magnetic Bearings
(the direction it is "pointing towards") with reference to
North rounded to nearest 100. The runway number is the
whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of
the centre line of the runway, measured clockwise from the
magnetic north. As two 'ends of the runway' point out in two
different directions (Each separated by 1800), thus each
runway has two names separated by 1800. For example the
Runways at Delhi (IGI Airport) are 09/27 & 10/28 and
Runways at Mumbai are 09/27 & 14/32.

Each digit of runway name is pronounced separately for


clarity in radio communications. Thus, Runway Three Six
would be aligned in roughly a 360 degrees direction (i.e.
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Notes magnetic north), Runway Nine would be used for a runway


__________________ with a 94 degree-alignment (i.e. close to magnetic east), and
__________________ Runway One Seven for 168 degrees. Thus, Runway One Zero
__________________ (100°) becomes Runway Two Eight (280°) when used in the
__________________ opposite direction and Runway One Eight (180°) becomes
Runway Three Six (360°). For runways less than 100° include
__________________
the leading "zero", e.g. Runway Zero Two or Runway Zero
__________________
One Left.
__________________
__________________ If there is more than one runway pointing in the same
__________________
direction (parallel runways), each runway is identified by
appending Left, Centre and Right to the Runway number.
__________________
For example, at Kolkata Airport, the Runways One Nine Left
(19L), Zero One Right (01R), and One Nine Right (19R).
Runway Zero One Left (01L).

From left to right-A pair of parallel runways 35L/17R & 35R/


17L

For aircraft it is advantageous to perform take-offs and


landings into the wind to reduce take off roll and reduce the
ground speed needed to attain flying speed. Larger airports
usually may have more than one runway in different
directions, so that one can be selected that is most nearly
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 5
aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often Notes
constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind. __________________
__________________
Runway dimensions vary from as small as 800 ft (244 m) long
__________________
and 25 ft (8 m) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to
18,000 ft (5,486 m) long and 250 ft (76 m) wide at large __________________

international airports built to accommodate large passenger __________________


jets. In India major passenger airports are having runways __________________
with length 4500 ft to less than 13000 ft. Runway dimensions __________________
can be measured in feet or in meters depending on your __________________
location in the world. __________________

Runways can be further categorized into the following types; __________________

Non-instrument runway.
A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
approach procedures.

Instrument runway.
One of the following types of runways intended for the
operation of aircraft using instrument approach procedures:

a) Non-precision approach runway. An instrument runway


served by visual aids and a non-visual aid providing at
least directional guidance adequate for a straight-in
approach.

b) Precision approach runway, category I. An instrument


runway served by ILS and/or MLS and visual aids
intended for operations with a decision height not lower
than 60 m (200 ft) and either a visibility not less than
800 m or a runway visual range not less than 550 m.

c) Precision approach runway, category II. An instrument


runway served by ILS and/or MLS and visual aids
intended for operations with a decision height lower
than 60 m (200 ft) but not lower than 30 m (100 ft) and a
runway visual range not less than 350 m.

d) Precision approach runway, category III. An instrument


runway served by ILS and/or MLS to and along the
surface of the runway and:
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Notes A – intended for operations with a decision height lower


__________________ than 30 m (100 ft), or no decision height and a
__________________ runway visual range not less than 200 m.
__________________
B – intended for operations with a decision height lower
__________________ than 15 m (50 ft), or no decision height and a runway
__________________ visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m.
__________________
C – intended for operations with no decision height and
__________________
no runway visual range limitations.
__________________
__________________ Declared distances
__________________
Take off Run Available (TORA) - The length of runway
declared available and suitable for the ground run of an
airplane taking off.

Take off Distance Available (TODA) - The length of the


take off run available plus the length of the clearway, where
provided (the clearway length allowed must lie within the
aerodrome or airport boundary).

Accelerate Stop Distance Available (ASDA) - The length


of the take off run available plus the length of the stopway,
where provided.

Landing Distance Available (LDA) - The length of runway


which is declared available and suitable for the ground run
of an aeroplane landing.

Threshold of a runway

l The Runway Strip is the cleared, grassy area around


the paved runway. It is kept free from any obstacles that
might impede flight or ground roll of aircraft, although
the grass is not always necessarily in good condition.
The grass is often marked with white cones or gables.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 7
l The Runway is the entire paved surface, which typically Notes
features threshold markings, numbers, centre lines, and __________________
overrun areas at both ends. __________________
__________________
l Stopways also known as overrun areas are also
constructed at the end of runways as emergency space __________________

to slowly stop planes that overrun the runway on a __________________


landing gone wrong, or to slowly stop a plane on an __________________
aborted take-off or a take-off gone wrong. Stopways are __________________
often not as strong as the main paved surface of the __________________
runway and are marked with yellow chevrons. Planes __________________
are not allowed to taxi, take-off or land on stopways,
__________________
except in an emergency.

l Threshold. The beginning of that portion of the runway


usable for landing.

l Displaced threshold means that a threshold not


located at the extremity of a runway. Displaced
threshold is the point at the end of the runway. In major
airports, it is usually marked with white paint arrows
that lead up to the displaced threshold (see diagram).
Smaller runways may not have markings to indicate the
displaced threshold. A displaced threshold may be used
for taxiing and take off but not for landing, because
obstacles just before the runway, runway strength, or
noise restrictions may make the area unsuitable for
landings.

Runway markings & Lightings


The centre line is shown with white broken lines. Runway
lights are also white in colour.
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Notes
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__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Taxiway

A taxiway is a path on an airport connecting runways with


ramps, hangars, terminals and other facilities. They mostly
have hard surface such as asphalt or concrete, although
smaller airports sometimes use gravel or grass. At most
airports, taxiways are designated by letters such as Taxiway
'A', Taxiway 'C', Taxiway 'B-4' etc. Busy airports typically
construct high-speed or rapid-exit taxiways in order to allow
aircraft to leave the runway at higher speeds. This allows
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 9
the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another Notes
to land in a shorter space of time. __________________
__________________
Taxiway markings are shown by yellow continuous lines.
__________________
1. Double yellow lines mark the boundary between areas __________________
under jurisdiction of ATC and the parking areas. __________________

2. A single solid yellow line marks the taxiway centre line. __________________
__________________
3. Two parallel dashed yellow lines followed by two
__________________
parallel solid yellow lines indicate a hold line. A hold
__________________
line marks the intersection of a taxiway and a runway.
Taxy Holding position lines are marked across the width __________________

of a taxiway. These markings should not be crossed to


enter into the runway until a clearance is received from
the tower.

Rotating Beacons
Pilots identify airports at night by looking for rotating
beacons. Civil airport beacons flash alternating white and
green lights. Military airports flash two white lights followed
by a green light. Seaplane landing areas and lighted heliports
use different sequences. If the rotating beacon is turned on
during the day, it usually indicates that IFR conditions
prevail, but this isn't always the case.

Apron
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Notes
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__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
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__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

The airport apron is a defined area, on a land aerodrome,


intended to accommodate aircraft for purposes of loading or
unloading and boarding of passengers, mail or cargo, fuelling,
parking or maintenance. The use of the apron may be
controlled by the apron control service

The apron is designated by the ICAO as not being part of the


manoeuvring area, but a part of the movement area. All
vehicles, aircraft and people using the apron are referred to
as apron traffic.

In fact, the pre-flight activities are done in Ramps; and areas


for parking & maintenance are called aprons. However,
normally the words "Apron" and "Ramp" are used
interchangeably. Passenger gates are the main feature of a
terminal ramp.

'Aircraft stand' is a designated area on an apron intended to


be used for parking an aircraft. Also known as "Parking Bay"
or "Gate". Aircraft stands are named as "Stand Nos" 1,2, 3,
...,31,..,45 etc.

Apron flood-lighting
Apron floodlighting is provided on an apron, on a de-icing/
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 11
anti-icing facility and on a designated isolated aircraft Notes
parking position intended to be used at night. __________________
__________________
Apron floodlights should be located so as to provide adequate
__________________
illumination on all apron service areas, with a minimum of
glare to pilots of aircraft in flight and on the ground, __________________

aerodrome and apron controllers, and personnel on the __________________


apron. The arrangement and aiming of floodlights should be __________________
such that an aircraft stand receives light from two or more __________________
directions to minimize shadows. __________________
__________________
Terminal Building
__________________

An airport terminal is a building at an airport where


passengers transfer between ground transportation and the
facilities that allow them to board and disembark from
aircraft.

Within the terminal building, passengers purchase tickets,


transfer their luggage, and go through security. Smaller
airports have one terminal while larger airports may have
several terminals. Some larger airports have one terminal
that is connected to multiple concourses via walkways,
Aerobridges (Also called skybridges), or underground
tunnels etc.
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Notes Most airport terminals are built in a plain style. However,


__________________ some, such as Baghdad International Airport, are
__________________ monumental in stature, while others are considered
__________________ architectural masterpieces, such as Terminal 1 at Charles
__________________ de Gaulle airport near Paris or Terminal 5 at New York's
JFK Airport. A few are designed to reflect the culture of a
__________________
particular area. For example, in India, Jodhpur Airport
__________________
terminal looks like a Rajshthani Fort, while the terminal at
__________________
Dimapur (Nagaland Airport) looks like a Naga House.
__________________
__________________ Airport terminal designs
__________________
Mostly airport terminals open directly onto the tarmac and
passengers are able to proceed to the aircraft either by
walking or by taking a bus to their aircraft. However, on some
large airports, aircraft may be parked to remote aprons or
on remotely located bays, where Passengers can be taken by
a surface transport. Now modern airports have many
"Aerobridges" to join directly into the aircraft.

Control tower

A control tower, or more specifically an air traffic control


tower (ATC Tower), is the name of the air traffic control unit
responsible for movements around an airport, and is also
the name of the building from which the unit operates.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 13
Airport Control tower is generally a high rise structure above Notes
other buildings at an airport to give air traffic controllers a __________________
view of aircraft moving on the ground and in the air around __________________
the airport. Control tower structures usually have glass (Or __________________
transparent) windows to give an all round view __________________

Control Towers typically contain the following: __________________


__________________
l radios for communication with aircraft, linked to
__________________
controllers' headsets or to microphones and speakers;
__________________
l a telephone system that connects dedicated voice lines __________________
and public telephone lines via quick-dial systems to __________________
controllers' headsets, allowing them to talk to other
controllers and outside parties;

l a strip board allowing Flight Progress Strips to be used


(however in some towers these have been replaced by a
computerised system);

l a 'very pistol' for exhibiting light signals to the aircraft


in the event of a radio communication failure;

l wind and pressure gauges.

l Various other, optional equipment.

In addition modern control towers may also include the


following:

l an Aerodrome Traffic Monitor with a small radar


display.

l a Surface Movement Radar displaying aircraft and


vehicles on the airport to assist controllers at night and
in poor visibility.

l computerised meteorological information or a met


observer, flight data and briefing systems.
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Notes Hangar
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

A hangar is an enclosed tall and massive structure designed


to hold aircraft in protective storage, for the purpose of
maintenance, repair, overhaul, inspection, storage and other
purposes.

Visual Approach Slope Indicator System (VASIS) and

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)

Visual approach slope indicator System (VASIS): This


is an airport lighting facility which provides visual gliding
guidance to aircraft during approach and landing, by
radiating a pattern of high intensity red and white focused
light beams which indicate to the pilot that he/she is above,
on, or below the glide path.

These lights may be visible from up to eight kilometres


during the day and up to 32 kilometres or more at night.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 15
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)


PAPI uses the same basic principle as a VASI, but the white
and red lights are arranged in a single row. It is a light system
positioned beside the runway that consists of two, three, or
four boxes of lights that provide a visual indication to the
pilot on the glide path for the associated runway. These lights
radiate a high intensity red or white beam to indicate
whether the pilot is above or below the required approach
path to the runway.

The PAPI is usually located on the left side of the runway


and has an effective visual range of 5 NM (8 kms) during the
day and 20 NM (32 kms) at night similar to VASIS.
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Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Each light box of lights of PAPI is equipped with an optical


apparatus that splits light output into two segments, red and
white. Depending on the angle of approach, the lights will
appear either red or white to the pilot. Ideally the total of
lights will change from white to half red, moving in succession
from right to left side. The pilot will have reached the normal
glidepath (usually around 3 degrees) when there is an even
split in red and white lights. If an aircraft is beneath the
glidepath, red lights will outnumber white; if an aircraft is
above the glidepath, more white lights are visible.
Now a days mostly PAPIs are used in place of VASIS.

Markings
A symbol or group of symbols displayed on the surface of the
movement area in order to convey aeronautical information.

Aeronautical Ground Lighting (AGL)


Aeronautical Ground Lighting (AGL) is the generic term used
to describe the various lighting systems that are provided
on an aerodrome for the guidance of pilots operating aircraft
both at night and in low visibility conditions.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 17
Runway Markings Notes
__________________
Runways centre line markings are white stripes with broken
__________________
lines. They come in three basic types:
__________________
1. A visual runway, which is used only for VFR flights, __________________
usually has a threshold marking, a runway number, and __________________
stripes designating the centre line and the runway
__________________
edges. It may also have fixed-distance markers-two large,
__________________
white rectangles on either side of the centre line about
__________________
1,000 ft (305 m) from the threshold.
__________________
2. An Instrument Runway (non-precision approach)
__________________
supports both VFR and IFR traffic. As indicated by its
name, this type of runway is served by a non-precision
instrument approach, usually a VOR or NDB approach.
In addition to the markings used on a visual runway, a
non-precision runway also has threshold markings.

3. An Instrument Runway (precision approach) supports


a precision approach, usually an ILS. Precision runways
have all the marks found on a non-precision runway,
plus touchdown zone markings. These marks appear at
500-ft (150 m) increments, beginning 500 ft from the
threshold. These additional marks help pilots make the
transition from instrument to visual flight and define
the proper touchdown point for an aircraft flying an ILS.

Runway and Taxiway Lights


Runway thresholds are marked by green lights at the landing
end and red lights at the departure end. White lights define
runway edges. At a runway served by a precision instrument
approach such as an instrument landing system (ILS), the
white edge lights alternate with red lights starting 1,000 ft
from the end of the runway and then change to all red for
the last 500 ft.
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Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

All runways used for night use have Edge, Threshold and
End Lighting. Centre line and Touchdown Zone Lighting is
provided as additional guidance in support of low visibility
operations.

Runway Edge Lighting


Runway Edge Lighting is located along the edges of the area
declared for use as the runway delineated by edge markings,
and may be provided either by elevated or by flush fitting
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 19
lamp fixtures. At some aerodromes where elevated runway Notes
edge lights are employed, the light fixtures may be located __________________
on the grass shoulder just beyond the declared runway width. __________________
__________________
Runway Edge Lighting is white except in the following
instances: __________________
__________________
a) Caution Zone Lighting
__________________
On ILS equipped runways without centre line lighting, __________________
Yellow edge lighting is installed on the upwind 600 m __________________
or one third of the lighted runway length available, __________________
whichever is the less. The Yellow 'caution zone' so __________________
formed gives a visual warning of the approaching
runway end.

b) Pre-Threshold Lighting

Where a landing threshold is displaced, but the pre-


threshold area is available for the take-off run, the lights
between the beginning of the runway pavement and the
displaced threshold show red from the approach. Pilots
taking off in such a situation would see red edge lights
up to the green threshold then edge lights beyond.
Where a starter extension, narrower than its associated
runway is provided, blue edge lighting is normally used
to mark the edges.

c) Runway Exit Lighting

One or two omni-directional blue lights may replace or


supplement the edge lights in order to indicate an exit
taxiway.

d) Stopway Lighting

Where stopway is provided at the end of a runway, the


declared stopway is delineated by red edge and end
lighting showing ONLY in the direction of landing. A
stopway is provided for emergency use only and is not
normally suitable for routine use.

Taxiway Lights

Taxiway edge lights are blue in colour. However, centre line


taxiway way lights are green in colour.
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Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Taxiway Lights-Blue (Edge Lights), Green (Centre Line)

Approach Lighting Systems


Runways served by instrument approach procedures usually
have approach lights to help pilots identify the runway
environment during low-visibility conditions. Approach lights
greatly increase a pilot's chances of seeing the runway and
making a safe landing.

Varieties of approach lighting systems, based on the centre


line and cross bar concept, are in use at aerodromes. These
systems range from the simple low intensity centre line and
cross bar intended to serve visual runways at night only, to
the precision approach lights consisting of centre line and 5
cross bars for day and night use on ILS equipped runways.

Simple approach lighting systems normally commence 500


m prior to the runway threshold whilst the precision
approach commences 900 m prior to runway threshold.
Where, because of the geography of the approach, it is not
possible to install a full system, a shortened system is
employed and the Runway Visual Range (RVR) minima
associated with the instrument approach procedure adjusted
accordingly. Except where supplemented by red side
barrettes as described below, approach lighting is white in
colour.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 21
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
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Notes Types of Approach Lights


__________________
Following approach lighting system (ALS) are used.
__________________
__________________ 1. Green threshold lights mark the beginning of the
__________________ runway.
__________________ 2. A long line of lead-in lights aligned with the runway
__________________ centre-line. The lead-in lights extend from the end of
__________________ the runway into the approach area.
__________________
3. Alignment bars perpendicular to the lead-in lights that
__________________
help the pilot quickly determine if the airplane is
__________________ properly aligned with the runway.

Obstacle Markings & Lighting


These lights can be seen on the high-rise buildings and tall
chimneys, TV Antennas, HT Lines acting as an alert warning
for aircraft flying in the area. For aircraft flying during night
or in poor visibility, flashing or fixed lights are installed on
such structures.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 23
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Radio Communication/Navigation Facilities & Landing


Aids

Radio is used frequently in aviation for air ground


communication, for Radio Navigation Facilities and for
landing aids. Radio waves are of following types;
Name Frequency Application

Low Freq (LF) Less than 300 KHz Loran's

Medium Freq (MF) Between 300 KHz to 3 MHz NDB

High Freq (HF) Between 3 MHz to 30 MHz Long Distance Air/


Ground Communication

Very High Freq Between 30 MHz to 300 MHz VOR, Short Distance Air
(VHF) Ground Comm.
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Notes Ultra High Freq Between 300 MHz to 3000 ILS, DME, RADAR
(UHF) MHz
__________________
Exta or Super High Between 3 GHz to 30 GHz
__________________
Freq (SHF)
__________________
__________________ Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)
__________________ Non-directional beacon (NDB): is a radio beacon
__________________ transmitting non-directional signals that a pilot of an aircraft
__________________ equipped with direction finding equipment can determine
his/her bearing to or from the radio beacon and "home" on or
__________________
track to or from the station. It is similar to a radio broadcast
__________________
station in a known location, used as an aviation navigational
__________________
aid. NDBs are operated on a frequency between 190 kHz and
1750 kHz. Each NDB is identified by a one, two, or three-
letter Morse code call sign.
NDBs have one major advantage over the more sophisticated
VOR: NDB signals follow the curvature of the earth, so they
can be received at much greater distances at lower altitudes.
However, the NDB signal is affected more by atmospheric
conditions, mountainous terrain, coastal refraction and
electrical storms, particularly at long range. However, it is
not possible for an aircraft pilot to know the exact bearing of
the aircraft. Hence at most of the airports, they are using
VOR, comparatively a superior radio navigational aid.
VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
VOR, short for VHF Omni-directional Radio Range, is a
type of radio navigation system for aircraft. VOR broadcasts
a VHF radio composite signal including the station's Morse
code identifier, and data that allows the airborne receiving
equipment to derive the magnetic bearing from the station
to the aircraft (direction from the VOR station in relation to
the earth's magnetic North). This line of position is known
as the "radial". The intersection of two radials from different
VOR stations on a chart allows for a "fix" or specific position
of the aircraft.
The VOR was designed to provide 360 courses to and from
the station selectable by the pilot. The VOR's major
advantage is that the radio signal provides a reliable line
(radial) to or from the station which can be selected and easily
followed by the pilot.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 25
VORs operate in the range of VHF Frequencies, and thus Notes
are relatively free from in-built deficiencies of MF (As in __________________
NDB) such as static interference, man made and electrical __________________
noise, less course bending around terrain features and __________________
coastlines, and less interference from bad weather & __________________
thunderstorms etc. Because of their VHF frequency, VOR
__________________
stations rely on "line of sight" -- if the transmitting antenna
__________________
could not be seen on a perfectly clear day from the receiving
__________________
antenna, a useful signal would not be received. This limits
VOR (and DME) range to the horizon, or closer if mountains __________________

intervene. This means that an extensive network of stations __________________


is needed to provide reasonable coverage along main air __________________
routes.
VORs are assigned radio channels between 108.0 MHz
(megahertz) and 117.95 MHz (with 50-kHz spacing); this is
in the VHF (very high frequency) range.
The VOR system uses the phase relationship between a
reference-phase and a rotating-phase signal to encode
direction. The carrier signal is omni-directional and contains
the amplitude modulated (AM) station Morse code or voice
identifier. The phase angle is equal to the direction from the
station to the airplane, in degrees from local magnetic north,
and is called the "radial."
Distance measuring equipment

D-VOR/DME ground station

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME): It is an equipment


(airborne and ground) used to measure, in nautical miles,
the slant range distance of an aircraft from the DME
navigational aid. It is a transponder-based radio navigation
technology that measures distance by timing the propagation
delay of VHF or UHF radio signals.
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Notes DME functions on the same principle as a Secondary Radar,


__________________ except in reverse. Aircraft use DME to determine their
__________________ distance from a land-based transponder by sending and
__________________ receiving pulse pairs - two pulses of fixed duration and
__________________ separation. The ground stations are typically co-located with
VORs. Sometimes DME is also co-located with an ILS
__________________
localizer where it provides an accurate distance function,
__________________
similar to that otherwise provided by ILS Marker Beacons.
__________________
__________________ Instrument Landing System
__________________
The Instrument Landing System (ILS) is a ground-based
__________________
instrument approach system which provides precise
guidance to an aircraft approaching a runway, using a
combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-intensity
lighting arrays to enable a safe landing during Instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low clouds or
reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.

Principle of operation
An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems, one
providing lateral guidance (Localizer), the other vertical
guidance (Glideslope or GlidePath) to aircraft approaching
a runway.

A localizer (LOC, or LLZ in Europe) antenna array is


normally located beyond the departure end of the runway
and generally consists of several pairs of directional antennas.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 27
It provides lateral guidance to the landing aircraft, by the Notes
help of radio signals that assist the aircraft to come in line __________________
of the runway. Two signals are transmitted on a carrier __________________
frequency between 108.10 MHz and 111.975 MHz. One is __________________
modulated at 90 Hz, the other at 150 Hz (Known as Yellow __________________
and Blue rays) and these are transmitted from separate but
__________________
co-located antennas. Each antenna transmits a fairly narrow
__________________
beam, one slightly to the left of the runway centre line, the
__________________
other to the right.
__________________
The localizer receiver on the aircraft measures the Difference __________________
in the Depth of Modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz
__________________
signals. For the localizer, the depth of modulation for each
of the modulating frequencies is 20 percent. The difference
between the two signals varies depending on the position of
the approaching aircraft from the centre line.

If there is a predominance of either 90Hz or 150Hz


modulation, the aircraft is off the centre line. In the cockpit,
the needle on the Horizontal Situation Indicator, or HSI (The
Instrument part of the ILS), will show that the aircraft needs
to fly left or right to correct the positional error to fly down
the centre of the runway. If the DDM is zero the receiver
aerial and therefore, the aircraft, is on the centre line of the
localizer coinciding with the physical runway centre line.

A glideslope or Glidepath (GP) provides vertical guidance


to the landing aircraft by the help of radio signals that assist
the aircraft to come at the right angle of descent for touch
down on the runway. Glidepath antenna array is sited to
one side of the runway touchdown zone. The GP signal is
transmitted on a carrier frequency between 329.15 and 335
MHz using a technique similar to that of the localizer. The
centre line of the glideslope signal is arranged to define a
glideslope of approximately 3° above the horizon.

Localizer and glideslope carrier frequencies are paired so


that only one selection is required to tune both receivers.

These signals are displayed on an instrument in the cockpit.


The pilot controls the aircraft so that the indications on the
instrument remain cantered on the display. This ensures the
aircraft is following the ILS centre line.
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Notes Markers
__________________
There are two Markers provided on the ILS Path known as
__________________
Outer marker and Middle Marker to give the distance of the
__________________
aircraft from touch down. They are equipped with audible
__________________ and visible signals to the pilot.
__________________
The outer marker is normally located 7.2 km (4 NM) from
__________________
the threshold except that, where this distance is not
__________________
practicable, the outer marker may be located between 6.5
__________________
and 11.1 km (3.5 and 6 NM) from the threshold. The Middle
__________________ marker is normally located so as to indicate, in low visibility
__________________ conditions, the missed approach point, at a distance of 1050
m from the threshold.

ILS categories
There are three categories of ILS which support similarly
named categories of operation.

l Category I - A precision instrument approach and


landing with a decision height not lower than 60 m (200
ft) above touchdown zone elevation and with either a
visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range
not less than 550 m.

l Category II - Category II operation: A precision


instrument approach and landing with a decision height
lower than 60 m (200 ft) above touchdown zone elevation
but not lower than 30 m (100 ft), and a runway visual
range not less than 350 m.

l Category III is further subdivided

v Category III A - A precision instrument approach


and landing with:

a) a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft) above


touchdown zone elevation, or no decision
height; and

b) a runway visual range not less than 200 m.

v Category III B - A precision instrument approach


and landing with:
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 29
a) a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft) above Notes
touchdown zone elevation, or no decision __________________
height; and __________________
__________________
b) a runway visual range less than 200 m but not
less than 50 m. __________________
__________________
v Category III C - A precision instrument approach
__________________
and landing with no decision height and no runway
__________________
visual range limitations. A Category III C system
__________________
is capable of using an aircraft's autopilot to land
the aircraft and can also provide guidance along __________________

the runway surface. __________________

Microwave landing system (MLS): a precision instrument


approach system that provides precision guidance in azimuth,
elevation, and distance measurement. In Europe this is used
at many airports.

Radar
Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to
identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both
moving and fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, motor
vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A transmitter
emits radio waves, which are reflected by the target and
detected by a receiver, typically in the same location as the
transmitter. The time taken by the Radar waves to go to the
target (aircraft) and come back is measured to get the
distance (Height) of the aircraft.

Radar can be of two types. Primary Radar shows all the


objects, whether fixed or moving; Secondary Surveillance
Radar (SSR) shows only those targets (Aircraft), which reply
the signals sent by the other aircraft. Thus SSR eliminates
undesirable clutters.

Radar is used in many contexts, including meteorological


detection of precipitation, air traffic control. The pilot uses
the weather radar installed in the aircraft to know the
surrounding weather and the ATC uses it for proving
separation between the aircraft.
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Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

Light signal from aerodrome control

Green flashes

Permission to cross landing area or to move onto taxiway

Steady red

Stop

Red flashes

Move off the landing area or taxiway and watch out for aircraft

White flashes

Vacate manoeuvring area in accordance with local


instructions

In emergency conditions or if the signals in are not observed,


the signal given hereunder shall be used for runways or
taxiways equipped with a lighting system and shall have the
meaning indicated therein.

Flashing runway or taxiway lights

Vacate the runway and observe the tower for light signal
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 31
Part-II Notes
__________________
General. __________________

Manoeuvring area. That part of an aerodrome to be used __________________

for the take-off, landing and taxiing of aircraft, excluding __________________


aprons. __________________
__________________
Movement area. That part of an aerodrome to be used for
__________________
the take-off, landing and taxiing of aircraft, consisting of the
manoeuvring area and the apron(s). __________________
__________________
OBJECTIVE __________________

While operating at the airport area, the aircraft; landing,


taking off, taxiing, and parked on the apron are to be provided
safe separation from other movements. On the other hand, a
large number of vehicle movements at the operational area
make the things difficult. The Air Traffic Controller is
required to ensure that all the traffic movements on the
ground are controlled in a safe manner through ATC
instructions.

Accordingly the ATC or the ground control units have been


entrusted to organize the vehicular and aircraft traffic in
such a manner that there are no conflicts and no incidents &
accidents within its control.

Designated positions of aircraft in the aerodrome


traffic and taxi circuits.

The following positions of aircraft in the traffic and taxi


circuits are the positions where the aircraft normally receive
aerodrome control tower clearances from ATC. Where
practicable, all clearances should be issued without waiting
for the aircraft to initiate the call.
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Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Position 1. Taxi clearances given.
__________________
Position 2. If conflicting traffic, the departing aircraft is held
at this position. Otherwise T/O clearance is issued by ATCO.

Position 3. T/O clearance is issued here, if not practicable at


position 2.

Position 4. Clearance to land is issued here as practicable.

Position 5. Clearance to taxi to apron is issued here.

Position 6. Parking information issued here.

ESSENTIAL INFORMATION ON AERODROME


CONDITIONS.
Essential information on aerodrome conditions is
information pertaining to airport surface & movement area
or any facilities usually associated issued by ATC to aircraft,
which are necessary to safety of aircraft operation. This may
include;

a) construction or maintenance work on, or immediately


adjacent to the movement area;

b) rough or broken surfaces on a runway, on a taxiway or


on apron.

c) water, snow, slush or ice on a runway, on a taxiway or


on apron.

d) other temporary hazards, including parked aircraft and


birds on the ground or in the air.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 33
e) failure or irregular operation of aerodrome lighting Notes
system. __________________
__________________
f) any other pertinent information.
__________________
Traffic on the manoeuvring area __________________
__________________
Control of Taxiing Aircraft
__________________
Use of Runway-Holding Positions __________________
__________________
Taxing aircraft should be held at the runway holding
__________________
position, till the runway is reported as clear, and only then
it should be allowed to enter the runway. __________________

CONTROL OF OTHER THAN AIRCRAFT TRAFFIC.


Entry to the Manoeuvring Area
The movement of persons or vehicles including towed aircraft
on the manoeuvring area of an aerodrome shall be controlled
by the aerodrome control tower as necessary to avoid hazard
to them or to aircraft landing, taxiing or taking off.

Persons, including drivers of all vehicles, shall be required


to obtain authorization from the aerodrome control tower
before entry to the manoeuvring area.

Notwithstanding such an authorization, entry to a runway


or runway strip or change in the operation authorized shall
be subject to a further specific authorization by the aerodrome
control tower.
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Notes In conditions where low visibility procedures are in


__________________ operation:
__________________
a) persons and vehicles operating on the manoeuvring area
__________________
of an aerodrome shall be restricted to the essential
__________________ minimum, and particular regard shall be given to the
__________________ requirements to protect the ILS sensitive areas when
__________________ Category II or Category III A precision instrument
__________________ operations are in progress;
__________________ b) the vehicles shall remain at safe distance from taxiing
__________________ aircraft.
__________________
Priority on the Manoeuvring Area
Emergency vehicles proceeding to the assistance of an
aircraft in distress shall be afforded top priority over all other
surface movement traffic. All movement of surface traffic
should, to the extent practicable, be halted until it is
determined that the progress of the emergency vehicles will
not be impeded.

Vehicles on the manoeuvring area shall be required to comply


with the following rules:

a) vehicles, vehicles towing aircraft and pedestrians shall


give way to aircraft which are landing, taking off or
taxiing;

b) vehicles shall give way to other vehicles towing aircraft;

c) vehicles shall give way to other vehicles in accordance


with ATS unit instructions;

d) notwithstanding the provisions of a), b) and c), vehicles


and vehicles towing aircraft shall comply with
instructions issued by the aerodrome control tower.

When an aircraft is landing or taking off, vehicles shall not


be permitted to hold closer to the runway-in use than:

a) at a taxiway/ runway intersection - at a runway holding


position; and

b) at a location other than a taxiway/ runway intersection


- at a distance equal to the separation distance of the
runway-holding position.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 35
Communication Requirements and Visual Signals Notes
__________________
At controlled aerodrome vehicles employed on the
__________________
manoeuvring area shall be capable of maintaining two-way
__________________
radio communication with the aerodrome control tower,
except when the vehicle is occasionally used on the __________________

manoeuvring area and is: __________________


__________________
a) accompanied by a vehicle with the required
__________________
communications capability, or
__________________
b) employed in accordance with a prearranged plan __________________
established with the aerodrome control tower. __________________

Light signal from aerodrome control


Green flashes
Permission to cross landing area or to move onto taxiway

Steady red
Stop

Red flashes
Move off the landing area or taxiway and watch out for
aircraft

White flashes
Vacate manoeuvring area in accordance with local
instructions

In emergency conditions or if the signals in are not observed,


the signal given hereunder shall be used for runways or
taxiways equipped with a lighting system and shall have the
meaning indicated therein.

Flashing runway or taxiway lights


Vacate the runway and observe the tower for light signal

CONTROL OF TRAFFIC IN THE TRAFFIC CIRCUIT.


General.
Aircraft in the traffic circuit shall be controlled to provide
the separation minima except that:
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Notes a) aircraft in formation are exempted from the separation


__________________ minima with respect to separation from other aircraft
__________________ of the same flight;
__________________
b) aircraft operating in different areas or different runways
__________________ on aerodromes suitable for simultaneous landings or
__________________ take-offs are exempted from the separation minima;
__________________
c) separation minima shall not apply to aircraft operating
__________________
under military necessity.
__________________
__________________
Sufficient separation shall be effected between aircraft in
flight in the traffic circuit to allow the spacing of arriving
__________________
and departing aircraft.

Entry into traffic circuit.


The clearance to enter the traffic circuit should be issued to
an aircraft depending on the circumstances and traffic
conditions. An arriving aircraft executing an instrument
approach shall normally be cleared to land straight in unless
visual manoeuvring to the landing runway is required.

Priority for landing.


In cases of emergency the ATC should render all assistance
possible.

Priority shall be given to:

a) an aircraft which anticipates being compelled to land


because of factors affecting the safe operation of the
aircraft (engine failure, shortage of fuel, etc.);

b) hospital aircraft or aircraft carrying any sick or seriously


injured persons requiring urgent medical attention;

c) aircraft engaged in search and rescue operations;

d) VVIP aircraft.

ORDER OF PRIORITY FOR ARRIVING AND DE-


PARTING AIRCRAFT.
An aircraft landing or in the final stages of an approach to
land shall normally have priority over an aircraft intending
to depart from the same or an intersecting runway.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 37
CONTROL OF DEPARTING AIRCRAFT. Notes
__________________
Departure sequence __________________

Departures shall normally be cleared in the order in which __________________

they are ready for take-off, except that deviations may be __________________
made from this order of priority to facilitate the maximum __________________
number of departures with the least average delay. Factors __________________
which should be considered in relation to the departure __________________
sequence include, inter-alia: __________________

a) types of aircraft and their relative performance; __________________


__________________
b) routes to be followed after take-off;

c) any specified minimum departure interval between take-


offs;

d) need to apply wake turbulence separation minima;

e) aircraft which should be afforded priority; and

f) aircraft subject to ATFM requirements.

Separation of departing aircraft.


A departing aircraft will not normally be permitted to
commence take-off until the preceding departing aircraft has
crossed the end of the runway-in-use or has started a turn
or until all preceding landing aircraft are clear of the runway-
in-use.

Take-off clearance.

Take-off clearance may be issued to an aircraft when there


is reasonable assurance that the separation will exist when
the aircraft commences take-off.

When an ATC clearance is required prior to take off, the


take-off clearance shall not be issued until the ATC clearance
has been transmitted to and acknowledged by the aircraft
concerned.

The take-off clearance shall be issued when the aircraft is


ready for take-off and at or approaching the departure
runway, and the traffic situation permits. To reduce the
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Notes potential for misunderstanding, the take-off clearance shall


__________________ include the designator of the departure runway.
__________________
In the interest of expediting traffic, a clearance for immediate
__________________
take-off may be issued to an aircraft before it enters the
__________________ runway. On acceptance of such clearance the aircraft shall
__________________ taxi out to the runway and take off in one continuous
__________________ movement.
__________________
__________________
CONTROL OF ARRIVING AIRCRAFT.
__________________ Separation of landing aircraft and preceding landing
__________________ and departing aircraft using the same runway.

A landing aircraft will not normally be permitted to cross


the runway threshold on its final approach until the
preceding departing aircraft has crossed the end of the
runway-in-use, or has started a turn, or until all preceding
landing aircraft are clear of the runway-in-use.

Clearance to land.
An aircraft may be cleared to land when there is reasonable
assurance that the separation will exist when the aircraft
crosses the runway threshold, provided that a clearance to
land shall not be issued until a preceding landing aircraft
has crossed the runway threshold. To reduce the potential
for misunderstanding, the landing clearance shall include
the designator of the landing runway.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 39
Landing and roll-out manoeuvres. Notes
__________________
When necessary or desirable in order to expedite traffic, a
__________________
landing aircraft may be requested to:
__________________
a) hold short of an intersecting runway after landing; __________________

b) land beyond the touchdown zone of the runway; __________________


__________________
c) vacate the runway at a specified exit taxiway;
__________________
d) expedite vacating the runway. __________________
__________________
PROCEDURES FOR LOW VISIBILITY OPERATIONS. __________________

Control of aerodrome surface traffic in conditions of


low visibility.

In conditions where low visibility procedures are in


operation, persons and vehicles operating on the
manoeuvring area of an aerodrome shall be restricted to the
essential minimum, and particular regard shall be given to
the requirements to protect the ILS sensitive area(s) when
Category II or Category III A precision instrument operations
are in progress.

When there is a requirement for traffic to operate on the


manoeuvring area in conditions of visibility which prevent
the aerodrome control tower from applying visual separation
between aircraft, and between aircraft and vehicles, the
following shall apply:

At the intersection of taxiways, an aircraft or vehicle on a


taxiway shall not be permitted to hold closer to the other
taxiway than the holding position limit defined by a
clearance bar, stop bar or taxiway intersection marking.

Subject to the provisions in, the vehicles shall remain at safe


distance from taxiing aircraft.

SUSPENSION OF VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)


OPERATIONS.
Aircraft may be permitted to fly VFR at certain airports.
However, Any or all VFR operations on and in the vicinity
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Notes of an aerodrome may be suspended by the ATC, if


__________________ circumstances warrants so, in the interest of safety or other
__________________ reasons.
__________________
__________________
AERONAUTICAL GROUND LIGHTS.
__________________ General.
__________________
All aeronautical ground lights shall be operated
__________________
__________________ a) during the time from sunset to sun rise;
__________________
b) during time from sunrise to sunset when visibility is
__________________
3000 m or less;

c) when requested by pilot. When so requested, further


adjustment of the intensity light shall also be made
whenever possible.

d) at any other time when their use, based on weather


conditions, is considered desirable for the safety of air
traffic.

Lights on and in the vicinity of aerodromes that are not


intended for enroute navigation purposes may be turned off,
subject to further provisions hereafter, if no likelihood of
either regular or emergency operation exists, provided that
they can be again brought into operation at least one hour
before the expected arrival of an aircraft.

The lights of a visual approach slope indicator system


(VASIS) or PAPI shall be operated during the hours of
daylight as well as of darkness and irrespective of the
visibility conditions when the associated runway is being
used.

Runway lighting.
Runway lighting shall not be operated if that runway is not
in use for landing, take-off or taxiing purposes, unless
required for runway inspections or maintenance.

a) at aerodromes where air traffic control service is


provided and where lights are centrally controlled, the
lights of one runway shall remain lighted after take-off
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 41
as long as is considered necessary for the return of the Notes
aircraft due to an emergency occurring during or __________________
immediately after take-off; __________________
__________________
b) at aerodromes without air traffic control service or
without centrally controlled lights, the lights of one __________________

runway shall remain lighted until such time as would __________________


normally be required to reactivate the lights in the __________________
likelihood of the departing aircraft returning for an __________________
emergency landing, and in any case not less than fifteen __________________
minutes after take-off. __________________

Taxiway lighting. __________________

Where required to provide taxi guidance, taxiway lighting


shall be turned on in such order that a continuous indication
of the taxi path is presented to taxiing aircraft. Taxiway
lighting or any portion thereof may be turned off when no
longer needed.

Obstacle lighting.
Obstacle lighting associated with the approach to or
departure from a runway or channel, where the obstacle does
not project through the inner horizontal surface should be
turned off and on simultaneously with the runway lights.

Un -serviceability lights may not be turned off while the


aerodrome is open.

References:
1. ICAO Annex 14 to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation-Volume I-' Aerodrome Design and Operations',
Fourth Edition, July 2004

2. Civil Aviation Requirements, Section-4, Aerodrome


Standards & Air Traffic Services, Series 'B', Part I dated
31st July, 2006-: Aerodrome Design And Operations,
issued by Office Of Director General Of Civil Aviation.

3. ICAO Aerodrome Design Manual (ICAO Doc 9157), Part


1 - Runways, Part 2 - Taxiways, Aprons and Holding
Bays, Part 3 - Pavements, Part 4 - Visual Aids, Part 5 -
Electrical Systems.
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42 Aviation Safety and Security Management fo
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Notes 4. ICAO Manual of Surface Movement Guidance and


__________________ Control Systems (SMGCS) (ICAO Doc 9476)
__________________
5. Airports Authority of India ATS Manual.
__________________
__________________ 6. ICAO Annex 10 -Volume I-Aeronautical
__________________
Telecommunications- Radio Navigation Aids, Fifth
Edition - July 1996
__________________
__________________ Questions
__________________
General Questions.
__________________
__________________ 1. Describe the functioning of a Visual Approach Slope
Indicator System (VASIS) or a Precision Approach Path
Indicator (PAPI)

2. What is an ILS (Instruments Landing System)? What


are its main features?

3. What are the different types of aircraft emergencies?


What are the actions taken by various ground agencies
to handle such emergencies?

Objective Type Questions.


a. Two parallel runways located in North/South direction
will be named as ----- and -----.

b. Precision Approach Runway Cat II is a kind of

i. Instrument runway

ii. Non- Instrument runway

iii. Grassy runway

iv. Unlighted Runway

c. An aircraft is landing on Runway 09 at an airport. This


means that the aircraft is approaching from; ---- to ------

d. VOR & DME are used for getting the ------ & --------- of
the aircraft from an airport.

e. Top Priority for landing should be given to the aircraft

1. Aircraft experiencing in-flight emergency like engine


failure, fire, shortage of fuel etc.
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fo
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 43
f. The Taxiway markings are shown by broken white lines Notes
and the colour of taxiway edge lights is ------ __________________
__________________
g. The NDB (Non Directional Beacon) is used by aircraft
__________________
for communication with ATC. (True or False)
__________________
h. Displaced Threshold mean; __________________

i. A threshold not located at the extremity of a __________________


runway. __________________
__________________
ii. A runway not aligned properly.
__________________
iii. A runway located very far from the airport. __________________

iv. A misplaced taxiway

Answers to Objective Type of questions


a. 18L/36R, 18R/36L

b. i. Instrument runway

c. West to East

d. Direction & Distance

e. Aircraft experiencing in-flight emergency like engine


failure, fire, shortage of fuel etc.

f. Blue

g. False

h.

i. A threshold not located at the extremity of a runway.

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