Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 1
Unit 1 Notes
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Airport Surface Operations __________________
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Objectives __________________
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After reading this unit, you will be able to:
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y Define Aerodrome and Runway
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y Understand PEPI and AGL
y Discuss Instrument Landing System (ILS)
y Know about RADAR
y Have Control of Departing Aircraft
Part-I
AIRPORT LAYOUT
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Notes AIRPORT
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Aerodrome or airport is defined as a defined area on land or
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water (including any buildings, installations and equipment)
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intended to be used either wholly or in part for the arrival,
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departure and surface movement of aircraft.
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__________________ Airport is a wide term, used in a broad manner. Normally,
what a passenger feels that the airport consists of only the
__________________
terminal building where he purchases his air ticket, boards
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and disembarks the plane. In fact the terminal building is
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just one part of the airport, and in totality it includes a lot
__________________ many other features, some of them extremely important, such
as runways, taxiways, apron, air traffic control, apron (With
Parking Stands), Hangar, Radio Navigational aids,
Communication facilities etc. etc.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 3
Runway Notes
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 5
aligned with the wind. Airports with one runway are often Notes
constructed to be aligned with the prevailing wind. __________________
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Runway dimensions vary from as small as 800 ft (244 m) long
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and 25 ft (8 m) wide in smaller general aviation airports, to
18,000 ft (5,486 m) long and 250 ft (76 m) wide at large __________________
Non-instrument runway.
A runway intended for the operation of aircraft using visual
approach procedures.
Instrument runway.
One of the following types of runways intended for the
operation of aircraft using instrument approach procedures:
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Threshold of a runway
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 7
l The Runway is the entire paved surface, which typically Notes
features threshold markings, numbers, centre lines, and __________________
overrun areas at both ends. __________________
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l Stopways also known as overrun areas are also
constructed at the end of runways as emergency space __________________
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Notes
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Taxiway
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 9
the aircraft to vacate the runway quicker, permitting another Notes
to land in a shorter space of time. __________________
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Taxiway markings are shown by yellow continuous lines.
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1. Double yellow lines mark the boundary between areas __________________
under jurisdiction of ATC and the parking areas. __________________
2. A single solid yellow line marks the taxiway centre line. __________________
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3. Two parallel dashed yellow lines followed by two
__________________
parallel solid yellow lines indicate a hold line. A hold
__________________
line marks the intersection of a taxiway and a runway.
Taxy Holding position lines are marked across the width __________________
Rotating Beacons
Pilots identify airports at night by looking for rotating
beacons. Civil airport beacons flash alternating white and
green lights. Military airports flash two white lights followed
by a green light. Seaplane landing areas and lighted heliports
use different sequences. If the rotating beacon is turned on
during the day, it usually indicates that IFR conditions
prevail, but this isn't always the case.
Apron
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Notes
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Apron flood-lighting
Apron floodlighting is provided on an apron, on a de-icing/
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 11
anti-icing facility and on a designated isolated aircraft Notes
parking position intended to be used at night. __________________
__________________
Apron floodlights should be located so as to provide adequate
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illumination on all apron service areas, with a minimum of
glare to pilots of aircraft in flight and on the ground, __________________
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Control tower
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 13
Airport Control tower is generally a high rise structure above Notes
other buildings at an airport to give air traffic controllers a __________________
view of aircraft moving on the ground and in the air around __________________
the airport. Control tower structures usually have glass (Or __________________
transparent) windows to give an all round view __________________
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Notes Hangar
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 15
Notes
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Notes
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Markings
A symbol or group of symbols displayed on the surface of the
movement area in order to convey aeronautical information.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 17
Runway Markings Notes
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Runways centre line markings are white stripes with broken
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lines. They come in three basic types:
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1. A visual runway, which is used only for VFR flights, __________________
usually has a threshold marking, a runway number, and __________________
stripes designating the centre line and the runway
__________________
edges. It may also have fixed-distance markers-two large,
__________________
white rectangles on either side of the centre line about
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1,000 ft (305 m) from the threshold.
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2. An Instrument Runway (non-precision approach)
__________________
supports both VFR and IFR traffic. As indicated by its
name, this type of runway is served by a non-precision
instrument approach, usually a VOR or NDB approach.
In addition to the markings used on a visual runway, a
non-precision runway also has threshold markings.
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Notes
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All runways used for night use have Edge, Threshold and
End Lighting. Centre line and Touchdown Zone Lighting is
provided as additional guidance in support of low visibility
operations.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 19
lamp fixtures. At some aerodromes where elevated runway Notes
edge lights are employed, the light fixtures may be located __________________
on the grass shoulder just beyond the declared runway width. __________________
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Runway Edge Lighting is white except in the following
instances: __________________
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a) Caution Zone Lighting
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On ILS equipped runways without centre line lighting, __________________
Yellow edge lighting is installed on the upwind 600 m __________________
or one third of the lighted runway length available, __________________
whichever is the less. The Yellow 'caution zone' so __________________
formed gives a visual warning of the approaching
runway end.
b) Pre-Threshold Lighting
d) Stopway Lighting
Taxiway Lights
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Notes
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 21
Notes
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 23
Notes
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Very High Freq Between 30 MHz to 300 MHz VOR, Short Distance Air
(VHF) Ground Comm.
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Notes Ultra High Freq Between 300 MHz to 3000 ILS, DME, RADAR
(UHF) MHz
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Exta or Super High Between 3 GHz to 30 GHz
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Freq (SHF)
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__________________ Non-Directional Beacon (NDB)
__________________ Non-directional beacon (NDB): is a radio beacon
__________________ transmitting non-directional signals that a pilot of an aircraft
__________________ equipped with direction finding equipment can determine
his/her bearing to or from the radio beacon and "home" on or
__________________
track to or from the station. It is similar to a radio broadcast
__________________
station in a known location, used as an aviation navigational
__________________
aid. NDBs are operated on a frequency between 190 kHz and
1750 kHz. Each NDB is identified by a one, two, or three-
letter Morse code call sign.
NDBs have one major advantage over the more sophisticated
VOR: NDB signals follow the curvature of the earth, so they
can be received at much greater distances at lower altitudes.
However, the NDB signal is affected more by atmospheric
conditions, mountainous terrain, coastal refraction and
electrical storms, particularly at long range. However, it is
not possible for an aircraft pilot to know the exact bearing of
the aircraft. Hence at most of the airports, they are using
VOR, comparatively a superior radio navigational aid.
VHF omnidirectional range (VOR)
VOR, short for VHF Omni-directional Radio Range, is a
type of radio navigation system for aircraft. VOR broadcasts
a VHF radio composite signal including the station's Morse
code identifier, and data that allows the airborne receiving
equipment to derive the magnetic bearing from the station
to the aircraft (direction from the VOR station in relation to
the earth's magnetic North). This line of position is known
as the "radial". The intersection of two radials from different
VOR stations on a chart allows for a "fix" or specific position
of the aircraft.
The VOR was designed to provide 360 courses to and from
the station selectable by the pilot. The VOR's major
advantage is that the radio signal provides a reliable line
(radial) to or from the station which can be selected and easily
followed by the pilot.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 25
VORs operate in the range of VHF Frequencies, and thus Notes
are relatively free from in-built deficiencies of MF (As in __________________
NDB) such as static interference, man made and electrical __________________
noise, less course bending around terrain features and __________________
coastlines, and less interference from bad weather & __________________
thunderstorms etc. Because of their VHF frequency, VOR
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stations rely on "line of sight" -- if the transmitting antenna
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could not be seen on a perfectly clear day from the receiving
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antenna, a useful signal would not be received. This limits
VOR (and DME) range to the horizon, or closer if mountains __________________
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Principle of operation
An ILS consists of two independent sub-systems, one
providing lateral guidance (Localizer), the other vertical
guidance (Glideslope or GlidePath) to aircraft approaching
a runway.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 27
It provides lateral guidance to the landing aircraft, by the Notes
help of radio signals that assist the aircraft to come in line __________________
of the runway. Two signals are transmitted on a carrier __________________
frequency between 108.10 MHz and 111.975 MHz. One is __________________
modulated at 90 Hz, the other at 150 Hz (Known as Yellow __________________
and Blue rays) and these are transmitted from separate but
__________________
co-located antennas. Each antenna transmits a fairly narrow
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beam, one slightly to the left of the runway centre line, the
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other to the right.
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The localizer receiver on the aircraft measures the Difference __________________
in the Depth of Modulation (DDM) of the 90 Hz and 150 Hz
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signals. For the localizer, the depth of modulation for each
of the modulating frequencies is 20 percent. The difference
between the two signals varies depending on the position of
the approaching aircraft from the centre line.
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Notes Markers
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There are two Markers provided on the ILS Path known as
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Outer marker and Middle Marker to give the distance of the
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aircraft from touch down. They are equipped with audible
__________________ and visible signals to the pilot.
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The outer marker is normally located 7.2 km (4 NM) from
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the threshold except that, where this distance is not
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practicable, the outer marker may be located between 6.5
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and 11.1 km (3.5 and 6 NM) from the threshold. The Middle
__________________ marker is normally located so as to indicate, in low visibility
__________________ conditions, the missed approach point, at a distance of 1050
m from the threshold.
ILS categories
There are three categories of ILS which support similarly
named categories of operation.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 29
a) a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft) above Notes
touchdown zone elevation, or no decision __________________
height; and __________________
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b) a runway visual range less than 200 m but not
less than 50 m. __________________
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v Category III C - A precision instrument approach
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and landing with no decision height and no runway
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visual range limitations. A Category III C system
__________________
is capable of using an aircraft's autopilot to land
the aircraft and can also provide guidance along __________________
Radar
Radar is a system that uses electromagnetic waves to
identify the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both
moving and fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, motor
vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. A transmitter
emits radio waves, which are reflected by the target and
detected by a receiver, typically in the same location as the
transmitter. The time taken by the Radar waves to go to the
target (aircraft) and come back is measured to get the
distance (Height) of the aircraft.
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Notes
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Green flashes
Steady red
Stop
Red flashes
Move off the landing area or taxiway and watch out for aircraft
White flashes
Vacate the runway and observe the tower for light signal
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 31
Part-II Notes
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General. __________________
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Notes
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Position 1. Taxi clearances given.
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Position 2. If conflicting traffic, the departing aircraft is held
at this position. Otherwise T/O clearance is issued by ATCO.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 33
e) failure or irregular operation of aerodrome lighting Notes
system. __________________
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f) any other pertinent information.
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Traffic on the manoeuvring area __________________
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Control of Taxiing Aircraft
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Use of Runway-Holding Positions __________________
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Taxing aircraft should be held at the runway holding
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position, till the runway is reported as clear, and only then
it should be allowed to enter the runway. __________________
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 35
Communication Requirements and Visual Signals Notes
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At controlled aerodrome vehicles employed on the
__________________
manoeuvring area shall be capable of maintaining two-way
__________________
radio communication with the aerodrome control tower,
except when the vehicle is occasionally used on the __________________
Steady red
Stop
Red flashes
Move off the landing area or taxiway and watch out for
aircraft
White flashes
Vacate manoeuvring area in accordance with local
instructions
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d) VVIP aircraft.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 37
CONTROL OF DEPARTING AIRCRAFT. Notes
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Departure sequence __________________
they are ready for take-off, except that deviations may be __________________
made from this order of priority to facilitate the maximum __________________
number of departures with the least average delay. Factors __________________
which should be considered in relation to the departure __________________
sequence include, inter-alia: __________________
Take-off clearance.
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Clearance to land.
An aircraft may be cleared to land when there is reasonable
assurance that the separation will exist when the aircraft
crosses the runway threshold, provided that a clearance to
land shall not be issued until a preceding landing aircraft
has crossed the runway threshold. To reduce the potential
for misunderstanding, the landing clearance shall include
the designator of the landing runway.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 39
Landing and roll-out manoeuvres. Notes
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When necessary or desirable in order to expedite traffic, a
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landing aircraft may be requested to:
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a) hold short of an intersecting runway after landing; __________________
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Runway lighting.
Runway lighting shall not be operated if that runway is not
in use for landing, take-off or taxiing purposes, unless
required for runway inspections or maintenance.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 41
as long as is considered necessary for the return of the Notes
aircraft due to an emergency occurring during or __________________
immediately after take-off; __________________
__________________
b) at aerodromes without air traffic control service or
without centrally controlled lights, the lights of one __________________
Obstacle lighting.
Obstacle lighting associated with the approach to or
departure from a runway or channel, where the obstacle does
not project through the inner horizontal surface should be
turned off and on simultaneously with the runway lights.
References:
1. ICAO Annex 14 to the Convention on International Civil
Aviation-Volume I-' Aerodrome Design and Operations',
Fourth Edition, July 2004
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i. Instrument runway
d. VOR & DME are used for getting the ------ & --------- of
the aircraft from an airport.
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UNIT 1 Airport Surface Operations 43
f. The Taxiway markings are shown by broken white lines Notes
and the colour of taxiway edge lights is ------ __________________
__________________
g. The NDB (Non Directional Beacon) is used by aircraft
__________________
for communication with ATC. (True or False)
__________________
h. Displaced Threshold mean; __________________
b. i. Instrument runway
c. West to East
f. Blue
g. False
h.