Maseeh College of Engineering and Computer Science

Civil and Environmental Engineering Departmental Style Guide

Version 1.0

September 2012

Acknowledgements
The writing guide is largely the work of Cheri Woods-Edwin, who has assisted the Civil and Environmental Engineering (CEE) Department in the falls of 2011 and 2012 in courses CE 111 and CE 315. She undertook writing this style guide during the 2011-2012 academic year. Dr. Susan Conrad, professor in Linguistics at PSU, contributed very informative writing study guides that are included in the appendices. Dr. Conrad has worked with several CEE courses, CE 321, CE 341 and CE 494, offering suggestions and workshops on improving writing skills. Dr. Scott Wells has been responsible for compiling and producing this document. In addition CEE Department faculty and staff have offered editorial comments and suggestions since the original document was written in July 2012.

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Contents
CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................................................ III 1 PUNCTUATION.............................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 COMMAS ............................................................................................................................................................1 1.1.1 Serial commas ........................................................................................................................................1 1.1.2 Semicolons instead of commas ..............................................................................................................1 1.1.3 Comma use with dependent and independent clauses..........................................................................1 1.1.4 Appositives with or without commas .....................................................................................................2 1.1.5 Introductory phrases and commas ........................................................................................................2 1.1.6 Comma use in quoted material ..............................................................................................................2 1.1.7 Comma use with parentheses and brackets ..........................................................................................3 1.2 QUOTATION MARKS ..............................................................................................................................................3 1.2.1 Basic quotation mark use.......................................................................................................................3 1.2.2 Single quotation marks ..........................................................................................................................3 1.2.3 Quotation marks and punctuation.........................................................................................................3 1.2.4 Omission of quotation marks .................................................................................................................4 1.2.5 Block quotes ...........................................................................................................................................4 1.3 PARENTHESES ......................................................................................................................................................4 1.4 BRACKETS ...........................................................................................................................................................5 1.5 SEMICOLONS .......................................................................................................................................................5 1.5.1 Basic semicolon use ...............................................................................................................................5 1.5.2 Semicolon use in lists or series ...............................................................................................................5 1.6 COLONS..............................................................................................................................................................6 1.6.1 Basic colon use .......................................................................................................................................6 1.6.2 Colons and capitalization .......................................................................................................................6 1.6.3 Colon use with parenthesis or brackets .................................................................................................6 1.6.4 Improper colon use ................................................................................................................................7 1.7 ELLIPSES .............................................................................................................................................................7 1.8 HYPHENS AND DASHES ..........................................................................................................................................7 1.8.1 Compounds and Hyphens ......................................................................................................................8 2 STYLE .......................................................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 CAPITALIZATION .................................................................................................................................................10 2.1.1 Letters as shapes ..................................................................................................................................10 2.1.2 Names ..................................................................................................................................................10 2.1.3 Personal titles ......................................................................................................................................10 2.1.4 Academic degrees and departments ...................................................................................................10 2.1.5 Points on a compass and regional terms .............................................................................................11 2.1.6 Time periods and events ......................................................................................................................11 2.1.7 Capitals for emphasis ...........................................................................................................................11

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2.2 TITLES OF WORKS ...............................................................................................................................................11 2.2.1 Capitalization .......................................................................................................................................11 2.2.2 Hyphenation.........................................................................................................................................12 2.2.3 Italics and quotation marks in titles.....................................................................................................12 2.3 ITALICS .............................................................................................................................................................13 2.4 NUMBERS .........................................................................................................................................................13 2.4.1 Scientific contexts ................................................................................................................................13 2.4.2 Percentage and decimals .....................................................................................................................13 2.4.3 Money ..................................................................................................................................................14 2.4.4 Time .....................................................................................................................................................14 2.4.5 Plurals and punctuation of numbers ....................................................................................................14 2.4.6 Punctuation and numbers ....................................................................................................................15 2.5 COMMON ACADEMIC ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................15 3 GRAMMAR AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE ..................................................................................................... 16 3.1 COMMA SPLICES AND RUN-ON SENTENCES ..............................................................................................................16 3.2 VERBS ..............................................................................................................................................................16 3.2.1 Active vs. passive voice ........................................................................................................................16 3.2.2 Verb tense agreements ........................................................................................................................17 3.2.3 Present tense use with past documents or concepts ...........................................................................17 3.2.4 Verb tense in quotes ............................................................................................................................17 3.3 SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT...................................................................................................................................18 3.3.1 Basic subject verb agreement ..............................................................................................................18 3.3.2 Multiple subjects ..................................................................................................................................18 3.3.3 Either or/neither nor subject verb agreement ...............................................................................18 3.3.4 Determining singular and plural verbs with units and measurements ................................................18 3.3.5 Collective nouns ...................................................................................................................................19 3.3.6 Indefinite pronouns ..............................................................................................................................19 3.3.7 There is/there are ................................................................................................................................20 3.4 PLURALS AND POSSESSIVES ...................................................................................................................................20 3.4.1 Plurals: The general rule ......................................................................................................................20 3.4.2 Plurals and proper nouns .....................................................................................................................20 3.4.3 Alternative plurals ................................................................................................................................20 3.4.4 Singular form as plural .........................................................................................................................20 3.4.5 Italicized words ....................................................................................................................................21 3.4.6 Words in quotation marks ...................................................................................................................21 3.4.7 Possessives: The general rule ...............................................................................................................21 3.5 PARALLELISM IN LISTS OR SERIES ............................................................................................................................21 3.6 ARTICLES A, AN, AND THE ...........................................................................................................................22 3.6.1 The used for proper noun .................................................................................................................23 4 HOW TO FORMAT A REPORT ...................................................................................................................... 24 4.1 4.2 PAPER AND SPACING ...........................................................................................................................................24 ALIGNMENT AND INDENTATION .............................................................................................................................24

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4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5

PAGE NUMBERING ..............................................................................................................................................25 FONTS AND STYLES..............................................................................................................................................25 HEADINGS.........................................................................................................................................................25 DECIMAL NUMBERING SYSTEM ..............................................................................................................................26 FIGURES AND TABLES...........................................................................................................................................26 QUOTATIONS.....................................................................................................................................................27 EQUATIONS AND FORMULAE .................................................................................................................................27

COMPONENTS OF A REPORT ...................................................................................................................... 28 5.1 SECTIONS WITHIN A REPORT .................................................................................................................................28 5.1.2 Title page .............................................................................................................................................28 5.1.3 Abstract................................................................................................................................................29 5.1.4 Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................................29 5.1.5 Acknowledgements ..............................................................................................................................29 5.1.6 Contents ...............................................................................................................................................29 5.1.7 Figures and tables ................................................................................................................................30 5.1.8 Symbols ................................................................................................................................................30 5.1.9 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................30 5.1.10 Main sections ..................................................................................................................................31 5.1.11 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................31 5.1.12 Recommendations ..........................................................................................................................31 5.1.13 References .......................................................................................................................................31 5.1.14 Appendixes ......................................................................................................................................32

CITATIONS .................................................................................................................................................. 33 6.1 IN TEXT CITATIONS ..............................................................................................................................................33 6.2 REFERENCE LIST..................................................................................................................................................34 6.2.1 Authors ................................................................................................................................................34 6.2.2 Journal References ...............................................................................................................................34 6.2.3 Books....................................................................................................................................................35 6.2.4 Reports .................................................................................................................................................35 6.2.5 Web pages ...........................................................................................................................................35 6.2.6 Theses and dissertations ......................................................................................................................35 6.2.7 Conferences and symposiums ..............................................................................................................35

CONFUSING AND MISSPELLED WORDS ....................................................................................................... 37 7.1 7.2 CONFUSING WORDS ............................................................................................................................................37 COMMONLY MISSPELLED WORDS ...........................................................................................................................39

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................... 42

APPENDIX A DEVELOPING WRITING JUDGMENT: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE ................................................. 43 APPENDIX B WRITING TIPS FOR LAB REPORTS AND TECH MEMOS.................................................................... 46 APPENDIX C REVISING AND EDITING FOR PRECISION AND CLARITY .................................................................. 53

Preface Throughout this text you will notice references to the Chicago Manual of Style (2010) as CMS followed by the entry number. Hence, the reference CMS 6.19 refers not to a page number in the text but to the entry discussing this writing style guide. This convention then allows the reader to refer to any edition of the CMS based on the rule rather than a page number that often changes between editions.

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Punctuation

1.1

Commas

1.1.1 Serial commas Serial commas are used to separate three or more elements in a sentence. Example: The building is two stories tall, has a red facade, and looks to be presently vacant. (CMS 6.19) 1.1.2 Semicolons instead of commas Semicolons (;) should be use when the list of elements is long and/or complex, or contains internal commas. Example: When deciding on your thesis statement, you should carefully consider and understand the expectations of your instructor, which is usually defined in your syllabus; you should narrow down your focus to help you identify helpful resources, such as books or journal articles, to back up your thesis; and you should make sure your thesis is a clearly written as possible in order to engage your reader in the introduction. (CMS 6.21) See also: Semicolon use in lists or series 1.1.3 Comma use with dependent and independent clauses A dependent clause is a part of a sentence that cannot be a complete sentence on its own. Therefore, a comma must be used to separate the incomplete clause from the complete (or independent) clause when the incomplete clause comes first. An independent clause is a part of a sentence that can stand alone as a complete sentence. Usually, a dependent clause gives the reader a little more information about or enhances the independent clause. Example of an unnecessary comma: The dam was removed, because it was no longer cost effective. If this incomplete clause came first, a comma would be necessary. Sentences that have joined two independent clauses together almost always do so with a conjunction such as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (use the acronym FANBOYS to help you remember the conjunctions). A comma must be used to separate the independent clauses. 1|Page

Comma proceeding a main clause If the sun ever comes out, we will go down to the lake and have a nice swim. Although the house had many windows, the best view of the mountain was from the upstairs bedroom window.

Comma joining two independent clauses We all wanted to go to the lake, but we had to wait for the sun to come out first. The view of the mountain peak was clear from the upstairs window, but you could not see anything from the downstairs window. (CMS 6.32)

1.1.4 Appositives with or without commas Appositives are a word, phrase, abbreviation, or clause that provides additional information in a sentence. If the appositive is restrictive, it means that additional information provided is essential to the noun it belongs to. In this case, no comma use is needed. However, if the appositive is non-restrictive, it means that it can be omitted or deleted, and the sentence remains intact. In this case, a comma is required. (CMS 6.43)
Restrictive appositives My brother Sam is bossy and loud. This sentence implies the author has two brothers, so Sam is essential to identifying brother. Non-restrictive appositives My brother, Sam, is bossy and loud. This sentence implies the author is providing additional information, his brothers name, but the sentence would still make sense if the name were omitted.

1.1.5 Introductory phrases and commas Commas are used after introductory phrases that introduce the independent clause of a sentence. For more information see CMS 6.25-6.26. Examples: After finding the error in the equation, the students were able to complete the problem successfully. However, you will have to retake the class in the fall if you do not pass. In addition to affirming our hypothesis, the results lead us to develop further hypotheses for future research.

1.1.6 Comma use in quoted material When using a short quote in-text to support an argument, the quoted material is either introduced by a comma (short quote) or by a colon (long quote). However, quotes introduced by the certain conjunctions such as that or whether do not need a comma. (CMS 6.53) See also: Block quotes and Colons

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Comma use with short quote It was Shakespeare who wrote, To be or not to be. That is the question.

Comma use with long quote In Shakespeares Julius Caesar, Mark Antony parodies an earlier quote by Brutus when he proclaims: Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears! I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.The evil that men do lives after them,The good is oft interred with their bones; So let it be with Caesar.

Comma use with conjunction Shakespeare believed that All the world is a stage.

1.1.7 Comma use with parentheses and brackets The general rule when using a comma with a bracketed or parenthetical statement is that the comma should fall outside of the parenthesis or brackets. Example: Her performance, though solid (and often emotional), seemed disconnected. (CMS 6.56) See also: Parentheses and Brackets

1.2

Quotation marks

1.2.1 Basic quotation mark use Quotation marks should be used to identify quoted or spoken words of others. Material taken directly from books, magazines, journal articles, movies, transcripts, oral interviews, or other sources should be put in quotation marks. Please note: There are many rules about how to properly use quotation marks. Please refer to CMS 6.86.10, 11.3311.50 for more details. 1.2.2 Single quotation marks Single quotation marks are used for a quotation within a quotation. Example: I remember the day that my mother used Martin Luther Kings famous I have a dream line inspired me to set goals for the future. 1.2.3 Quotation marks and punctuation Use the following table to decide what punctuation goes within the quotation marks and what punctuation should be placed outside of the quotation marks.

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Punctuation within quotations Commas, periods, question marks (if part of the quote), exclamation points (if part of the quote), and single quotation marks.

Punctuation outside of quotations Colons, semicolons, question marks (if not part of the direct quote), and exclamation points (if not part of the direct quote).

1.2.4 Omission of quotation marks Quotation marks are omitted when using block quotes and epigraphs. Epigraphs are inscriptions or quoted materials usually located at the beginning of a book or the beginning of a chapter. Example: How do I love thee? Let me count the ways. Elizabeth Barrett Browning 1.2.5 Block quotes Quotes that run eight lines or longer should be put into the block quote format. When using the block quotes, the use of actual quotation marks is unnecessary as the indentation of the block serves as the indentation. If the paragraph continues after the block quote, the text should not be indented.
In the book The Elements of Style by Strunk and White, the authors argue that qualifiers such as the words rather, very, little, and others are: the leeches that infest the pond of prose, sucking the blood of words. The constant use of the adjective little (except to indicate size) is particularly debilitating; we should all try to do a little better, we should all be very watchful of this rule, for it us a rather important one, and we are pretty sure to violate it now and then. Notice that the authors use the much-despised qualifiers in the above quote in order to make a point that the words are unnecessary and take away from the overall voice of the sentence or sentences.

1.3

Parentheses

Use parentheses ( ) to set off material that is less closely related to the rest of the sentence. When a sentence contains parenthetical expression, it is punctuated as if the expression were absent. The only exception to this is when the parenthetical expression is a question or uses an exclamation mark. (CMS 6.97)

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Parenthetical expression Alyssas article was finally free of errors (after spending some time in the editing department) and was printed in the morning edition of the Times.

Parenthetical expression with punctuation With tears in her eyes (and why would I doubt that these tears were genuine?), Jill withdrew from the mayoral race.

1.4

Brackets

The main use of brackets ([ ]) is to insert material into text that was not written by the original author. Brackets are also used to insert material to clarify ambiguity or to replace missing or illegible words in a quotation. Brackets should follow the same rules for punctuation as parentheses. (CMS 6.104, 6.108, 11.66, 11.68) See also: Parentheses
Inserted material Many people who use ATMs [automatic teller machines] do not believe they should be charged a fee. Clarification When Juliet discovers Romeos lifeless body, she picks up a dagger and cries, This [her chest] is thy sheath; there rust and let me die. Missing or illegible words When the man walked into the [illegible] room, he found the windows shattered.

1.5

Semicolons

1.5.1 Basic semicolon use When considering whether or not to use a semicolon in your writing, consider this general rule: a semicolon is stronger than a comma, but weaker than a period. It is also used between two independent clauses in lieu of a conjunction. Example: I often wandered around the house at night; the silence was my best friend. Semicolons should be used sparingly. The word however with a semicolon can be used to link a sentence together only if the independent clauses are associated with each other. Example: The sun was behind the clouds; however, my shoes didnt match is an incorrect use of a semicolon. (CMS 6.57) 1.5.2 Semicolon use in lists or series Semicolon use in a list or series, especially when that list already contains other forms of punctuation, clarifies and unclutters the list for the reader. (CMS 6.60) Please note: The use of the em-dash can also be used in sentences containing a high use of commas to provide clarity. See also: Hyphens and dashes

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Original sentence In my lifetime, I have lived in Los Angeles, California, Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington. The chef, in order to cook her signature dish, went to the local farmers market to buy fresh ingredients, stopped at the butcher, who was inconveniently located downtown, to purchase fresh steak, and ended up at the bakery, which was full of people, and picked up three warm, fresh loaves of bread.

Same sentence using semicolons for clarity In my lifetime, I have lived in Los Angeles, California; Portland, Oregon; and Seattle, Washington. The chef, in order to cook her signature dish, went to the local farmers market to buy fresh ingredients; stopped at the butcherwho was inconveniently located downtownto purchase fresh steak; and ended up at the bakery, which was full of people, and picked up three warm, fresh loaves of bread.

1.6

Colons

1.6.1 Basic colon use The basic use of the colon is to introduce a specific element or a series of elements. Example: The students wanted to do three things before graduation: go to the prom, take the SAT, and apply to college. (CMS 6.63) See also: Introductory phrases and commas 1.6.2 Colons and capitalization Consider the following rules when deciding whether to capitalize a letter following a colon: When using a colon within a sentence, capitalize the letter following the colon only if it is a proper name. If a colon introduces two or more sentences, capitalize the letter following the colon.
Colon use within a sentence Making pizza involves three steps: kneading the dough, adding the ingredients, and baking it in an oven. Or The three boys divided the tasks among them: Sam mowed the lawn, Jake pulled weeds, and Jackson swept the sidewalk. (CMS 6.64) Colon introducing two or more sentences Romeo was faced with a tough decision: Should he leave Juliet in the morning when the sun came up? Or should he stay with her and wait to be arrested? (CMS 6.64)

1.6.3 Colon use with parenthesis or brackets The colon should always follow any material placed in parentheses or brackets. Example: A change had come over the girls (my sisters): they had ceased arguing and were getting along nicely. (CMS 6.69) See also: Parentheses 6|Page

1.6.4 Improper colon use Do not use a colon after expressions such as namely or for example. (CMS 6.68)
Incorrect: The store carried three important baby items, namely: bottles, diapers, and formula. Correct: The store carried three important baby items, namely, bottles, diapers, and formula. Incorrect: We all thought the math test was easy. For example: the questions were all single-digit addition problems. Correct: We all thought the math test was easy. For example, the questions were all single-digit addition problems.

1.7

Ellipses

Ellipses () are used to show an omitted word or phrase within quotes and are important to use in quotations to make sure the work being quoted is not misrepresented. Ellipses are not needed to start a quote or after the last word of a quote. Consult CMS 11.51-11.54 for more information.
Original We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. ~ Declaration of Independence We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are endowed with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. ~ Declaration of Independence

With omissions

1.8

Hyphens and dashes

Hyphens and dashes play specific roles in writing. Refer to the chart below for more details.
Hyphens (-) CMS 5.925.93, 6.816.82 A hyphen is used when hyphenating words or page breaks. A hyphen is found on the keyboard in two places: Between the number 0 and the +/= button En dash () CMS 6.836.86 The en dash is approximately the size of a capital N. An en dash can be created by pressing: MAC: option and dash PC: Control, numeric hyphen (not the hyphen between 0 and =, but the hyphen on a Em dash () CMS 6.876.96 The em dash is approximately the size of a capital M and is twice the size of an en dash. An em dash can be created by pressing: MAC: option, shift, dash PC: Control, alt, numeric hyphen (not the hyphen between 0 and =, but

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number key) A hyphen is used for compound words. A green-eyed monster vs. a monster with green eyes. Its a dog-eat-dog world. The location of the party quickly spread word-ofmouth. A hyphen is used to separate numbers, such as in the following: Telephone numbers Social Security numbers ISBN numbers Other uses: a hyphen can be used for compound numbers, to divide words at the end of a line, with certain prefixes, and to avoid confusion or the awkward combinations of letters. An en dash signifies the word through in certain sentence constructions: From 11:00 a.m.2:00 p.m. admission was half off of the regular price. I read pages 341355.

the hyphen on a number key) An em dash is commonly used in place of a colon or parenthesis. The three groupsthe violinists, the flutists, and the cellistsall performed the piece together beautifully.

An en dash is used to indicate something is ongoing, like a publication, or a persons life. Madonna (1958) will be celebrating her 60th birthday in 2018. Other uses: an en dash is often used in place of a hyphen, as a minus sign, and to link a college with a city if the college has multiple campuses.

An em dash is used for emphasis. The work was hardso hard that only a few could handle it.

Other uses: 2-em dash is used to represent a missing word in a sentence. A 3-em dash is used to represent the same author in a bibliography.

1.8.1 Compounds and Hyphens

Adjectives When two adjectives function like a single adjective and are used before a noun to modify a noun, the adjectives should be hyphenated The blue-bellied lizard vs. The lizard with a blue belly The local blue Adverbs Adverbs ending in ly do not take a hyphen Nouns Many compound nouns are combined or closed, but there are a few that are open Multiword compounds Compound words that take on multiple hyphens Confusing words In English, there are a few words that need to use a hyphen to avoid confusion, to avoid doubling a vowel, or to avoid tripling a consonant re-cover vs. recover re-creation vs. recreation re-form vs. reform

The brightly colored parachute fell from the sky.

Combined Firefly Blackberry Keyboard

Mayor-elect Attorney-at-Law Jack-in-the-Box Mother-in-Law

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lizard would not be hyphenated since local and blue do not function as one adjective.

Open High school Blood pressure Notary public

Back-to-back anti-administration de-emphasize co-opt shell-like

For further information refer to CMS 7.82-7.90. CMS also provides a comprehensive listing of compounds according to type, compounds formed with specific terms, and words formed with prefixes. A dictionary by Merriam-Webster or The Oxford English Dictionary are also good sources to consult for hyphenation.

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Style

2.1

Capitalization

2.1.1 Letters as shapes When using a letter as a shape, always us as a capital (e.g. S curve, L-shape). (CMS 7.67, 295) 2.1.2 Names Personal names should always be capitalized, including initials. A period should always follow each initial with a space. Last names with particles (e.g. de, du, van, von) or hyphenated should be capitalized according to how the person gives their name. An exception to this rule is if the name begins a sentence, then it must be capitalized. For more information on capitalizing foreign names, consult CMS 8.7-8.20, 312-317. Booker T. Washington Leonardo da Vinci W. E. B. DuBois Page duBois Alfonso D'Amato Mao Tse-tung 2.1.3 Personal titles The general rule of capitalizing titles is that if they come immediately before the name they are capitalized (e.g. President Obama, Senator Kennedy, Reverend Billy Graham, General Grant, Professor Phillips). Titles are lowercased if they come after a name or are used in place of a name. Examples: Barack Obama was elected as president in 2008. My calculus professor is informative and helpful. For more information on capitalizing titles see CMS 8.22-8.35. 2.1.4 Academic degrees and departments Names of degrees and fellowships are lowercased when referred to generally (e.g. She is working on her civil engineering bachelor's degree.). When degrees and fellowships are used as part of a title, they should be capitalized (e.g. George Rush, Doctor of Philosophy). Abbreviations for degrees should be capitalized (e.g. PhD, MBA, BS). For more abbreviations see CMS 15.21. The words civil engineering should only be capitalized when used in reference to a specific 10 | P a g e

department (e.g. Portland States Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering). Please do not capitalize when used in general (e.g. I want to be a civil engineer). 2.1.5 Points on a compass and regional terms If referring to a general direction or location, the terms north, northwest, etc. should be lowercased (e.g. We're heading south on I-5). If the term refers to a geographic location (e.g. Pacific Northwest), it can be capitalized. For more examples see CMS 8.50. 2.1.6 Time periods and events
Time Periods represented numerically are always lowercased unless part of a proper name. Descriptions accompanying the names are also lowercased unless proper names. twenty-first century the eighties Twentieth Century Fox the colonial period Victorian era imperial Rome modern times the Dark Ages the Renaissance the Common Era the Jazz Age the Stone Age the Roaring Twenties the New Deal the civil rights movement the Great Depression the Industrial Revolution the cold war September 11 (or 9/11)

Cultural

Periods that represent a historic or prehistoric era should be capitalized.

Events

Historical events should be capitalized. More recent events that are still recognized through generic terms should be lowercased.

For more examples see CMS 8.77-8.81, 8.85. 2.1.7 Capitals for emphasis Words are never capitalized for emphasis in English. If in doubt, do not capitalize it.

2.2

Titles of works

2.2.1 Capitalization There are two styles of capitalizing titles: headline style and sentence style. Titles should never be written in all caps. When writing out a title in a sentence, use headline style. Sentence style should only be used in citations or bibliographies. 11 | P a g e

Style Headline style is when all major words in the title are capitalized. Unimportant words are often lowercased unless it is the first word in the title or subtitle or the last word of the title. Examples of unimportant words are: the, a, an, and, or, but, for, with, as, of, in, with, to, on, etc. Headline style should always be used in the written text of a paper or report. Sentence style is when all words in the title, except the first word of the title and subtitle, are capitalized. This style is used in some citation styles such as APA and other science style guides. Consult the appropriate citation style guide to know which system of capitalizing should be used for your citations.

Example To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure is Successful Design The Simple Science of Flight Sustainable EnergyWithout the Hot Air

To engineer is human: The role of failure is successful design The simple science of flight Sustainable energyWithout the hot air

2.2.2 Hyphenation If a title is hyphened, the standard rule is to capitalize the first part of the hyphenated word unless the second word is a proper noun or adjective (e.g. A Twenty-first Century Look at Engineering or Non-English Speakers in the Engineering Classroom). For additional rules consult CMS 8.169-8.170. 2.2.3 Italics and quotation marks in titles Whether titles take italics or quotation marks depends on how long the work is. Longer works like books have their titles italicized. Shorter works like articles have their titles surrounded in quotation marks. Example: We read the book The Simple Science of Flight and the article BP Oil Spill Containment Ideas in class. Below is a table that lists the different types of works and whether their titles should be italicized or in quotation marks. (Note: Titles of websites do not receive italics or quotation marks but should be capitalized.) (CMS 8.165-8.167)
Italics Books Journals Anthologies Movies/Documentaries Magazines* Newspapers* Paintings/Statues Quotation marks Chapters Articles Entries in anthologies Episodes/Clips Dissertations/Theses

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Legal documents Government documents

*A the preceding a magazine or newspaper title should not be capitalized or italicized as part of the title (e.g. theWashington Post, not The Washington Post.

2.3

Italics

The purpose of italics is to show emphasis or that a word is not a part of the English language. Emphasis: Italicizing for emphasis should be used sparingly (if at all). It is best used when emphasis is needed to prevent confusion. (CMS 7.49) Foreign words: Words from other languages that are not familiar to English speakers should be italicized. (CMS 7.51)

2.4

Numbers

Numbers should be spelled out in writing if they are whole numbers from one to one hundred, round numbers, or begin a sentence. The exception to this rule is if the number represents a quantity or measurement. Consult the rest of this section for more information and CMS 9.29.16. 2.4.1 Scientific contexts When a number is used to express a unit of measurement in a scientific or technical report, it should always be represented numerically followed by an abbreviation of the unit. 70 km 12.4 L 160 V 7'8" 20C 19 g 2.4.2 Percentage and decimals Percentages should always be written out numerically and followed by the symbol % (e.g. I got an 88% on the test.). Decimal fractions should have a zero placed before the decimal unless the quantity represented will always be less than 1.00 (in tables the zeros before decimals can be omitted). For example, The average was 0.945. The police officer confiscated a .22-caliber rifle. For more information consult CMS 9.19-9.22

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2.4.3 Money Money should be represented numerically and the correct currency symbol (e.g. $45 or 4.65). It is preferred that large round sums of money are presented with a mix of numerals and spelled-out words (e.g. $8.3 billion). If another currency uses the $ symbol, identify the currency as not being American (e.g. $400 in Canadian dollars or Can$400). For more information consult CMS 9.23-9.29. 2.4.4 Time
Times of day Days Times of day are best represented numerically (e.g. 10:12 a.m.) Some style guides prefer that 12:00 a.m. and 12:00 p.m. are never used but are written out as midnight and noon to prevent confusion. Additional information can be found in CMS 9.41-9.45. Days are always represented numerically if they are accompanied by a month. In the U.S. the standard order for dates is month-date-year (e.g. September 7, 2010 or 9/7/2010). (CMS 9.35) Years should always be presented numerically unless they start a sentence (e.g. The Empire State Building was completed in 1931. Nineteen Seventy-Two was the year the Empire State Building was surpassed by the World Trade Center.) It is recommended that you do not start a sentence with a year when possible. It is not recommended that years be abbreviated in writing (e.g. the class of 12). (CMS 9.33-9.34) Decades should either be spelled out or represented numerically (e.g. the seventies or the 1970s, note that there is no apostrophe between the year and the s). The first two decades of a century can be difficult to represent. Calling the first decade (2000-2009) the aughts or the second decade (2010-2019) the teens sounds odd in formal writing and representing them as 2000s (referring to the whole century) and 2010s can be confusing. It is best to use the terms the first decade and the second decade. (CMS 9.37) Centuries can be spelled out or represented numerically (e.g. 1900s or nineteen hundreds or twentieth century). Some centuries are more clearly presented when spelled out (i.e. twenty-first century or third century). (CMS 9.36) Eras should always be designated with either BCE (before the common era) or CE (of the common era) or their equivalents of BC (before Christ) or AD (anno Domini, in the year of the Lord). BCE or BC always follow the date (e.g. 100 BCE), and CE or AD always precede the date (e.g. AD 1187). (CMS 9.38)

Years

Decades

Centuries

Eras

2.4.5 Plurals and punctuation of numbers Plurals in numbers are formed the same way as other words in English (e.g. The cashier needed twenties.). Plurals are formed with numerals by adding an s (e.g. 1980s). (CMS 9.58)

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2.4.6 Punctuation and numbers

Units and measurements Numbers over one thousand take a comma every three spaces. In scientific writing the comma can be omitted if there are only four digits. (CMS 9.59-9.60) 1,498 or 1498 (make sure the reader will not mistake this for a year) 63,876 3,984,674 Years do not take commas unless the year is over four digits long (e.g. The earliest human artifact may date back to 43,000 BCE.). (CMS 9.59)

Time

2.5

Common academic abbreviations

etc. is used to show that list of items goes on to contain similar items already listed. The Latin translation means and so forth. et al. is used at the end of a list of multiple authors when all the names cannot be given. The Latin translation means "and others." i.e. is an abbreviation translated from the Latin that means "that is."

ca. is used to show that the date given is approximate. The Latin translation means around. e.g. is an abbreviation translated from the Latin that means "for example." ibid. is used in citations to tell the reader to consult the previous source listed. The Latin translation means "in the same place."

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Grammar and sentence structure

3.1

Comma splices and run-on sentences

A comma splice is when two sentences (independent clauses) are joined together by a comma (e.g. Paul needs to complete his lab report, Mary needs to clean up the work station). This is incorrect because commas cannot join two sentences. A run-on sentence is when two sentences run together without the proper punctuation (e.g. Paul needs to complete his lab report Mary needs to clean up the work station). Comma splices and run-on sentences can be correct one of four ways:
Period Comma with a conjunction Semicolon Rewrite Paul needs to complete his lab report. Mary needs to clean up the work station. Paul needs to complete his lab report, and Mary needs to clean up the work station. See also: Comma use with dependent and independent clauses Paul needs to complete his lab report; Mary needs to clean up the work station. See also: Semicolons While Paul completes his lab report, Mary needs to clean up the work station. See also: Comma use with dependent and independent clauses

3.2

Verbs

3.2.1 Active vs. passive voice Active voice is when the subject of the verb is doing the action of the verb. Passive voice is when the subject of the sentence is not doing the action of the verb.
Passive voice It is believed by many that the Mayan calendar predicts the end of the world. The light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison. Active voice Many believe that the Mayan calendar predicts the end of the world. Thomas Edison invented the light bulb.

Use the active voice versus the passive voice whenever possible. Passive voice often contains the verb to be in various forms. See the chart below:

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Present tense I am You are He/she/it is We are You (all) are They are

Past tense I was You were He/she/it was We were You (all) were They were

Perfect form I have been You have been He/she/it has been We have been You (all) have been They have been

Progressive form I am being You are being He/she/it is being We are being You (all) are being They are being

However, it is important to realize that there are occasions where it is fine to use the passive voice. For example, if you are expressing an example where a person or subject is acted upon, instead of the one doing the action (see examples above), the passive voice is permissible. Example: Julius Caesar had been warned of the assassination plot against him, or Queen Jane had been removed from the throne after Wyatts Rebellion. 3.2.2 Verb tense agreements In academic writing, it is important to use consistent verb tense throughout the paper. See chart below:
Incorrect verb tense agreement I am hungry, so I baked a cake to eat. Correct verb tense agreement I was hungry, so I baked a cake to eat. I am hungry, so I am baking a cake to eat.

3.2.3 Present tense use with past documents or concepts Do not write about long-past events and long-dead people in the present tense. However, when discussing literature, a theory, or other types of prose, the present tense can be used even though the text was written in the past. In her book, Gone with the Wind, author Margaret Mitchell engages her readers with vivid descriptions of Atlanta before and after the Civil War. We may also write about theoretical concepts in the present tense. For example, soil is a natural material. Fluids are incompressible or compressible. 3.2.4 Verb tense in quotes When using exact quotations from outside sources in your paper, do not change the tense of verbs in quoted passages. The purpose of the quotation marks in a quote is to denote that you are using the exact words of the source.

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3.3

Subject verb agreement

3.3.1 Basic subject verb agreement In English, singular subjects take singular verbs and plural subjects take plural verbs.
Singular subjects and verbs He is walking the dog. The book was sitting on the coffee table. Plural subjects and verbs They are walking the dog. The library books are due in three weeks.

3.3.2 Multiple subjects When there are two or more subjects, the verb is usually plural (e.g. Mark and Alice got married last summer). However, when two subjects can be considered a unit, they can take a singular verb (e.g. Peanut butter and jelly is my favorite sandwich). 3.3.3 Either or/neither nor subject verb agreement Subjects that are joined by either or or neither nor take singular subjects if both subjects are singular or plural subjects if both subjects are plural. If one subject is singular and one is plural, the verb will agree with the subject that it is closest to.
Singular subjects Plural subjects Mixed subjects Either your academic counselor or your professor is able to answer your question. Either academic counselors or professors are to inform students of the changes made to registering for classes. Neither the professor nor the students were held responsible for the fire in the lab. Neither the students nor the professor was held responsible for the fire in the lab.

3.3.4 Determining singular and plural verbs with units and measurements Subjects that are units and measurements should be treated plural if each of the units or measurements is being referred to separately. If the unit or measurement is being referred to as a whole, it should take a singular verb.
Units referred to separately, plural verbs Units referred to as a whole, singular verbs One-third of the pencils were broken. Ten pounds of cherries were divided between the four of us. One-third of the cake was eaten. Ten pounds of cherries was resting the large bucket.

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3.3.5 Collective nouns Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups. Whether or not these nouns take singular or plural subjects depends on whether the noun is being referred to as a collective unit or as individual parts.
Singular Plural The assembly is scheduled to vote later this month. The class is taking a test. The assembly are divided on how to vote. The class are working on their individual projects.

3.3.6 Indefinite pronouns Indefinite pronouns can take either singular or plural verbs or sometimes both depending on the sentence. For the pronouns that can take either verb, look at the pronouns antecedent (what the pronoun is referring to). Below is a table that breaks down which indefinite pronouns take singular verbs and which take plural verbs.
Take singular verbs anybody anyone anything each either every everybody everyone everything many a neither nobody nothing one somebody someone Singular verbs Plural verbs Singular or plural verbs Take plural verbs both few many others several Take singular or plural verbs all any more most none some

Everyone in the class needs to turn in their portfolio by December 18. Many of us in the class felt that the test was unfair. All of the measurements have been taken. All of the cake was eaten.

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3.3.7 There is/there are There and here can never be the subjects of a sentence in English. The subject of the sentence is always the person or thing doing the action of the verb. With sentences that start with there or here the subject can often be found after the verb. When the correct subject is found, follow the correct subject verb agreement rules listed previously in this section. There is a fly buzzing around the classroom Here are your next three homework assignments.

3.4

Plurals and possessives

3.4.1 Plurals: The general rule In most cases, adding s to the end of a noun indicates the noun is pluralized. However, there are exceptions to the general rule (CMS 5.145.21, 7.67.12): If a noun ends in ch, j, s, sh, x, or z the noun is pluralized by adding es. If a noun ends in y, the noun is pluralized with ies. If a noun ends in o, it can either take an s or an es. If a noun ends in y and a consonant, add an ies. If a noun ending in y is proper or is preceded by a vowel, add an s. Some plural endings are irregular and follow no specific rule. Example: child/children, fish/fish. 3.4.2 Plurals and proper nouns Adding an s or es pluralizes capitalized nouns and proper nouns. Example: Italians, Joneses. (CMS 7.6) 3.4.3 Alternative plurals In rare instances, there are two plural endings for the same word. Merriam-Websters Dictionary will provide two options. CMS opts to choose the first definition. Example: zero, millennia, indexes. (CMS 7.7) 3.4.4 Singular form as plural If a noun ends in an unpronounced s or x, the noun is usually left in its singular form. (CMS 7.11)

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3.4.5 Italicized words When using the plural construction on terms that are italicized, such as book titles and newspapers, the s is usually not italicized. However, a title already pluralized can remain unchanged. (CMS 7.12) 3.4.6 Words in quotation marks A plural ending should never follow the quotation marks; it should go within the quotation mark. Example: How many more good mornings can we expect to hear today? (CMS 7.13) 3.4.7 Possessives: The general rule In most cases, adding an apostrophe and the letter s to a noun indicates the noun is a possessive. However, there are exceptions to the general rule (CMS 7.17-7.23): The possessive forms of plural nouns only require an apostrophe. Example: The squirrels bushy tails. Nouns that are plural in form, but singular in meaning, take on an apostrophe only for the possessive form. Example: The United States economic situation is hitting everyones pocket book. Nouns that are two-syllable and end with an eez sound should only take the apostrophe for the possessive form. Example: Xerxes armies were well prepared for the upcoming battle. Nouns that end in an unpronounced s should only take the apostrophe for the possessive form. Example: King Francois attempts to marry the English princess failed miserably. When using the phrase Forsake, only take the apostrophe for the possessive form. Example: For goodness sake. When in doubt, refer to the general rule of omitting the possessive s on words ending in s. The possessive form of two nouns making up a single unit for one entity is to add the s to the last noun. Example: My mother and fathers house. The possessive form of two nouns making up a single unit for separate entities is to add the s to both nouns. Example: Portlands and Seattles education systems are similar.

3.5

Parallelism in lists or series

Parallelism in lists is when all items in a list are in the same format.

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Not parallel

In all her years, she had never seen such a beautiful sunrise, eaten so much food, or laughed.

This list is not parallel because the first two items in the list (seen such a beautiful sunrise and eaten so much food) start with a verb followed by a description. The last item (laughed) is only a verb.

Parallel

In all her years, she had never seen such a beautiful sunrise, eaten so much food, or laughed so hard. The campus bookstore sells: books, backpack, sweaters, and travel mugs. This list is not parallel because books, sweaters, and travel mugs are all plural. Backpack is not. Not all items in a list need to be parallel if the plural amount is not needed (e.g. I need a backpack, pencils, and erasers for school.)

Not parallel

Parallel Not parallel Parallel

The campus bookstore sells: books, backpacks, sweaters, and travel mugs. Mark loves to hike, skiing, and snowboards. This list is not parallel because none of the items in the list are in the same form.

Mark loves to hike, ski, and snowboard. Or Mark loves hiking, skiing, and snowboarding.

3.6

Articles a, an, and the

English has three articles: a, an, and the. The is used to identify specific nouns and is called a definite article. A and an are used to refer to a non-specific noun, called an indefinite article. An is only used before words that start with a vowel or vowel sound (e.g. The word hour starts with a coincident h, but when saying the word aloud, the first sound made is actually aw, a vowel sound.). Example: We were an hour late for the party. (For more on articles see CMS 5.69-5.78 or refer to the Purdue Online Writing Lab website.)
We should watch the movie. We should watch a movie The is referring to a specific movie. The speaker and person addressed have already picked a movie and now need to watch this specific movie. A is referring to any movie. The speaker and person addressed need to decide which movie to watch out of a lot of movies.

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3.6.1 The used for proper noun The should always be used before proper nouns like titles of works, places, and specific events. My dad reads the Economist. We visited the Seattle Space Needle on a class fieldtrip. My brother is studying the Battle of Waterloo.

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How to format a report

The formatting of any document should always be consistent. Creating a template to use for all of your reports can save time. Microsoft Word (and other word processing programs) allows you to create Styles, which save your font, font size, and paragraph alignment settings. You can save the setting for different levels of headers and normal text. Styles are easy to use because you can apply the setting to a section of text easily with one click of a button without having to remember all of the different settings you used. Using Styles also allows Word to create content pages easily and can save your settings for margins, line spacing, and page numbers. Click on the Help button in your word processing program for assistant with creating templates, Styles, and content pages. (This chapter is an adaptation of the information provided in Winckel and Harts Report Writing Style Guide for Engineering Students through the University of South Australia.)

4.1

Paper and spacing

Use letter size paper (8.5"x11") with 1" margins Line spacing should be double spaced. When you are printing a document, double-sided printing is preferred even though some may prefer single-sided. Each new section should start on a new page.

4.2

Alignment and indentation

All text should be aligned left. Full justification is preferred for formal documentation and theses. Each new paragraph should be indented unless extra space is given between paragraphs (extra space between paragraphs is not recommended if lines are double spaced). Indentation should be used for equations, bullet-pointed lists, and lists of headings. Block quotes should be indented 1.5" on both the left and right. Figures and tables can be centered.

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4.3

Page numbering
Page numbers should be placed in the upper right-hand corner along with the students last name (e.g. Smith 3). The title page should not be numbered. Introductory material like the contents page is usually giving lowercase Roman numbers (e.g. i, ii, iii). The body of the report is given Arabic numerals (e.g. 1, 2, 3). Appendixes can be numbered internally (e.g. A1, A2, A3 for Appendix A; B1, B2, B3 for Appendix B, etc.). See also: Appendixes Consult the help menu in your word processing program for questions on how to set up page numbering.

4.4

Fonts and styles

Do not use any fancy fonts. Use traditional fonts like Times New Roman, Garamond, or Arial. You can use a separate font for headers. Size 11 and 12 are standard font sizes for the text of a report. Size 11 or 10 can be used for block quotes. See also: Block quotes Only use italics if emphasis is needed. Do not use underlining or bold because it distracts the reader.

4.5

Headings
Headings should be clearly established through different sizing and weights in fonts. Below is a table of recommended font sizes and weights for the different levels of headers.
Heading First Point Size 16 Style bold Example

Contents 2 Recycling benefits

2.1 Environmental benefits
2.1.1 Cost analysis 2.1.1.1 Treatment facilities

Second Third Fourth

14 12 12

bold bold bold and italics

Some writers also use the decimal numbering system to help differentiate the different levels of headings. Bold and italics can be used in headings if necessary. 25 | P a g e

The best headings are Summaries not questions Not too brief (e.g. Results) Not too long (e.g. Equipment used at the Waste Management main facility) Not judgmental (e.g. Poor methodologies)

4.6

Decimal numbering system

Decimal numbering starts at the introduction and ends at the references. (This style guide uses the decimal numbering system in each of its sections and starts with 1 for the introduction and 8 for the reference section.) Three levels of headings are recommended, but four can be used if necessary. (Do not use the fourth level if it is only needed once.) Decimal points should only be used between the numbers, not after (e.g. 2.2) Decimal numbering may not make a document easier to read in shorter reports or in reports with many subheadings. If this is the case with your report, leave out the decimal numbering.

4.7

Figures and tables

Figures are diagrams, charts, graphs, pictures, and maps. Tables are rows and columns of data. An em-dash () should be used in tables to show no data. All figures and tables should be labeled in bold and numbered consecutively by either figure or table (i.e. Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 1, Table 2). Figures are labeled on the bottom, and tables are labeled on the top. Figures and tables can also be labeled according to section (e.g. Table 5 as the third table in section 3 would be labeled Table 3.3). Each figure and table should be given a descriptive caption to explain what the figure or table shows. It is good practice to Microsoft Words Insert Caption tool to label figure and tables. If you do this, it will be easy to create list of figures and tables in the content section. You must refer to each figure and table in your text (e.g. see Figure 8). Avoid using see table below or see figure above because they can be vague. One helpful feature is to use the Cross-Reference option in Word to dynamically link the figure or table caption/number. This will save you significant time if you have to reorder figures or tables in a lengthy report. All figures and tables copied or adapted from another source need to be cited. 26 | P a g e

Extra space can be given between figures and tables and the rest of the text.

4.8

Quotations
See also: Quotation marks, Brackets, or Ellipses

4.9

Equations and formulae

Equations should be numbered using Arabic numbers in parentheses aligned along the right margin. For example, (a + b)1 = a + b (3) When listing more than one equations, the equal signs (=) should be aligned. For example, (a + b)1 = a + b (3) 2 2 2 (a + b) = a + 2ab + b (4) Equations should be referred to in the text either through their number, e.g. (3), or as Eq. with the given number.

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Components of a report

This chapter is an adaptation of the information provided in Winckel and Harts Report Writing Style Guide for Engineering Students through the University of South Australia.

5.1

Sections within a report

Preliminaries Title page Abstract Disclaimer Acknowledgements* Contents Figures* Tables* Symbols* Introduction Main sections organized under appropriate headings and subheadings Conclusion Recommendations* References Appendixes*
*Indicates optional section

Text of report

Supplements

5.1.2 Title page The title page should provide the following information: Title of the report Your name Name of the professor Title of course (e.g. CS 201) 28 | P a g e

Date of submission

5.1.3 Abstract An abstract is a summary of the report. Learning to write a clear abstract is important because it allows anyone doing research to understand what the report is about without having to read the whole report. A good abstract will address the following questions: Why? How? What? So what? What problem is being addressing in the report? What method/approach was used? What are the important results or findings? What are the implications of the findings?

5.1.4 Disclaimer A disclaimer tells the reader that the work that follows is your own and not someone elses. A disclaimer is usually followed by the authors signature (or signatures if there is more than one author). The following is an example disclaimer: I declare the following to be my own work, unless otherwise referenced, as defined by the Universitys policy on plagiarism. In the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, we often use the following disclaimer in our capstone design course: This project has been conducted by students in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Portland State University and has not been performed by licensed engineers. 5.1.5 Acknowledgements Acknowledgements are not required but should be included if assistance by someone else needs to be acknowledged. Acknowledgements are often used to thank colleagues or assistants. 5.1.6 Contents The contents page is a list of all of the headings and subheadings within the report and includes page numbers. Preliminary pages do not need to be included in the contents page, and the contents page should never be included. Differentiation between the different levels of

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headings should be clear at a glance (see the contents page for this document as an example). Refer to the help feature in your word processor to help you create a contents page. 5.1.7 Figures and tables The figures and tables page is a list of the figures and tables used in the report (this page is only needed if there are more than three figures or tables given). The heading of the page should be Figures and tables with the subheading of Figures and Tables for each group. The figures and tables page should include the figure or table number, the caption, and the page number. If you are using WORD, the list of figures and tables is automatically generated by the program if you have added captions using WORD. To insert a caption in WORD, use References/Insert Caption. To generate the List of Figures and Tables, use References/Insert Table of Figures (next to Insert Caption).

Figures and tables

Figures
Figure 1 Figure 2 Increase in recycling 2009-2010 Future projections of waste deposited in landfills 4 5

Tables
Table 1 Table 2 Amount of garbage per U.S. city Trends of recycled products 3 6

5.1.8 Symbols If many symbols are used in the report, it is helpful for the reader to have a symbols page that lists the symbol along with the unit of measurement it represents and the quantity of measurement. For example,
Symbol kg s Unit kilogram second Quantity mass time

5.1.9 Introduction The purpose of the introduction is to give the reader necessary background information. This information can include: 30 | P a g e

Overview of previous research Different methodologies Explanation of the problem Explanation of the research Limits of the current research Outline of the report

5.1.10 Main sections The main sections of the report are where the research is covered and explained to the reader. These sections should be well organized and documented. Figures and tables can be used as supporting evidence. There are two main types of reports: analytical and scientific. Analytical reports focus more on reviewing and analyzing the available literature and other evidence. These types of reports should be organized logically based around the reports objective. Scientific reports are based on research and should contain the following four sections: Methods/procedures used (should include materials or equipment used) Data collected Results (compare to previous studies) Discussion or analysis of results 5.1.11 Conclusion The conclusion should summarize the main findings of the report. It can refer to the importance, applications, limitations, and benefits of the results, but no new information should ever be presented in the conclusion. 5.1.12 Recommendations Recommendations should be included when it is important for the research to be acted upon. The recommendations can include strategies, procedures, techniques, or suggestions for further research. 5.1.13 References The references page is a list of all sources that have been cited within the report. The sources should be listed in alphabetical order by authors last name. The heading for the page should be References. See also: Citations

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5.1.14 Appendixes The appendixes include extra information that was not included in the main section of the report. Most appendix material is too large or too technical to have been included in the main section of the report, but it should always support the report or provide additional information. See also: Page numbering

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Citations

The following citations follow the format set by the American Society of Civil Engineers website. This citation style might not be correct for all reports or the format requested by certain professors. It is always best to check with the professor to find out which citation style he or she prefers. If a citation format is not available for one of your sources, consult The Chicago Manual of Style. You may want to consider using software to manage or create your references. The PSU Library has a good guide to citation management tools available to you, see http://guides.library.pdx.edu/managecitations

6.1

In text citations

In text citations are the citations given within the report to show the reader where a quote, paraphrase, summary, or some other form of information came from. The citation should include the authors last name, year the work was published, and the page number (if available) within parentheses. If the authors name is given in the text, just include the year and page number in the citation. By the turn of the twentieth century, visions for an extensive industrial expansion of Toronto began to take hold (Desfor, Vesalon, and Laidley, 2012, p.54). In his article, Whibley (2012) states, But beautiful design must be matched with desired functionality to appeal to a mass market.
Note: The above quotes are taken from the sources given as example citations under Books and Web pages.

In cases of multiple authors for an in-text citation we follow the following guidelines: Wells (2007) developed a model that Single author 33 | P a g e

Wells and Berger (2007) developed a model that 2 authors Wells et al. (2007) developed a model that 3 or more authors (use one name + et al.)

6.2

Reference list

6.2.1 Authors
Presentation of names Only authors last names and the initial of their first name (and middle name if given) should be listed in a citation. First names are initialed to prevent gender bias. Titles, such as PhD, should be left out. All sources listed on a reference page should be listed in alphabetical order by authors last name. If no author name is provided, list the source under its title. For sources where an organization is listed as the author, give the organizations name in place of the authors. When listing multiple authors, keep listing authors in last name, first name order. See also: Common academic abbreviations Two or more authors: Davis, T. M., Rodriguez, A., Smith, J. and Li, C.

Listing No author given

More than one author

In some cases, when there are more than 6 authors, you can often find the use of the primary author + et al. in the reference list.

6.2.2 Journal References Author last name, first name initial. (year). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number(issue number), page number range. In some cases the journal title is not capitalized such as in VanderSteen, J. (2011). Adaptive engineering. Bulletin of science, technology & society, 131(2), 134-143. But the ASCE reference format requires that all journals be capitalized such as in Stahl, D. C., Wolfe, R. W., and Begel, M. (2004). Improved analysis of timber rivet connections. J. Struct. Eng., 130(8), 1272-1279. Hence, make sure you capitalize journals.

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6.2.3 Books Author last name, first name initial. (year). Title of chapter.* Title of book, first initial of editor and editors last name, ed., publishers name, city of publication, state of publications, page number range. Desfor, G., Vesalon, L. and Laidley, J. (2011). Establishing the Toronto water commission. Reshaping Torontos waterfront, Desfor, G. and Laidley, J., eds, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, Canada, 49-74
* If more than one chapter in the book was referenced, leave out the chapter title. ed. stands for editor; eds. stands for editors. Not all books will have editors. The page range is only needed if only one chapter of the book was used. If information was taken throughout the book, no page number needs to be cited on the reference page.

6.2.4 Reports Reports should be formatted the same as books. See also: Books 6.2.5 Web pages Author last name, first name initial. (year). Title of web page. Title of website, URL (month date, year accessed). Whibley, T. (2012). Q ball in the corner pocket: Is the Nexus Q a scratch? Engineering, <http://www.engineering.com/> (Jul. 12, 2012). 6.2.6 Theses and dissertations Author last name, first name initial. (year). Title of thesis/dissertation. Type of thesis/dissertation, university where thesis/dissertation was presented, city of university, state abbreviation. Werner Gladhill, K. (2011). "Exploring traffic safety and urban form in Portland, Oregon. M.S. thesis, Portland State Univ., Portland, OR. 6.2.7 Conferences and symposiums Author last name, first name initial. (year). Title of paper/presentation. Name of conference/symposium, sponsoring organization, city, state abbreviation, page number range.

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Garrett, D. L. (2003). Coupled analysis of floating production systems. Proc., Int. Symp. on Deep Mooring Systems, ASCE, Reston, VA, 152-167.

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Confusing and misspelled words

7.1

Confusing words

These words are often confused with each other when writing. Look at the definitions below to make sure you are using the right one.
Accept To take or receive Access The ability to enter or approach with permission Adapt To make suitable to requirements or conditions Advice The information that is given to someone else (noun) Affect The act of influence (verb) Alley A narrow path All ready The preparations are complete All together Happening as a unit in time or place Anecdote A short story Angel A heavenly spirit Anyway Regardless; in any case Bazaar An open market Beside By the side of Biannual Twice a year Bibliography A list of sources used or recommended in the back of the book Breath Air that is inhaled and exhaled (noun) Command To give orders to Confidant Someone who can be trusted to keep secrets Except With the exclusion of Excess Exceeding something else in amount or degree Adept Very skilled; proficient; expert Advise The act of giving information (verb) Effect The result of influence (noun) Ally Another nation with similar goals Already The event happened previously Altogether The entire or whole part Antidote The cure to a poison Angle The relationship between two lines that join at one end Any way Any direction available Bizarre Weird; strange Besides Except; as well Biennial Once every other year Biography A written piece of history on a person Breathe The act of inhaling and exhaling (verb) Commend To acknowledge for an accomplishment; to recommend; to entrust to care for Confident The appearance of knowing what one is doing

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Conscience A sense of right and wrong Cooperation Working together with other people Costume Clothes that are worn to represent a famous character or time period Decent Good; dressed modestly Desert A dry, waterless land Device Something created for a purpose; a design Emigrate To leave ones country to find a new home Eminent Noticeable; conspicuous Empire The land and people controlled by a nation or ruling authority Envelop To enclose; surround on all sides Expand To open up; to increase in size or scope Farther Use when referring to a physical distance Fewer Use when referring to countable objects Foreword Introductory comments at the beginning of a book Formally For a certain occasion

Conscious Being aware of ones surroundings Corporation A large group of people gathered in a business or union Custom A behavior or tradition of a group of people Descent To move from a higher place to a lower place Dessert What is served after dinner Devise To create a plan Immigrate To enter a new country with the purpose of calling it home Imminent Immediate; near at hand Umpire A person who enforces rules at a sporting event Envelope A paper container used to mail a letter Expend To spend Further Use for a figurative distance Less than Use for mass quantities or amounts that cannot be individually counted Forward To continue moving in a front facing direction; looking toward the future Formerly At an earlier time

Later An event that will happen in the future Lay To set something down Lend The act of letting someone use something with the intent of it being returned Loose Something that is not attached or constrained Massage The manipulation of muscles for relaxation Moral The truth or lesson learned from a story or situation

Latter Refers to the second of two listed items Lie To move yourself into a reclined position Loan The act of giving someone money with the intent of it being returned Lose To have lost something

Message Information that is relayed from one person to another Morale The emotional and mental state of a person or group

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Of Used to show possession, cause, motivation, or reason Pastor A person who leads a church Perfect Without fault or defect Personal Relating to a specific person Picture A photograph Precede To be of higher rank or importance; to go in front of; to be earlier than Preposition A word in English that is paired with a noun to show relationship Quiet Minimal or no noise Recent Having just happened; not far in the past

Off Use when moving from one position to another Pasture A grassy field for grazing cattle Prefect An official usually in the military, government, or at a school Personnel Employees of a business or organization Pitcher Someone who throws a ball; a container used to carry liquid Proceed To continue an action; to come from something Proposition A proposal made for consideration

Quite To give up Resent The feeling of ill will toward a person or circumstance Then Use when referring to time Through To move from one point to another

Than Use when comparing two items that are not time related Thorough Detailed; complete

7.2

Commonly misspelled words

Analysis Analytical Analyze Apparatus Approximate Assess Averse B Basis Believe Brief Bureaucracy C Calendar Careful Ceiling Challenge Changeable Characteristic Circuit Climate Comparative Comparison Congratulate Consensus Consequently Continuous Control Controlled Corporation Correlate Crisis Criticism Criticize Curriculum D

A Absorption Accessible Accidentally According Accumulate Achievement Acoustics Acquire Adequate Although Amateur

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Decide Decision Decisive Deferred Definite Dependent Descend Difference Dilemma Disappearance Disastrous Discipline Disease Dispensable Dissident Dissipate Distinguish During E Efficiency Efficient Eighth Eightieth Electrician Eligibility Eliminate Endurance Enforceable Entirely Environment Equipped Equivalent Erroneous Especially Exacerbate Exceed Excel Excessive Exhaust F

Facilities Fascinate Feasible Fulfill Fundamental G Government Grammar Grateful Grievous Guarantee Guard Guidance H Haphazard Hazard Height Hierarchy Hindrance Hydraulic Hygiene I Icicle Idiosyncrasy Immediately Incident Inconvenience Incredible Indestructible Inferred Information Initial Initiative Innocuous Intelligence Intercede Interest Interfere Intermittent Interrupt

Irrelevant J Jeopardize Judgment K Knowledge L Legitimate Length License Liquefy M Maintain Maintenance Manageable Maneuver Manufacturer Mathematics Meant Mileage Miscellaneous Molecule N Necessary Neither Neutron Nickel Noticeable Nowadays O Obedience Obstacle Occasion Occurred Occurrence Omission Omit Omitted Opinion Opportunity

Origin P Pamphlet Parallel Partial Participate Peculiar Penetrate Perceive Perform Performance Permanent Permissible Permitted Perpendicular Perseverance Persistent Persuade Petition Physical Planning Plateau Plausible Possession Possibility Possible Practically Practice Precede Precedence Precisely Predecessor Preference Preferred Prevalent Primitive Probability Procedure Proceed Professor

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Prominent Pronounce Q Quantity Quarantine Questionnaire Quizzes R Realistically Realize Recede Receipt Receivable Recommend Reference Referred Relegate Relevant Relieve Remittance Replaceable Representative Resemblance Resistance Responsibility

S Safety Satisfaction Scarcity Scene Scheme Scholarly Scissors Secede Seize Sense Separate Serviceable Several Significance Similar Simultaneity Simultaneous Sincerely Spatial Special Specifically Specimen Sponsor Spontaneous

Statistics Stopped Strategy Strength Strenuous Strictly Subordinate Substantial Subtle Succeed Success Succession Successive Sufficient Supersede Supplement Susceptible Synchronous Systematically T Technical Temperature Temporarily Tendency Tentative

Therefore Transferred Typical U Undoubtedly Unique Unison Unmanageable Unnecessary Until Usable Usage Usually Utilize V Vague Valuable Variety Visible W Withdrawal Y Yield

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References

American Society for Civil Engineers, < http://www.asce.org> (Jul. 12, 2012). Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). (2010) 15th ed., University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL Merriam-Webster, < http://www.merriam-webster.com/> (Jul. 12, 2012). Purdue Online Writing Lab. < http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/ > (Jul. 13, 2012). Random House Websters grammar, usage, and punctuation. (2008). Random House, New York, NY Winckel, A. and Hart, B. (2002). Report writing style guide for engineering students. 4th ed. Behrend, M. and Kokkin, B. eds, Mawson Lakes, South Australia

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Appendix A Developing Writing Judgment: Active and Passive Voice

DEVELOPING WRITING JUDGMENT: ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Susan Conrad, Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics, conrads@pdx.edu Civil Engineering Writing Project: cewriting.ling.pdx.edu Why learn about active and passive voice for engineering writing? In class, I will describe several differences between practitioner and student writing that I have found in my study of civil engineering writing. One of the biggest differences concerns the choice between active and passive voice. Experienced practitioners use more active voice sentences, usually resulting in clearer, more concise and precise writing. Many students have been told to use passive voice. While you need to follow faculty guidelines in school, you also need to develop judgment as a professional. If you learn about these verb voices now, you can help yourself write more clearly, help clients understand your ideas more easily, and perhaps even help your firm avoid liability problems.

PART A: MAKE SURE YOU KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.
Active: The subject of the sentence (the thing before the verb) is an agent (the doer of the action, even if it is not animate). The object (the thing after the verb) has the action done to it. This is the most direct, common expression of action in English. Active Voice Example We calculated a factor of safety greater than This report documents the hydraulic analysis Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of. Subject (agent) we this report Firm XYZ Object (receiver of action) a factor of safety the hydraulic analysis an investigation

Passive: The subject of the sentence (the thing before the verb) has the action done to it, or it can be a meaningless it. There is usually no agent, or the agent might occur after the verb. Passive Voice Example A factor of safety was calculated The hydraulic analysis is documented in this report. An investigation has been completed It was noticed that there were several cracks Subject (receiver of the action) a factor of safety the hydraulic analysis an investigation it [refers to nothing]

Neither: Many English verbs are neither active nor passive. These verbs usually express a linking or existing relationship between the subject and whatever comes after the verb. Example: Several historic residences are adjacent to the bridge and approach roadway. Exercise 1. Identify each underlined verb as active, passive, or neither. 1. After concurrence by [OrganizationName] on the number and type of further inspections, the study team collected supplemental information through

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2. The I-62 Red River Bridges are two of the four bridges included in Bundle 333 of the Oregon Bridge Delivery Program. The I-62 Blue River over-crossing bridges are addressed in a separate report.

PART B. LEARN GUIDELINES FOR CHOOSING BETWEEN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.

The choice should be about the subject of the sentence, not the verb. Do you want the agent as the subject? Use active voice when a) the responsibility for recommendations, analyses, assumptions, or observations needs to be clear. (In engineering practice, this is virtually always.) If responsibility is unclear, you are more likely to confuse your readers and increase your firms liability. b) you establish the agent of a sequence of actions at the beginning of the sequence. For example, descriptions of methods often start by establishing the agent (usually we or a firm name) and then change to passive voice. c) you are emphasizing a client-consultant relationship. d) there is no good reason to use passive voice, or passive voice makes information imprecise or hard to follow. Use passive voice when e) the agent is unknown or unimportant, as in descriptions of project locations or geology. f) the receiver of the action is the topic of interest and you have already established the agent (e.g. many descriptions of methods after a first sentence that establishes the agent). g) the receiver of the action is known information that has been explained previously. By putting it first in the sentence, you follow a logical order of information for readers: first known information, then new information. The agent can be stated after the verb: ...was designed by Firm XYZ. Exercise 2. Identify each of the underlined items as active or passive and tell why the choice is effective. Choose from a-g above; more than one reason might apply to each. 3. Due to slope stability considerations, we recommend that hillside excavation and wall construction be completed during the dry season 4. On August 15 and 19, 2003, we drilled five exploratory borings with a portable drill rig using solid stem auger techniques. An additional boring was drilled September 18, 2003, northwest of the intersection using a trailer-mounted drill rig. These borings were drilled to provide data for retaining wall and signal pole foundation design. The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from 2 to 6 m. 5. a) At your request, we visited the site of b) Per your request, Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of 6. Our analysis assumes the drilled shafts will be constructed using reinforced concrete with 7. The project is located at the junction of I-290 and Hwy 444

PART C. CHOOSE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE WISELY.

Exercise 3. Decide whether each of the following passives is effective. If not, revise the sentence to use active voice or a linking verb, and make any other changes needed for clarity and grammar. 8. Based on Firm ABCs findings, the slide is believed to be an earthflow/slump type movement

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9. Excavation is assumed to be able to be completed without temporary retention 10. According to the Bridge Engineering Baseline Report, this 184' long bridge was constructed in 1952 11. According to Dr. Larry Simpson from a personal interview, the assumption was made that the weakest soil in that area is silty sand 12. [OrganizationName] is recommended to use caution when using Winklers model with high loading conditions. [Sentence in a report written to the named organization] 13. References found relating to the compaction of soils where the nature of the clay mineral changed after drying compared to using soils without initial drying was not clearly found. Warning: Do not just apply a strategy of using we or a name without thinking. What is wrong with the following sentences? 14. As requested, we are glad to submit this written report presenting a geotechnical design recommendation for a retaining wall on 15. We obtained lumber costs from CompanyName1 in the CityName Metropolitan Area. We determined the costs of the piers by contacting CompanyName2. We include prices that are effective as of May 27, 2010. In order to provide a deck that was easy to build, we decided to use CompanyName2 Brand Piers for the footings. We 16. Firm ABC has completed our investigation of.... [Firm ABC did the investigation and wrote this memo]
Partial support for this material was provided by the National Science Foundations Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. All opinions, findings, and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Appendix B Writing Tips for Lab Reports and Tech Memos

Writing Tips for Lab Reports & Tech Memos
Susan Conrad, Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics, conrads@pdx.edu Civil Engineering Writing Project: cewriting.ling.pdx.edu Lab reports can be valuable practice for communicating as a professional engineer if you pay attention to your writing. The goal for writing in engineering: Precise, accurate communication that covers all the needed information, has no unnecessary information, and contains no distracting grammatical errors. Your writing should have only one interpretation for each sentence (the interpretation you intended). allow your audience to find information easily, read quickly, comprehend each idea clearly, and follow links between ideas smoothly. be produced efficiently. Read and revise each paper you write before submitting it. Read over WHAT YOU WROTE (not what you know you meant). Try reading your sentences aloud. Will a reader unfamiliar with your work understand your meaning? Revise to make the meaning more precise. Read for the items in this list of tips. Try the techniques listed for revising. Look over the last paper that was returned to you. Proof read your new paper for the same errors you made last time. You learn nothing if you repeatedly make the same mistakes and both university faculty and supervisors in a workplace will notice. When a paper is returned to you read all the comments and corrections carefully, and ask about any you do not understand. save it to look at again before you hand in your next report. Revising for effective organization and sequencing of information should come first. See instructions from your professor.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE WORDS AND SENTENCES

TIP 1. CHOOSE PRECISE, ACCURATE WORDS.

Do not use words that are casually used in conversation for a general meaning. Engineering writing requires precision. Do not pick words because you think they sound academic. Pick words for precise and accurate meaning. A) Replace inaccurate, vague words with precise, specific words. Avoid writing like this. Explanation Instead, try these techniques.

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Use more specific words the A36 is the best bet out of the materials tested. the A36 is the preferred material for ...the A36 sample conforms most closely to the expected behavior of in order to investigate the or in order to determine the Refer to specific quantities at really low temperatures the energy required for fracture was Below X c, the energy required for fracture was
o

The data were then evaluated using the stress-strain relationship in order to find out the different properties of the material.

A best bet is a vague term from conversation. Lab reports do not ask for bets. The revisions make the meaning more specific. Find out can mean to discover, to confirm, to expose, to look up in a book, etc. The revisions make the action more specific.

In this laboratory, a number of the mechanical properties for

In this laboratory, three mechanical properties for

A really low temperature to you may not be low to someone else. Specifying the temperature leaves no room for misinterpretation. A number could be 1, 10, 105 Specifying the number leaves nothing to your readers imagination. Necessarily makes no sense and confuses the reader. Do some of the data unnecessarily match the value? Words that add no meaning should be omitted. Your analysis should not be an opinion. Instead, tell the reader the evidence you are using for your interpretation. Often you can make a comparison with an accepted standard or measurement.

Delete unnecessary words. The data dont necessarily match the known value for properties of steel and aluminum. The data do not match the known values

It is my opinion that the friction angles in the sandy layers are low

Refer to standards or expected measures. The friction angles in the sandy layers were low relative to expected values [continued with further explanation]

B) Use you and your only if you are speaking directly to your reader (not likely in a lab report for a professor!). Avoid writing like this. Explanation Instead, try these techniques. Replace your with the

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The standard deviation is a measure of the variation of a set of data points. The closer to zero the less variation your measurements have.

The closer the standard deviation is to zero, the less variation the measurements have.

Your measurements means your readers measurements. The revision with the makes the statement a generalization.

The graph will allow you to calculate the modulus of rupture, which was found

Change the verb to passive voice if you are describing your own procedures. The modulus of rupture was calculated from the graph

Your reader is not doing calculations, so you is used inaccurately. Passive is an appropriate choice for procedures because readers know that the student writing the report did the procedures. Many professors including Dr. Dusicka recommend using passive voice rather than the pronoun I (I calculated the modulus). Practitioners use you and we to refer directly to their clients and themselves e.g., As you requested, we completed an investigation of. There the clientconsultant relationship is emphasized.

C) Revise garbled or nonsensical sentences so they convey clear, precise meanings. Instead, revise for meaning. You may need to think more thoroughly about what you mean. The results of the experiment were consistent with properties of concrete (Mamlouk and Zaniewski 2006). The original sentence is nonsensical. No experiment reinforces the properties of concrete! The revision makes the meaning clear and provides the reference. The original sentence is a ridiculous generalization (reality was true). The revision conveys specific

Avoid writing like this. The experiment generally reinforced established properties of concrete.

This reality was true for a variety of reasons [Referring to reasons why object measurements varied among group members in lab 1.]

The variation in group members measurements can be attributed to three factors.

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information about the lab.

TIP 2. USE RELATIVELY SHORT SENTENCES THAT READERS CAN EASILY FOLLOW.
Avoid long, convoluted sentences. Explanation Figure 3 and Figure 4 shows one of the steel coupons after and before testing and necking can be shown between the two reflective tapes. An assumption was made to figure out the true stress by trying to figure out where does the cross-sectional area start to decrease, and from there an equation has been made to figure out the true stress. Instead, shorten sentences. Try these techniques.

Separate ideas into independent sentences. two reflective tapes. The stress was calculated from nominal cross-sectional dimensions with the assumption that the crosssectional area did not change. True stress was calculated by measuring the decrease in the cross-sectional area at the point of failure.

Too much information is stuffed into the single original sentence. It is impossible to follow all the different ideas. The revision divides the information into different sentences about the different stress calculations.

As shown in the graph below, where all three diagrams have been put in one graph together, it could be recognized that the subject of the first and second test are most likely to be ductile

Refer to figures, tables, and samples by number. Replace passive voice with active voice. As shown in Figure 1, samples 1 and 2 exhibited ductile behavior

The original sentence uses many words to describe the figures and samples when all they need is a simple name (as in the revision). The revision changes an awkward passive (it could be recognized) to an inanimate subject + active voice: samples 1 and 2 exhibited.

Although it is easy to describe a material in words, when it comes to real data, variety in materials, variety in test condition, human error and machine error are factors that can spread the data wide enough to make the judgment not as it is easy in

Put lists of items at the end of a sentence. Use precise terms. Under field conditions, four factors interfere with consistent measurement: variety in materials, variety in test condition, human error, and machine error [Explain variation and error further.]

In English, most readers find sentences hard to understand if long lists occur before the main verb. Writers also tend to make errors in sentences with very complex lists before the verb. The revision uses a simple sentence to introduce a list of

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theory.

the four factors. Notice that the revision also deletes unnecessary words (real data) and uses more precise terms (interfere with consistent measurement).

TIP 3. USE THIS OR THAT ONLY WHEN THE REFERENCE IS CLEAR.

Avoid ambiguous this or that. Explanation In this laboratory, mechanical properties for two portland cement concrete mixes were obtained and compared. This was done with compression and flexure strength tests. Coupon 7 and Coupon 13 displayed an equal amount of elongation (42.0%), which was greater than that of Coupon 3 (9.6%). This also proves that greater ductility was displayed in Coupon 7 and Coupon 13. Restate using this/that + noun (this what?)

Place a noun after this or that. were obtained and compared. This comparison was conducted using compression and flexure strength tests.

which was greater than that of Coupon 3 (9.6%). These results indicate that Coupons 7 and 13 were more ductile material than Coupon 3.

In the original sentences, this is confusing. There is no noun in the preceding sentences for this to refer to. The revisions add a noun to make the ideas clear.

The difference in weight was due to human error. The pan at the bottom of the sieves was dropped while being measured. The material was swept back into the pan and measured. That is likely the cause of the increase in weight.

If it is not easy to add a single noun, rethink the logical steps in your ideas and change your sentences. was dropped while being measured. When the material was swept back into the pan and measured, dirt from the floor had been added. That additional dirt was likely the cause of the increase in weight.

The original sentence skips a step of information (the fact that there was extra material on the floor). The revision adds the missing step, and it then becomes easy to add a noun after that.

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TIP 4. FOLLOW ANY SPECIFIC REQUIREMENTS GIVEN BY THE PROFESSOR (OR IN PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE, BY YOUR CLIENT).
For many lab reports, CEE faculty ask that you avoid use of it, my, I and we. Avoid use of these words. these techniques. Instead, try Rewrite the sentence with the end as the subject. Use passive voice. While the sample was shaken for 5 minutes, it is possible an additional 5 minute interval would have resulted in a more standard distribution of gradation. Data were then compiled for both the coarse and fine samples and rendered in a gradation curve. It was assumed that the samples were homogenous prior to testing. Two strain values were found for each position of the pin on the beam. The average was then found. My calculated strains are displayed. My data dont match the known value for properties of steel and aluminum. The sample was shaken for 5 minutes. A more standard distribution may have been achieved if the sample had been shaken for an additional 5 minute interval. [continue by explaining why] Data were then compiled for both the coarse and fine samples and rendered in a gradation curve. The samples were assumed to be homogenous prior to testing. Replace my with the Two strain values were found for each position of the pin on the beam. The average was then calculated. The resulting strains are displayed. The results do not correlate with the expected values for steel and aluminum [and provide a reference]. Reword I statements with.. The calculations for part 1 of the laboratory illustrated the applicability of the theoretical equations for strain in experimental situations. In Methods sections, replace we with a passive voice sentence. In part 2 of the lab, a calibrator was used to find the diameter In Conclusions, replace I or we by referring to the results. Conclusion: The results of this experiment demonstrated accuracy and precision in measuring. In Conclusions, replace I or we by reordering the sentences and using passives. Conclusion: In this experiment, accuracy and

While doing the calculations for part 1; finding the theoretical values for strain, I obtained a better concept of how the equations are applied in experimental situations.

In part 2 of the lab we used a calibrator to find the diameter and thread length of three different sized bolts. Conclusion: In this experiment, we can see the accuracy and precision in measuring.

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precision in measurement were demonstrated. [continue by explaining how] Prepared by Dr. Susan Conrad, PSU Department of Applied Linguistics, in collaboration with Dr. Peter Dusicka. For more information or permission to copy, e-mail Susan Conrad: ConradS@pdx.edu. Partial support for this material was provided by the National Science Foundations Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. Partial support for this
material was provided by the National Science Foundations Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. All opinions, findings, and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Appendix C Revising and Editing for Precision and Clarity

REVISING AND EDITING FOR PRECISION AND CLARITY
Susan Conrad, Professor, Department of Applied Linguistics 240 East Hall, conrads@pdx.edu The goal for writing in engineering: Precise, accurate communication that covers all the needed information, has no unnecessary information, and contains no distracting grammatical errors. Your writing should have only one interpretation for each sentence (the interpretation you intended). allow your audience to find information easily, read quickly, and comprehend each idea clearly. be produced efficiently. Before you revise a paper for the problems in todays workshop, you should work on content and organization. (That requires a different workshop.) How were the problems for todays workshop chosen? They are much more common in 400-level PSU student reports than in practitioner reports. Many of them result in multiple interpretations, or they slow readers comprehension. Some of them would cause serious liability issues for any firm that you work for. At best, they annoy your readers and undermine your credibility. They are all within your grasp to fix if you put in a little time.

PART I. AREAS OF FOCUS FOR TODAYS WORKSHOP Problem 1: Dangling, Unclear Modifiers or Too Many Modifiers in One Sentence
Ineffective Sentences Written by Students 1. After conversations with Jim Wheeler of the Geology Department, the 100yr flood event will likely 3 have a flowrate of approximately 2700 ft /s 2. Based on the annual water balance, during the months of November through April there will be a consistent outflow due to storm events. 3. See the hand calculations included in the appendices which indicate that for these soil properties and applied loads the factor of safety for bearing capacity is in excess of 42 clearly indicating that the ultimate strength limit state will not be a controlling issue. 4. The construction cost increases starting with prefabricated carbon steel storage tanks with construction costs including just the cost of the footing and installation, then to the bolt-together which would require footing construction as well as unskilled labor to put the plates together, and finally to the weld-together which would require footing construction and skilled labor to weld the metal plates together. Find the problem: (1) Read what is on the paper, not what you know you meant. (2) Identify subjects for introductory modifiers.

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(3) Identify all the sentence parts beyond a simple subject-verb-object. If you cant keep track, neither will your readers. Solutions: (1) Revise the sentence to make an introductory modifier have a subject or be next to the subject it modifies. (2) Write more than one sentence.

More Effective Examples from Practitioner Reports 1. Based on the observation of standing water in the roadside ditches during the winter, we anticipate that the perched water table approaches the ground surface during the wet winter months. 2. After concurrence by OrganizationName on the number and type of further inspections, the study team collected supplemental information through 3. the critical design condition will be an empty wet well and a water table at El. 219 (4 feet below new grade). This condition is equivalent to a buoyancy pressure at the base of 1,380 psf. Therefore, we anticipate the critical loading condition will be uplift on the pump station, rather than bearing capacity. A cast-in-place concrete base would help provide some resistance to uplift forces. Revise the ineffective sentences written by students. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials.

Problem 2: Use of Passive Voice When the Agent of the Action Is Important
Ineffective Sentences Written by Students 1. Pedestrian activity was noted near the intersection of X Ave, Y Ave, and Z Ave. The width and unusual geometry of Z Ave made pedestrian crossings difficult. It was recommended that some form of pedestrian improvement was necessary to increase the safety of crossings. 2. According to Dr. Larry Simpson from a personal interview, the assumption was made that the weakest soil in that area is silty sand Make sure you recognize active and passive voice. Active: We calculated a factor of safety greater than This report documents the hydraulic analysis Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of. A factor of safety was calculated The hydraulic analysis is documented in this report. An investigation has been completed It was noticed that there were several cracks Several historic residences are adjacent to the bridge and approach roadway.

Passive:

Neither:

Guidelines for choosing between active and passive Use active voice when passives obscure meaning or make the responsibility for recommendations, assumptions, or observations unclear. If its unclear who is responsible, your client will be confused. In a legal case, your firm will likely be held liable.

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 the agent of the action needs to be to establish. For example, descriptions of methods often start by establishing the agent (usually we or a firm name). you are emphasizing a client-consultant relationship (especially in letters and memos). there is no good reason to use passive voice. your firm has a policy for active voice whenever possible. Use passive voice when the agent is unknown or unimportant, as in descriptions of project locations or geology. the receiver of the action is the topic of interest (e.g. in descriptions of methods, especially after the first sentence). the receiver of the action is given information that has been explained previously. By putting it first in the sentence, you follow a logical order of information for readers: first given information, then new information. it is your firms (or your instructors) policy. Analyze effective active and passive voice choices from practitioner reports Tell whether the underlined parts are active or passive voice. Then tell why the choice is effective. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials. 1. Due to slope stability considerations, we recommend that hillside excavation and wall construction be completed during the dry season 2. On August 15 and 19, 2003, we drilled five exploratory borings with a portable drill rig using solid stem auger techniques. An additional boring was drilled September 18, 2003, northwest of the intersection using a trailer-mounted drill rig. These borings were drilled to provide data for retaining wall and signal pole foundation design. The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from 2 to 6 m. 3. Our analysis assumes the drilled shafts will be constructed using reinforced concrete with 4. At your request, we visited the site of [from a memo] [from a letter report]

Per your request, Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of 5. The project is located at the junction of I-404 and Hwy 222

6. According to the Bridge Engineering Baseline Report, this 184' long bridge was constructed in 1952

Now revise the ineffective sentences written by students. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials.

Problem 3: Use of Absolutes, Superlatives and Other Untrue, Dangerous Words

Ineffective Choices Written by Students 1. This is the best design option. 2. the optimal location 3. This is the only position that could guarantee all portions of the bridge would remain 4. To insure that the proposed design would be safe Solutions: (1) Use words precisely. Avoid absolutes (e.g. always, unique, only), superlatives (e.g. best, worst), and words that make you sound like an insurance company (e.g. insure, ensure, guarantee). It is highly unlikely these words convey your true intended meaning.

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(2) In a firm, ask if the professional liability insurer distributed a list of words to avoid. (3) Recognize that two words are never truly synonyms. For example, calculate, estimate, and determine all have different meanings. Choose words for precise meaning in a particular context. (Some firms avoid determine in most contexts.) (4) When necessary, restructure sentences to convey a more precise meaning. Alternative, more effective choices 1. preferred: the preferred option, the preferred alternative 2. better: to better control for, is better-suited to. 3. reduce: To reduce the risk of differential settlement, we 4. The primary benefits of this design over other viable options considered are 5. To mitigate the potential effect of and many other non-absolute words and sentence structures. Now revise the ineffective choices written by students. Check your answers against the suggested answers at the end of these materials.

PART II. PROBLEMS YOU CAN CORRECT ON YOUR OWN

If you are not confident about any of the following problems, try these references: A Guide to Writing as an Engineer (written by Beer and McMurrey, published by John Wiley & Sons, 2005) chapters 2 and 3 Professional Communications: A Handbook for Civil Engineers (written by H. Silyn-Roberts, published by ASCE Press, 2005) chapter 17 Purdues Online Writing Lab (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/) - Mechanics, Punctuation, and Grammar sections A writing handbook by any major publishing house (e.g. Prentice Hall Reference Guide to Grammar and Usage). Be forewarned that such handbooks are fine for the mechanics of writing, such as punctuation, but they are not written to address the specific concerns of civil engineers.

A. Use of complex, confusing structures when simple alternatives are more effective. Simpler alternative repeat the noun or rephrase sentence write two full phrases or sentences and and or a new sentence with in addition More complex alternative that often causes confusion the formerthe latter respectively as well as not onlybut also

Practice revising these sentences. 1. for the round storage tanks. Therefore, between these or the rectangular tanks the latter design is recommended. 2. Deck purlins and girders are a minimum of 3 x 6 and 2 x 5 , respectively. 3. To insure that the proposed design would not only be safe but also usable well into the future the spread footing was evaluated for.

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B. Vague, wordy expressions. Practice revising these sentences to eliminate the wordy expressions. 1. The rainwater cistern was designed with the thought in mind that the size be determined from the amount of focus that is going to be put on the rainwater catchment approach. 2. With proper care and maintenance the filters have potentially a long useful life of 5+ years.

C. Lists of items that do not have parallel structure. Practice revising these lists. It might be necessary to create new sentences. 1. Through education and proper use, this water treatment system is a viable solution for treatment of water for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, streptococcus, E. coli and reduce turbidity. 2. Research into existing topography, hydrology including historical flood levels, sightlines and priority specimen locations, geotechnical properties of the soil and availability of construction access to sites along the creek would all be necessary.

D. Unclear reference with demonstratives (this, that, these, those). Practice revising these sentences. th 1. Facilities to accommodate a bikeway in the form of a bicycle boulevard were included at 125 St. in all design alternatives. This primarily took the form of restricting motor vehicle movements across 2. Rapid sand filter design is based on a declining rate filter. This will eliminate severe fluctuations in the water height above the filtration bed and will not require the addition of a pump for backwashing. For revisions, most of these sentences need a noun added after this. Think this what? Name it. If it is not easy to name, revise more extensively.

E. Use of casual, conversational meanings of words rather than precise meanings. Practice revising these sentences. 1. The project area is dominated by light industry and commerce. At the same time, the project is located a few blocks from residential areas. 2. The stream site has a drainage area of around 27 mi . 3. Its our feeling that 4. A lot of driveways close to the intersection Also watch for slang (hot topic, big deal, etc.).
2

F. Improper use of commas and periods.

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Joining sentences with a comma (the comma splice): 1. The glulam option is also cost effective, lumber is a local resource and relatively inexpensive as well as easy to fabricate. Confusing use of commas with descriptors before a noun (often numbers): 2. During this investigation three, four inch, boreholes were hand augered to refusal. No commas after long introductory clauses and phrases (5 words or longer use a comma): 3. If the elevations are found to be different this graph will be slightly different.

G. Commonly misused words. its vs its: This location will not effectively serve its intended purpose effect vs affect: The larger affect will likely be the geometric changes

H. Sloppy proofreading. Can you find the mistakes? 1. The questions that will to be addressed are the size, shape, and material for the storage facilities, the quantity of pipe needing repair and the quantity of new piping needed. 2. The larges tank has a volume of 9121 gallons, the base slab is 11x11 feet and the height is 10 feet. 3. On the positive side of his project the soil capacity requirements are not as high as for the 4. The Filtron system seem to fit the components that Proofreading Suggestions Always take the time to proofread. Even if you give your paper to a colleague or friend to proof, you should proof it first. Otherwise, you run the risk of appearing sloppy, uncaring, untrained, and disrespectful of others time. Thorough proofreading usually requires the following: taking at least a short break before you begin proofing so you bring a fresh eye to the paper. reading a printed paper, not reading from the computer monitor. a technique to make you read every word; for example, you can read aloud, point to every word as you read it, or start at the end of the paper and read sentences in their reverse order. multiple readings to catch different types of mistakes. For example, read once for parallel structure in all lists, then read again for proper sentence punctuation, then again for demonstrative reference, etc. If you are working in a team, give each team member something to proof in the final report. paying attention. Dont let your mind wander.

GENERAL TIPS FOR IMPROVING YOUR WRITING

1. When you read over what you have written, read what is on the page, not what you know you meant.

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2. When drafts are returned to you by an instructor or senior engineer, analyze the marks and comments: What is the function of the change? Why does it matter? Ask if you cant understand. (Most changes are not just your supervisors personal style; they have functions.) 3. For each new paper, do at least one round of editing specifically to catch the mistakes that were corrected in your last paper. Dont make the same mistakes over and over; it wastes your time and the time of your instructor or the senior engineer who reviews your work. 4. Think of writing as a process, not just a product. a. Draft the paper (or your part of it). b. Revise for content and organization. c. Then revise to improve grammar and language. Repeat steps b & c as needed to improve accuracy, precision, conciseness, and clarity. d. Edit for further accuracy in punctuation, vocabulary, and grammar usage. e. Proofread. 5. Have colleagues review your drafts. Review their drafts. For any documents whose audience includes non-engineers (e.g. proposals), have a non-engineer friend give you feedback.

Partial support for this material was provided by the National Science Foundations Course, Curriculum, and Laboratory Improvement Program under Award No. 0837776. All opinions, findings, and recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Suggested Answers to Revision Exercises Problem 1: Dangling, Unclear Modifiers or Too Many Modifiers in One Sentence 1. After conversations with Jim Wheeler of the Geology Department, we anticipate the 100yr flood event will likely have a flowrate of approximately 2700 ft3/s 2. Based on the annual water balance, we expect a consistent outflow during the months of November through April due to storm events. 3. For these soil properties and applied loads the factor of safety for bearing capacity is in excess of 42 (see Appendix A), indicating that the ultimate strength limit state will not be a controlling issue 4. The construction cost increases for each of the alternatives presented above. The cost for the prefabricated carbon steel storage tank alternative includes only the cost of the footing and installation. The bold-together alternative requires footing construction and unskilled labor to put the plates together. The weld-together option requires footing construction and skilled labor to weld the metal plates together.

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Problem 2: Use of Passive Voice When the Agent of the Action Is Important 1. The study team observed pedestrian activity near the intersection of X Ave, Y Ave, and Z Ave [more details - for how long? at what time of day? etc.] . The width and unusual geometry of Z Ave made pedestrian crossings difficult. [More specifics what kind of difficulty was observed?] We therefore recommend some form of crossing improvement to increase the safety of pedestrians. 2. According to Dr. Larry Simpson from a personal interview, the weakest soil in that area is silty sand

Analyze effective active and passive voice choices from practitioner reports 1. Due to slope stability considerations, we recommend that hillside excavation and wall construction be completed during the dry season Active voice. Effective because the responsibility for the recommend is made very clear. 2. On August 15 and 19, 2003, we drilled five exploratory borings with a portable drill rig using solid stem auger techniques. An additional boring was drilled September 18, 2003, northwest of the intersection using a trailer-mounted drill rig. These borings were drilled to provide data for retaining wall and signal pole foundation design. The boreholes were drilled to depths ranging from 2 to 6 m. We drilled = active voice. The others are passive voice. The first sentence establishes the firms responsibility for the drilling. After the first sentence, the borings themselves are the topic of interest and are given information established by the first sentences. The agent does not need to be restated because it was established in the first sentence. 3. Our analysis assumes the drilled shafts will be constructed using reinforced concrete with assumes = active voice. Effective because it makes clear who is responsible (our = belonging to the firm). Will be constructed = passive voice. Effective because the agent of this future action is unknown. 4. At your request, we visited the site of [from a memo] Active voice. Effective for establishing responsibility and emphasizing the client-consultant relationship. Per your request, Firm XYZ has completed an investigation of [from a letter report]

Active voice. Effective for establishing responsibility and emphasizing the client-consultant relationship though less impersonally than using we have completed... 5. The project is located at the junction of I-404 and Hwy 222 Passive voice. Effective because the agent is irrelevant or unknown. (Who knows who originally located the intersection where it is?) 6. According to the Bridge Engineering Baseline Report, this 184' long bridge was constructed in 1952 Passive voice. Effective for 3 reasons: (1) the bridge is the topic of interest (2) the bridge has already

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been mentioned and is there fore given information (3) the agent (the builder of the bridge) is irrelevant or unknown. Problem 3: Use of Absolutes, Superlatives and Other Untrue, Dangerous Words 1. This is the best design option. the preferred design option 2. the optimal location the preferred location 3. This is the only position that could guarantee all portions of the bridge would remain Of the three alternatives, this position has the greatest likelihood of keeping the bridge above water... 4. To insure that the proposed design would be safe To mitigate safety concerns [about what?], the preposed design...

PART II. PROBLEMS YOU CAN CORRECT ON YOUR OWN

A. Use of complex, confusing structures when simple alternatives are more effective. Practice revising these sentences. 1. for the round storage tanks. Therefore, between the two options, the rectangular tanks... 2. Deck purlins are a minimum of 3 x 6. Girders are a minimum of 2 x 5 . 3. To evaluate the proposed design for safety and utility well into the future, the spread footing was analyzed for. B. Vague, wordy expressions. Practice revising these sentences to eliminate the wordy expressions. 1. The rainwater cistern was designed with the thought in mind that the size be determined from the amount of focus that is going to be put on the rainwater catchment approach. The rainwater cistern was designed to meet the maximum size determined in the catchment analysis. [The writers idea is difficult to understand; you might have a very different revision, but it should be concise and unambiguous.] 2. According to the manufacturer, with proper care and maintenance the filters function for 5 or more years. C. Lists of items that do not have parallel structure.

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Practice revising these lists. It might be necessary to create new sentences. 1. Through education and proper use, this system is a viable solution for treatment of water for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, streptococcus, and E. coli. It will also reduce turbidity. 2. Research will be necessary in several areas: existing topography; hydrology, including historical flood levels; sightlines; priority specimen locations, geotechnical properties of the soil; and availability of construction access to sites along the creek.

D. Unclear reference with demonstratives (this, that, these, those). Practice revising these sentences. 1. Facilities to accommodate a bikeway in the form of a bicycle boulevard were included at 125th St. in all design alternatives. These facilities primarily took the form of restricting motor vehicle movements across [Facilities may not be the appropriate term here and a larger revision is necessary.] 2. Rapid sand filter design is based on a declining rate filter. This design will eliminate severe fluctuations in the water height above the filtration bed and will not require the addition of a pump for backwashing. E. Use of casual, conversational meanings of words rather than precise meanings. Practice revising these sentences. 1. The project area is dominated by light industry and commerce. However, residential areas begin three blocks to the north and west. 2. The stream site has a drainage area of approximately 27 mi2 . 3. Its our feeling that We estimate... or According to our analysis... or many other possibilities but probably not just a feeling, which implies no analysis. 4. A lot of driveways close to the intersection Fifteen driveways are within __ feet of the intersection. [specify the number of feet] F. Improper use of commas and periods. Joining sentences with a comma (the comma splice): 1. The glulam option is also cost effective; lumber is a local resource and relatively inexpensive and easy to fabricate. Other alternatives: a period + capital letter L, or connect with because. Confusing use of commas with descriptors before a noun (often numbers):

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2. During this investigation three four inch, boreholes were hand augered to refusal. No comma after three No commas after long introductory clauses and phrases (5 words or longer use a comma): 3. If the elevations are found to be different, this graph will be slightly different. G. Commonly misused words. its vs its: This location will not effectively serve its intended purpose its = it is its = possessive effect vs affect: The larger effect will likely be the geometric changes When used as a noun, affect means H. Sloppy proofreading. Can you find the mistakes? 1. The questions that will to be addressed are the size, shape, and material for the storage facilities, the quantity of pipe needing repair and the quantity of new piping needed. 2. The larges tank has a volume of 9121 gallons, the base slab is 11x11 feet and the height is 10 feet. 3. On the positive side of his project the soil capacity requirements are not as high as for the 4. The Filtron system seem to fit the components that

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