Phy 1103

PHYS1112 - Electricity and Magnetism
Lecture Notes
Dr. Jason Chun Shing Pun
Department of Physics
The University of Hong Kong
January 2005
Contents
1 Vector Algebra 1
1.1 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Components of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Multiplication of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Vector Field (Physics Point of View) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Other Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Electric Force & Electric Field 8
2.1 Electric Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 The Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Continuous Charge Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Electric Field Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Point Charge in E-eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 Dipole in E-eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3 Electric Flux and Gauss Law 25
3.1 Electric Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Gauss Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 E-eld Calculation with Gauss Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Gauss Law and Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4 Electric Potential 36
4.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2 Electric Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Electric Potential V . . . . 45
4.4 Equipotential Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 Capacitance and DC Circuits 51
5.1 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 Calculating Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.3 Capacitors in Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4 Energy Storage in Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
i
5.5 Dielectric Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.6 Capacitor with Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.7 Gauss Law in Dielectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.8 Ohms Law and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.9 DC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.10 RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Magnetic Force 73
6.1 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2 Motion of A Point Charge in Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.3 Hall Eect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.4 Magnetic Force on Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7 Magnetic Field 81
7.1 Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.2 Parallel Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.3 Ampères Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.4 Magnetic Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.5 Magnetic Dipole in A Constant B-eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8 Faradays Law of Induction 98
8.1 Faradays Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
8.2 Lenz Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.3 Motional EMF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.4 Induced Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9 Inductance 107
9.1 Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2 LR Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.3 Energy Stored in Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.4 LC Circuit (Electromagnetic Oscillator) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.5 RLC Circuit (Damped Oscillator) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10 AC Circuits 116
10.1 Alternating Current (AC) Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
10.2 Phase Relation Between i, V for R,L and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10.3 Single Loop RLC AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10.4 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.5 Power in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.6 The Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
ii
11 Displacement Current and Maxwells Equations 125
11.1 Displacement Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
11.2 Induced Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
11.3 Maxwells Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
iii
Chapter 1
Vector Algebra
1.1 Denitions
A vector consists of two components: magnitude and direction .
(e.g. force, velocity, pressure)
A scalar consists of magnitude only.
(e.g. mass, charge, density)
1.2 Vector Algebra
Figure 1.1: Vector algebra
a +
b =

b +a
a + (c +

d) = (a +c) +

d
1.3. COMPONENTS OF VECTORS 2
1.3 Components of Vectors
Usually vectors are expressed according to coordinate system. Each vector can
be expressed in terms of components.
The most common coordinate system: Cartesian
a =a
x
+a
y
+a
z
Magnitude of a = [a[ = a,
a =
_
a
2
x
+a
2
y
+a
2
z
Figure 1.2: measured anti-clockwise
from position x-axis
a = a
x
+a
y
a =
_
a
2
x
+a
2
y
a
x
= a cos; a
y
= a sin
tan =
a
y
a
x
Unit vectors have magnitude of 1
a =
a
[a[
= unit vector along a direction
i

j

k are unit vectors along

x y z directions
a = a
x
i +a
y

j +a
z

k
Other coordinate systems:
1.3. COMPONENTS OF VECTORS 3
1. Polar Coordinate:
Figure 1.3: Polar Coordinates
a = a
r
r +a
2. Cylindrical Coordinates:
Figure 1.4: Cylindrical Coordinates
a = a
r
r +a

+a
z
z
r originated from nearest point on
z-axis (Point O)
3. Spherical Coordinates:
Figure 1.5: Spherical Coordinates
a = a
r
r +a

+a
r originated from Origin O

1.4. MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS 4
1.4 Multiplication of Vectors
1. Scalar multiplication:
If

b=ma

b, a are vectors; m is a scalar
then b=ma (Relation between magnitude)
b
x
=ma
x
b
y
=ma
y
_
Components also follow relation
i.e.
a = a
x

i + a
y

j + a
z

k
ma = ma
x

i + ma
y

j + ma
z

k
2. Dot Product (Scalar Product):
Figure 1.6: Dot Product
a
b = [a[ [
b[ cos
Result is always a scalar. It can be pos-
itive or negative depending on .
a
b =
b a
Notice: a
b = ab cos = ab cos
i.e. Doesnt matter how you measure

angle between vectors.
i = [
i[ [
i[ cos0
= 1 1 1 = 1
j = [
i[ [
j[ cos90
= 1 1 0 = 0
i =

j
j =

k
k = 1
j =

j
k =

k
i = 0
If a = a
x
i +a
y

j +a
z

k
b = b
x
i +b
y

j +b
z

k
then a
b = a
x
b
x
+a
y
b
y
+a
z
b
z
a a = [a[ [a[ cos0
= a a = a
2
1.4. MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS 5
3. Cross Product (Vector Product):
If c =a
b,
then c = [c[ = a b sin
a
b ,=
b a !!!
a
b =
b a
Figure 1.7: Note: How angle is mea-
sured
Direction of cross product determined from right hand rule.
Also, a
b is to a and
b, i.e.
a (a
b) = 0
b (a
b) = 0
IMPORTANT:
a a = a a sin0
= 0
[
i[ = [
i[ [
i[ sin0
= 1 1 0 = 0
[
j[ = [
i[ [
j[ sin90
= 1 1 1 = 1
i =

j
j =

k
k = 0
j =

k;

j
k =
i;

k
i =

j
a
b =
i

j

k
a
x
a
y
a
z
b
x
b
y
b
z
= (a
y
b
z
a
z
b
y
)
i
+(a
z
b
x
a
x
b
z
)
j
+(a
x
b
y
a
y
b
x
)
k
1.5. VECTOR FIELD (PHYSICS POINT OF VIEW) 6
4. Vector identities:
a (
b +c) = a
b +a c
a (
b c) =

b (c a) = c (a
b)
a (
b c) = (a c)
b (a
b)c
1.5 Vector Field (Physics Point of View)
A vector eld

T(x, y, z) is a mathematical function which has a vector output
for a position input.
(Scalar eld

|(x, y, z))
1.6 Other Topics
Tangential Vector
Figure 1.8: d
l is a vector that is always tangential to the curve C with innitesimal

length dl
Surface Vector
Figure 1.9: da is a vector that is always perpendicular to the surface S with
innitesimal area da
1.6. OTHER TOPICS 7
Some uncertainty! (da versus da)
Two conventions:
Area formed from a closed curve
Figure 1.10: Direction of da determined from right-hand rule
Closed surface enclosing a volume
Figure 1.11: Direction of da going from inside to outside
Chapter 2
Electric Force & Electric Field
2.1 Electric Force
The electric force between two charges
q
1
and q
2
can be described by
Coulombs Law.
F
12
= Force on q
1
exerted by q
2
F
12
=
1
4
0

q
1
q
2
r
2
12
r
12
where r
12
=
r
12
[r
12
[
is the unit vector which locates particle 1 relative to particle 2.
i.e. r
12
= r
1
r
2
q
1
, q
2
are electrical charges in units of Coulomb(C)
Charge is quantized
Recall 1 electron carries 1.602 10
19
C

0
= Permittivity of free space = 8.85 10
12
C
2
/Nm
2
COULOMBS LAW:
(1) q
1
, q
2
can be either positive or negative.
2.2. THE ELECTRIC FIELD 9
(2) If q
1
, q
2
are of same sign, then the force experienced by q
1
is in direction
away from q
2
, that is, repulsive.
(3) Force on q
2
exerted by q
1
:
F
21
=
1
4
0
q
2
q
1
r
2
21
r
21
BUT:
r
12
= r
21
= distance between q
1
, q
2
r
21
=
r
21
r
21
=
r
2
r
1
r
21
=
r
12
r
12
= r
12

F
21
=
F
12
Newtons 3rd Law
SYSTEM WITH MANY CHARGES:
The total force experienced by charge
q
1
is the vector sum of the forces on q
1
exerted by other charges.
F
1
= Force experienced by q
1
=

F
1,2
+

F
1,3
+

F
1,4
+ +

F
1,N
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:
F
1
=
N
j=2
F
1,j
2.2 The Electric Field
While we need two charges to quantify the electric force, we dene the electric
eld for any single charge distribution to describe its eect on other charges.
Total force

F =

F
1
+

F
2
+ +

F
N
The electric eld is dened as
lim
q
0
0
F
q
0
=

E
(a) E-eld due to a single charge q
i
:
From the denitions of Coulombs Law, the
force experienced at location of q
0
(point P)
F
0,i
=
1
4
0
q
0
q
i
r
2
0,i
r
0,i
where r
0,i
is the unit vector along the direction from charge q
i
to q
0
,
r
0,i
= Unit vector from charge q
i
to point P
= r
i
(radical unit vector from q
i
)
Recall

E = lim
q
0
0
F
q
0
E-eld due to q
i
at point P:
E
i
=
1
4
0
q
i
r
2
i
r
i
where r
i
= Vector pointing from q
i
to point P,
thus r
i
= Unit vector pointing from q
i
to point P
Note:
(1) E-eld is a vector.
(2) Direction of E-eld depends on both position of P and sign of q
i
.
(b) E-eld due to system of charges:
Principle of Superposition:
In a system with N charges, the total E-eld due to all charges is the
vector sum of E-eld due to individual charges.
i.e.

E =
E
i
=
1
4
0
i
q
i
r
2
i
r
i
(c) Electric Dipole
System of equal and opposite charges
separated by a distance d.
Figure 2.1: An electric dipole. (Direction of
d from negative to positive charge)

Electric Dipole Moment
p = q
d = qd
d
p = qd
Example:

E due to dipole along x-axis
Consider point P at distance x along the perpendicular axis of the dipole p :
E =

E
+
+

E

(E-eld (E-eld
due to +q) due to q)
Notice: Horizontal E-eld components of

E
+
and

E
cancel out.
Net E-eld points along the axis oppo-
site to the dipole moment vector.
2.3. CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION 12
Magnitude of E-eld = 2E
+
cos
E = 2
_
E
+
or E
magnitude!
..
1
4
0
q
r
2
_
cos
But r =
_
d
2
_
2
+x
2
cos =
d/2
r
E =
1
4
0
p
[x
2
+ (
d
2
)
2
]
3
2
(p = qd)
Special case: When x d
[x
2
+ (
d
2
)
2
]
3
2
= x
3
[1 + (
d
2x
)
2
]
3
2
Binomial Approximation:
(1 + y)
n
1 + ny if y 1
E-eld of dipole
1
4
0
p
x
3

1
x
3
Compare with
1
r
2
E-eld for single charge
Result also valid for point P along any axis with respect to dipole
2.3 Continuous Charge Distribution
E-eld at point P due to dq:
d
E =
1
4
0
dq
r
2
r
E-eld due to charge distribution:
E =
Volume
d
E =
Volume
1
4
0
dq
r
2
r
(1) In many cases, we can take advantage of the symmetry of the system to
simplify the integral.
(2) To write down the small charge element dq:
1-D dq = ds = linear charge density ds = small length element
2-D dq = dA = surface charge density dA = small area element
3-D dq = dV = volume charge density dV = small volume element
Example 1: Uniform line of charge
charge per
unit length
=
(1) Symmetry considered: The E-eld from +z and z directions cancel along
z-direction, Only horizontal E-eld components need to be considered.
(2) For each element of length dz, charge dq = dz
Horizontal E-eld at point P due to element dz =
[d
E[ cos =
1
4
0
dz
r
2
. .
dE
dz
cos
E-eld due to entire line charge at point P
E =
L/2
L/2
1
4
0
dz
r
2
cos
= 2
L/2
4
0
dz
r
2
cos
To calculate this integral:
First, notice that x is xed, but z, r, all varies.
Change of variable (from z to )
(1)
z = x tan dz = x sec
2
d
x = r cos r
2
= x
2
sec
2
(2) When
z = 0 , = 0
z = L/2 =
0
where tan
0
=
L/2
x
E = 2

4
0
0
x sec
2
d
x
2
sec
2
cos
= 2

4
0
0
1
x
cos d
= 2

4
0
1
x
(sin )
0
0
= 2

4
0
1
x
sin
0
= 2

4
0
1
x

L/2
_
x
2
+ (
L
2
)
2
E =
1
4
0
L
x
_
x
2
+ (
L
2
)
2
along x-direction
Important limiting cases:
1. x L : E
1
4
0
L
x
2
But L = Total charge on rod
System behave like a point charge
2. L x : E
1
4
0
L
x
L
2
E
x
=

2
0
x
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO INFINITELY LONG LINE OF CHARGE
Example 2: Ring of Charge
E-eld at a height z above a ring of
charge of radius R
(1) Symmetry considered: For every charge element dq considered, there exists
dq/ where the horizontal

E eld components cancel.
Overall E-eld lies along z-direction.
(2) For each element of length dz, charge
dq = ds

Linear Circular
charge density length element
dq = R d, where is the angle
measured on the ring plane
Net E-eld along z-axis due to dq:
dE =
1
4
0
dq
r
2
cos
Total E-eld =
dE
=
2
0
1
4
0
R d
r
2
cos (cos =
z
r
)
Note: Here in this case, , R and r are xed as varies! BUT we want to
convert r, to R, z.
E =
1
4
0
Rz
r
3
2
0
d
E =
1
4
0
(2R)z
(z
2
+R
2
)
3/2
along z-axis
BUT: (2R) = total charge on the ring
Example 3: E-eld from a disk of surface charge density
We nd the E-eld of a disk by
integrating concentric rings of
charges.
Total charge of ring
dq = ( 2r dr
. .
Area of the ring
)
Recall from Example 2:
E-eld from ring: dE =
1
4
0
dq z
(z
2
+r
2
)
3/2
E =
1
4
0
R
0
2r dr z
(z
2
+r
2
)
3/2
=
1
4
0
R
0
2z
r dr
(z
2
+r
2
)
3/2
Change of variable:
u = z
2
+r
2
(z
2
+r
2
)
3/2
= u
3/2
du = 2r dr r dr =
1
2
du
Change of integration limit:
_
r = 0 , u = z
2
r = R , u = z
2
+R
2
E =
1
4
0
2z
z
2
+R
2
z
2
1
2
u
3/2
du
BUT:
u
3/2
du =
u
1/2
1/2
= 2u
1/2
E =
1
2
0
z (u
1/2
)
z
2
+R
2
z
2
=
1
2
0
z
_
1
z
2
+R
2
+
1
z
_
E =

2
0
_
1
z
z
2
+R
2
_
2.4. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES 18
VERY IMPORTANT LIMITING CASE:
If R z, that is if we have an innite sheet of charge with charge den-
sity :
E =

2
0
_
1
z
z
2
+R
2
_

2
0
_
1
z
R
_
E

2
0
E-eld is normal to the charged surface
Figure 2.2: E-eld due to an in-
nite sheet of charge, charge den-
sity =
Q: Whats the E-eld belows the charged sheet?
2.4 Electric Field Lines
To visualize the electric eld, we can use a graphical tool called the electric
eld lines.
Conventions:
1. The start on position charges and end on negative charges.
2. Direction of E-eld at any point is given by tangent of E-eld line.
3. Magnitude of E-eld at any point is proportional to number of E-eld lines
per unit area perpendicular to the lines.
2.5. POINT CHARGE IN E-FIELD 21
2.5 Point Charge in E-eld
When we place a charge q in an E-eld

E, the force experienced by the charge is
F = q
E = ma
Applications: Ink-jet printer, TV cathoderay tube.
Example:
Ink particle has mass m, charge q (q < 0 here)
Assume that mass of inkdrop is small, whats the deection y of the charge?
Solution:
First, the charge carried by the inkdrop is negtive, i.e. q < 0.
Note: q
E points in opposite direction of

E.
Horizontal motion: Net force = 0
L = vt (2.1)
2.6. DIPOLE IN E-FIELD 22
Vertical motion: [q
E[ [mg[, q is negative,
Net force = qE = ma (Newtons 2nd Law)
a =
qE
m
(2.2)
Vertical distance travelled:
y =
1
2
at
2
2.6 Dipole in E-eld
Consider the force exerted on the dipole in an external E-eld:
Assumption: E-eld from dipole doesnt aect the external E-eld.
Dipole moment:
p = q
d
Force due to the E-eld on +ve
and ve charge are equal and
opposite in direction. Total ex-
ternal force on dipole = 0.
BUT: There is an external torque on
the center of the dipole.
Reminder:
Force

F exerts at point P.
The force exerts a torque
= r

F on point P with
respect to point O.
Direction of the torque vector is determined from the right-hand rule.
Reference: Halliday Vol.1 Chap 9.1 (Pg.175) torque
Chap 11.7 (Pg.243) work done
Net torque
direction: clockwise
torque
magnitude:
=
+ve
+
ve
= F
d
2
sin +F
d
2
sin
= qE d sin
= pE sin
= p

E
Energy Consideration:
When the dipole p rotates d, the E-eld does work.
Work done by external E-eld on the dipole:
dW = d
Negative sign here because torque by E-eld acts to decrease .
BUT: Because E-eld is a conservative force eld
1 2
, we can dene a
potential energy (U) for the system, so that
dU = dW
For the dipole in external E-eld:
dU = dW = pE sin d
U() =
dU =
pE sin d
= pE cos +U
0
1
more to come in Chap.4 of notes
2
ref. Halliday Vol.1 Pg.257, Chap 12.1
set U( = 90
) = 0,
0 = pE cos 90
+U
0
U
0
= 0
Potential energy:
U = pE cos = p

E
Chapter 3
Electric Flux and Gauss Law
3.1 Electric Flux
Latin: ux = to ow
Graphically:
Electric ux
E
represents the number of E-eld lines
crossing a surface.
Mathematically:
Reminder: Vector of the area

A is perpendicular to the area A.
For non-uniform E-eld & surface, direction of the area vector

A is not
uniform.
d
A = Area vector for

small area element
dA
3.1. ELECTRIC FLUX 26
Electric ux d
E
=

E d
A
Electric ux of

E through surface S:
E
=
E d
S
= Surface integral over surface S
= Integration of integral over all area elements on surface S
Example:
E =
1
4
0
2q
r
2
r =
q
2
0
R
2
r
For a hemisphere, d
A = dA r
E
=
S
q
2
0
R
2
r (dA r) ( r r = 1)
=
q
2
0
R
2
S
dA
. .
2R
2
=
q
0
For a closed surface:
Recall: Direction of area vector d
A
goes from inside to outside of closed
surface S.
3.1. ELECTRIC FLUX 27
Electric ux over closed surface S:
E
=
E d
S
= Surface integral over closed surface S
Example:
Electric ux of charge q over closed
spherical surface of radius R.
E =
1
4
0
q
r
2
r =
q
4
0
R
2
r at the surface
Again, d
A = dA r

E
=
E
..
q
4
0
R
2
r
d
A
..
dA r
=
q
4
0
R
2
S
dA
. .
Total surface area of S = 4R
2
E
=
q
0
IMPORTANT POINT:
If we remove the spherical symmetry of closed surface S, the total number of
E-eld lines crossing the surface remains the same.
The electric ux
E
3.2. GAUSS LAW 28
E
=
E d
A =
E d
A =
q
0
3.2 Gauss Law
E
=
E d
A =
q
0
for any closed surface S
And q is the net electric charge enclosed in closed surface S.
Gauss Law is valid for all charge distributions and all closed surfaces.
(Gaussian surfaces)
Coulombs Law can be derived from Gauss Law.
For system with high order of symmetry, E-eld can be easily determined if
we construct Gaussian surfaces with the same symmetry and applies Gauss
Law
3.3 E-eld Calculation with Gauss Law
(A) Innite line of charge
Linear charge density:
Cylindrical symmetry.
E-eld directs radially outward from the
rod.
Construct a Gaussian surface S in the
shape of a cylinder, making up of a
curved surface S
1
, and the top and
bottom circles S
2
, S
3
.
Gauss Law:
E d
A =
Total charge
0
=
L
0
3.3. E-FIELD CALCULATION WITH GAUSS LAW 29
E d
A =
S
1
E d
A
. .
Ed
A
+
S
2
E d
A +
S
3
E d
A
. .
= 0
Ed
A
E
S
1
dA
. .
Total area of surface S
1
=
L
0
E(2rL) =
L
0
E =

2
0
r
(Compare with Chapter 2 note)
E =

2
0
r
r
(B) Innite sheet of charge
Uniform surface charge density:
Planar symmetry.
E-eld directs perpendicular to
the sheet of charge.
Construct Gaussian surface S in
the shape of a cylinder (pill
box) of cross-sectional area A.
Gauss Law:
E d
A =
A
S
1
E d
A = 0

E d
A over whole surface S

1
S
2
E d
A +
S
3
E d
A = 2EA (
E | d
A
2
,

E | d
A
3
)
3.3. E-FIELD CALCULATION WITH GAUSS LAW 30
Note: For S
2
, both

E and d
A
2
point up
For S
3
, both

E and d
A
3
point down
2EA =
A
0
E =

2
0
(Compare with Chapter 2 note)
(C) Uniformly charged sphere
Total charge = Q
Spherical symmetry.
(a) For r > R:
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface S of
radius r:
E | d
A | r
Gauss Law:
E d
A =
Q
S
E dA =
Q
0
E
S
dA
. .
surface area of S = 4r
2
=
Q

E =
Q
4
0
r
2
r ; for r > R
(b) For r < R:
Consider a spherical Gaussian surface S
of
radius r < R, then total charge included q is
proportional to the volume included by S
q
Q
=
Volume enclosed by S
Total volume of sphere

3.4. GAUSS LAW AND CONDUCTORS 31
q
Q
=
4/3 r
3
4/3 R
3
q =
r
3
R
3
Q
Gauss Law:
E d
A =
q
0
E
dA
. .
surface area of S
= 4r
2
=
r
3
R
3
1
0
Q

E =
1
4
0
Q
R
3
r r ; for r R
3.4 Gauss Law and Conductors
For isolated conductors, charges are free
to move until all charges lie outside the
surface of the conductor. Also, the E-
eld at the surface of a conductor is per-
pendicular to its surface. (Why?)
Consider Gaussian surface S of shape of cylinder:
E d
A =
A
0
BUT
S
1
E d
A = 0 (

E d
A )
S
3
E d
A = 0 (

E = 0 inside conductor )
S
2
E d
A = E
S
2
dA
. .
Area of S
2
(

E | d
A )
= EA
Gauss Law EA =
A
0
On conductors surface E =

0
BUT, theres no charge inside conductors.
Inside conductors E = 0 Always!
Notice: Surface charge density on a conductors surface is not uniform.
Example: Conductor with a charge inside
Note: This is not an isolated system (because of the charge inside).
Example:
I. Charge sprayed on a conductor sphere:
First, we know that charges all move
to the surface of conductors.
(i) For r < R:
Consider Gaussian surface S
2
S
2
E d
A = 0 ( no charge inside )
E = 0 everywhere.
(ii) For r R:
1
:
S
1
E d
A =
Q
0
E
S
1
d
A
. .
4r
2
=
Q
0
(
For a conductor
..
E | d
A| r
..
Spherically symmetric
)
E =
Q
4
0
r
2
II. Conductor sphere with hole inside:
1
: Total
charge included = 0
E-eld = 0 inside
The E-eld is identical to the case of a
solid conductor!!
III. A long hollow cylindrical conductor:
Example:
Inside hollow cylinder ( +2q )
_
Inner radius a
Outer radius b
Outside hollow cylinder ( 3q )
_
Inner radius c
Outer radius d
Question: Find the charge on each surface of the conductor.
For the inside hollow cylinder, charges distribute only on the sur-
face.
Inner radius a surface, charge = 0
and Outer radius b surface, charge = +2q
For the outside hollow cylinder, charges do not distribute only on
outside.
Its not an isolated system. (There are charges inside!)
inside the conductor:

E-eld always = 0
Need charge 2q on radius c surface to balance the charge of inner
cylinder.
So charge on radius d surface = q. (Why?)
IV. Large sheets of charge:
Total charge Q on sheet of area A,
Surface charge density =
Q
A
By principle of superposition
Region A: E = 0 E = 0
Region B: E =
Q
0
A
E =
Q
0
A
Region C: E = 0 E = 0
Chapter 4
Electric Potential
4.1 Potential Energy and Conservative Forces
(Read Halliday Vol.1 Chap.12)
Electric force is a conservative force
Work done by the electric force

F as a
charge moves an innitesimal distance ds
along Path A = dW
Note: ds is in the tangent direction of the curve of Path A.
dW =

F ds
Total work done W by force

F in moving the particle from Point 1 to Point 2
W =
2
1
F ds
Path A
2
1
= Path Integral
Path A
= Integration over Path A from Point 1 to Point 2.
4.1. POTENTIAL ENERGY AND CONSERVATIVE FORCES 37
DEFINITION: A force is conservative if the work done on a particle by
the force is independent of the path taken.
For conservative forces,
2
1
F ds =
2
1
F ds
Path A Path B
Lets consider a path starting at point
1 to 2 through Path A and from 2 to 1
through Path C
Work done =
2
1
F ds +
1
2
F ds
Path A Path C
=
2
1
F ds
2
1
F ds
Path A Path B
DEFINITION: The work done by a conservative force on a particle when it
moves around a closed path returning to its initial position is zero.
MATHEMATICALLY,

F = 0 everywhere for conservative force

F
Conclusion: Since the work done by a conservative force

F is path-independent,
we can dene a quantity, potential energy, that depends only on the
position of the particle.
Convention: We dene potential energy U such that
dU = W =

F ds
For particle moving from 1 to 2
2
1
dU = U
2
U
1
=
2
1
F ds
where U
1
, U
2
are potential energy at position 1, 2.
Example:
Suppose charge q
2
moves from point 1
to 2.
From denition: U
2
U
1
=
2
1
F dr
=
r
2
r
1
F dr (

F | dr )
=
r
2
r
1
1
4
0
q
1
q
2
r
2
dr
(
dr
r
2
=
1
r
+C ) =
1
4
0
q
1
q
2
r
r
2
r
1
W = U =
1
4
0
q
1
q
2
_
1
r
2
1
r
1
_
Note:
(1) This result is generally true for 2-Dimension or 3-D motion.
(2) If q
2
moves away from q
1
,
then r
2
> r
1
, we have
If q
1
, q
2
are of same sign,
then U < 0, W > 0
(W = Work done by electric repulsive force)
If q
1
, q
2
are of dierent sign,
then U > 0, W < 0
(W = Work done by electric attractive force)
(3) If q
2
moves towards q
1
,
then r
2
< r
1
, we have
If q
1
, q
2
are of same sign,
then U 0, W 0
If q
1
, q
2
are of dierent sign,
then U 0, W 0
(4) Note: It is the dierence in potential energy that is important.
REFERENCE POINT: U(r = ) = 0
U
U
1
=
1
4
0
q
1
q
2
_
1
r
2
1
r
1
_
U(r) =
1
4
0
q
1
q
2
r
If q
1
, q
2
same sign, then U(r) > 0 for all r
If q
1
, q
2
opposite sign, then U(r) < 0 for all r
(5) Conservation of Mechanical Energy:
For a system of charges with no external force,
E = K + U = Constant

(Kinetic Energy) (Potential Energy)
or E = K + U = 0
Potential Energy of A System of Charges
Example: P.E. of 3 charges q
1
, q
2
, q
3
Start: q
1
, q
2
, q
3
all at r = , U = 0
Step1: Move q
1
from to its position U = 0
Step2:
Move q
2
from to new position
U =
1
4
0
q
1
q
2
r
12
Step3:
Move q
3
from to new position Total P.E.
U =
1
4
0
_
q
1
q
2
r
12
+
q
1
q
3
r
13
+
q
2
q
3
r
23
_
Step4: What if there are 4 charges?
4.2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 40
4.2 Electric Potential
Consider a charge q at center, we consider its eect on test charge q
0
DEFINITION: We dene electric potential V so that
V =
U
q
0
=
W
q
0
( V is the P.E. per unit charge)
Similarly, we take V (r = ) = 0.
Electric Potential is a scalar.
Unit: V olt(V ) = Joules/Coulomb
For a single point charge:
V (r) =
1
4
0
q
r
Energy Unit: U = qV
electron V olt(eV ) = 1.6 10
19
. .
charge of electron
J
Potential For A System of Charges
For a total of N point charges, the po-
tential V at any point P can be derived
from the principle of superposition.
Recall that potential due to q
1
at
point P: V
1
=
1
4
0
q
1
r
1
Total potential at point P due to N charges:
V = V
1
+V
2
+ +V
N
(principle of superposition)
=
1
4
0
_
q
1
r
1
+
q
2
r
2
+ +
q
N
r
N
_
V =
1
4
0
N
i=1
q
i
r
i
Note: For

E,

F, we have a sum of vectors
For V, U, we have a sum of scalars
Example: Potential of an electric dipole
Consider the potential of
point P at distance x >
d
2
from dipole.
V =
1
4
0
_
+q
x
d
2
+
q
x +
d
2
_
Special Limiting Case: x d
1
x
d
2
=
1
x

1
1
d
2x
1
x
_
1
d
2x
_
V =
1
4
0
q
x
_
1 +
d
2x
(1
d
2x
)
_
V =
p
4
0
x
2
(Recall p = qd)
For a point charge E
1
r
2
V
1
r
For a dipole E
1
r
3
V
1
r
2
For a quadrupole E
1
r
4
V
1
r
3
Electric Potential of Continuous Charge Distribution
For any charge distribution, we write the electri-
cal potential dV due to innitesimal charge dq:
dV =
1
4
0
dq
r
V =
charge
distribution
1
4
0
dq
r
Similar to the previous examples on E-eld, for the case of uniform charge
distribution:
1-D long rod dq = dx
2-D charge sheet dq = dA
3-D uniformly charged body dq = dV
Example (1): Uniformly-charged ring
Length of the innitesimal ring element
= ds = Rd
charge dq = ds
= R d
dV =
1
4
0
dq
r
=
1
4
0
R d
R
2
+z
2
The integration is around the entire ring.
V =
ring
dV
=
2
0
1
4
0
R d
R
2
+z
2
=
R
4
0
R
2
+z
2
2
0
d
. .
2
Total charge on the
ring = (2R)
V =
Q
4
0
R
2
+z
2
LIMITING CASE: z R V =
Q
4
0
z
2
=
Q
4
0
[z[
Example (2): Uniformly-charged disk
Using the principle of superpo-
sition, we will nd the potential
of a disk of uniform charge den-
sity by integrating the potential of
concentric rings.
dV =
1
4
0
disk
dq
r
Ring of radius x: dq = dA = (2xdx)
V =
R
0
1
4
0
2x dx
x
2
+z
2
=

4
0
R
0
d(x
2
+z
2
)
(x
2
+z
2
)
1/2
V =

2
0
(
z
2
+R
2
z
2
)
=

2
0
(
z
2
+R
2
[z[)
Recall:
|x| =
_
+x; x 0
x; x < 0
Limiting Case:
(1) If [z[ R
z
2
+R
2
=
z
2
_
1 +
R
2
z
2
_
= [z[
_
1 +
R
2
z
2
_1
2
( (1 + x)
n
1 + nx if x 1 )
[z[
_
1 +
R
2
2z
2
_
(
[z[
z
2
=
1
[z[
)
At large z, V

2
0
R
2
2[z[
=
Q
4
0
[z[
(like a point charge)
where Q = total charge on disk = R
2
(2) If [z[ R
z
2
+R
2
= R
_
1 +
z
2
R
2
_1
2
R
_
1 +
z
2
2R
2
_
V

2
0
_
R [z[ +
z
2
2R
_
At z = 0, V =
R
2
0
; Lets call this V
0
V (z) =
R
2
0
_
1
[z[
R
+
z
2
2R
2
_
V (z) = V
0
_
1
[z[
R
+
z
2
2R
2
_
The key here is that it is the dierence between potentials of two points
that is important.
A convenience reference point to compare in this example is the
potential of the charged disk.
The important quantity here is
V (z) V
0
=
[z[
R
V
0
+
&
&
&
&
z
2
2R
2
V
0
neglected as z R
V (z) V
0
=
V
0
R
[z[
4.3. RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD E AND ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL V 45
4.3 Relation Between Electric Field E and Elec-
tric Potential V
(A) To get V from

E:
Recall our denition of the potential V:
V =
U
q
0
=
W
12
q
0
where U is the change in P.E.; W
12
is the work done in bringing charge
q
0
from point 1 to 2.
V = V
2
V
1
=

2
1
F ds
q
0
However, the denition of E-eld:

F = q
0
E
V = V
2
V
1
=
2
1
E ds
Note: The integral on the right hand side of the above can be calculated
along any path from point 1 to 2. (Path-Independent)
Convention: V
= 0 V
P
=
E ds
(B) To get

E from V :
Again, use the denition of V :
U = q
0
V = W
. .
Work done
However,
W = q
0
E
..
Electric force
s
= q
0
E
s
s
where E
s
is the E-eld component along
the path s.
q
0
V = q
0
E
s
s
POTENTIAL V 46
E
s
=
V
s
For innitesimal s,
E
s
=
dV
ds
Note: (1) Therefore the E-eld component along any direction is the neg-
tive derivative of the potential along the same direction.
(2) If ds

E, then V = 0
(3) V is biggest/smallest if ds |

E
Generally, for a potential V (x, y, z), the relation between

E(x, y, z) and V
is
E
x
=
V
x
E
y
=
V
y
E
z
=
V
z
x
,

y
,

z
are partial derivatives
For

x
V (x, y, z), everything y, z are treated like a constant and we only
take derivative with respect to x.
Example: If V (x, y, z) = x
2
y z
V
x
=
V
y
=
V
z
=
For other co-ordinate systems
(1) Cylindrical:
V (r, , z)
_
_
E
r
=
V
r
E
=
1
r

V
E
z
=
V
z
POTENTIAL V 47
(2) Spherical:
V (r, , )
_
_
E
r
=
V
r
E
=
1
r

V
=
1
r sin

V
Note: Calculating V involves summation of scalars, which is easier than

adding vectors for calculating E-eld.
To nd the E-eld of a general charge system, we rst calculate
V , and then derive

E from the partial derivative.
Example: Uniformly charged disk
From potential calculations:
V =

2
0
(
R
2
+z
2
[z[ )
for a point along
the z-axis
For z > 0, [z[ = z
E
z
=
V
z
=

2
0
_
1
z
R
2
+z
2
_
(Compare with
Chap.2 notes)
Example: Uniform electric eld
(e.g. Uniformly charged +ve and ve plates)
Consider a path going from the ve
plate to the +ve plate
Potential at point P, V
P
can be deduced
from denition.
i.e. V
P
V
s
0
E ds
(V
= Potential of
ve plate)
=
s
0
(E ds)

E, ds pointing
opposite directions
= E
s
0
ds = Es
Convenient reference: V
= 0
V
P
= E s
4.4. EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES 48
4.4 Equipotential Surfaces
Equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential is constant.
(V = 0)
V (r) =
1
4
0
+q
r
= const
r = const
Equipotential surfaces are
circles/spherical surfaces
Note: (1) A charge can move freely on an equipotential surface without any
work done.
(2) The electric eld lines must be perpendicular to the equipotential
surfaces. (Why?)
On an equipotential surface, V = constant
V = 0

E d
l = 0, where d
l is tangent to equipotential surface

E must be perpendicular to equipotential surfaces.
Example: Uniformly charged surface (innite)
Recall V = V
0

2
0
[z[
Potential at z = 0
Equipotential surface means
V = const V
0

2
0
[z[ = C
[z[ = constant
Example: Isolated spherical charged conductors
Recall:
(1) E-eld inside = 0
(2) charge distributed on the
outside of conductors.
(i) Inside conductor:
E = 0 V = 0 everywhere in conductor
V = constant everywhere in conductor
The entire conductor is at the same potential
(ii) Outside conductor:
V =
Q
4
0
r
Spherically symmetric (Just like a point charge.)
BUT not true for conductors of arbitrary shape.
Example: Connected conducting spheres
Two conductors con-
nected can be seen as a
single conductor
Potential everywhere is identical.
Potential of radius R
1
sphere V
1
=
q
1
4
0
R
1
Potential of radius R
2
sphere V
2
=
q
2
4
0
R
2
V
1
= V
2
q
1
R
1
=
q
2
R
2
q
1
q
2
=
R
1
R
2
Surface charge density
1
=
q
1
4R
2
1
. .
Surface area of radius R
1
sphere
2
=
q
1
q
2
R
2
2
R
2
1
=
R
2
R
1
If R
1
< R
2
, then
1
>
2
And the surface electric eld E
1
> E
2
For arbitrary shape conductor:
At every point on the conductor,
we t a circle. The radius of this
circle is the radius of curvature.
Note: Charge distribution on a conductor does not have to be uniform.
Chapter 5
Capacitance and DC Circuits
5.1 Capacitors
A capacitor is a system of two conductors that carries equal and opposite
charges. A capacitor stores charge and energy in the form of electro-static eld.
We dene capacitance as
C =
Q
V
Unit: Farad(F)
where
Q = Charge on one plate
V = Potential dierence between the plates
Note: The C of a capacitor is a constant that depends only on its shape and
material.
i.e. If we increase V for a capacitor, we can increase Q stored.
5.2 Calculating Capacitance
5.2.1 Parallel-Plate Capacitor
5.2. CALCULATING CAPACITANCE 52
(1) Recall from Chapter 3 note,
[
E[ =

0
=
Q
0
A
(2) Recall from Chapter 4 note,
V = V
+
V
E ds
Again, notice that this integral is independent of the path taken.
We can take the path that is parallel to the

E-eld.
V =
E ds
=

+
E ds
=
Q
0
A

+
ds
. .
Length of path taken
=
Q
0
A
d
(3) C =
Q
V
=

0
A
d
5.2.2 Cylindrical Capacitor
Consider two concentric cylindrical wire
of innner and outer radii r
1
and r
2
re-
spectively. The length of the capacitor
is L where r
1
< r
2
L.
5.2. CALCULATING CAPACITANCE 53
(1) Using Gauss Law, we determine that the E-eld between the conductors
is (cf. Chap3 note)
E =
1
2
0

r
r =
1
2
0
Q
Lr
r
where is charge per unit length
(2)
V =
E ds
Again, we choose the path of integration so that ds | r |

E
V =
r
2
r
1
E dr =
Q
2
0
L
r
2
r
1
dr
r
. .
ln(
r
2
r
1
)
C =
Q
V
= 2
0
L
ln(r
2
/r
1
)
5.2.3 Spherical Capacitor
For the space between the two conductors,
E =
1
4
0
Q
r
2
; r
1
< r < r
2
V =
E ds
Choose ds | r =
r
2
r
1
1
4
0
Q
r
2
dr
=
Q
4
0
_
1
r
1
1
r
2
_
C = 4
0
_
r
1
r
2
r
2
r
1
_
5.3. CAPACITORS IN COMBINATION 54
5.3 Capacitors in Combination
(a) Capacitors in Parallel
In this case, its the potential dierence
V = V
a
V
b
that is the same across the
capacitor.
BUT: Charge on each capacitor dierent
Total charge Q = Q
1
+Q
2
= C
1
V +C
2
V
Q = (C
1
+C
2
)
. .
Equivalent capacitance
V
For capacitors in parallel: C = C
1
+C
2
(b) Capacitors in Series
The charge across capacitors are
the same.
BUT: Potential dierence (P.D.) across capacitors dierent
V
1
= V
a
V
c
=
Q
C
1
P.D. across C
1
V
2
= V
c
V
b
=
Q
C
2
P.D. across C
2
Potential dierence
V = V
a
V
b
= V
1
+ V
2
V = Q(
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
) =
Q
C
where C is the Equivalent Capacitance
1
C
=
1
C
1
+
1
C
2
5.4. ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITOR 55
5.4 Energy Storage in Capacitor
In charging a capacitor, positive charge
is being moved from the negative plate
to the positive plate.
NEEDS WORK DONE!
Suppose we move charge dq from ve to +ve plate, change in potential energy
dU = V dq =
q
C
dq
Suppose we keep putting in a total charge Q to the capacitor, the total potential
energy
U =
dU =
Q
0
q
C
dq
U =
Q
2
2C
=
1
2
CV
2
( Q=CV )
The energy stored in the capacitor is stored in the electric eld between the
plates.
Note : In a parallel-plate capacitor, the E-eld is constant between the plates.
We can consider the E-eld energy
density u =
Total energy stored
Total volume with E-eld
u =
U
Ad
..
Rectangular volume
Recall
_
_
C =

0
A
d
E =
V
d
V = Ed
u =
1
2
(
C
..
0
A
d
) (
(V )
2
..
Ed )
2
1
V olume
..
1
Ad
5.4. ENERGY STORAGE IN CAPACITOR 56
u =
1
2

0
E
2
Energy per unit volume
of the electrostatic eld
can be generally applied

Example : Changing capacitance
(1) Isolated Capacitor:
Charge on the capacitor plates remains constant.
BUT: C
new
=

0
A
2d
=
1
2
C
old
U
new
=
Q
2
2C
new
=
Q
2
2C
old
/2
= 2U
old
In pulling the plates apart, work done W > 0
Summary :
Q Q C C/2
(V =
Q
C
) V 2V E E (E =
V
d
)
1
2

0
E
2
= u u U 2U (U = u volume)
(2) Capacitor connected to a battery:
Potential dierence between capacitor plates remains constant.
U
new
=
1
2
C
new
V
2
=
1
2

1
2
C
old
V
2
=
1
2
U
old
In pulling the plates apart, work done by battery < 0
Summary :
Q Q/2 C C/2
V V E E/2
u u/4 U U/2
5.5. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 57
5.5 Dielectric Constant
We rst recall the case for a conductor being placed in an external E-eld E
0
.
In a conductor, charges are free to move
inside so that the internal E-eld E
set
up by these charges
E
= E
0
so that E-eld inside conductor = 0.
Generally, for dielectric, the atoms and
molecules behave like a dipole in an E-eld.
Or, we can envision this so that in the absence of E-eld, the direction of dipole
in the dielectric are randomly distributed.
5.6. CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC 58
The aligned dipoles will generate an induced E-eld E
, where [E
[ < [E
0
[.
We can observe the aligned dipoles in the form of induced surface charge.
Dielectric Constant : When a dielectric is placed in an external E-eld E
0
,
the E-eld inside a dielectric is induced.
E-eld in dielectric
E =
1
K
e
E
0
K
e
= dielectric constant 1
Example :
Vacuum K
e
= 1
Porcelain K
e
= 6.5
Water K
e
80
Perfect conductor K
e
=
Air K
e
= 1.00059
5.6 Capacitor with Dielectric
Case I :
Again, the charge remains constant after dielectric is inserted.
BUT: E
new
=
1
K
e
E
old
V = Ed V
new
=
1
K
e
V
old
C =
Q
V
C
new
= K
e
C
old
For a parallel-plate capacitor with dielectric:
C =
K
e
0
A
d
5.6. CAPACITOR WITH DIELECTRIC 59
We can also write C =
A
d
in general with
= K
e
0
(called permittivity of dielectric)
(Recall
0
= Permittivity of free space)
Energy stored U =
Q
2
2C
;
U
new
=
1
K
e
U
old
< U
old
Work done in inserting dielectric < 0
Case II : Capacitor connected to a battery
Voltage across capacitor plates remains constant after insertion of dielec-
tric.
In both scenarios, the E-eld inside capacitor remains constant
( E = V/d)
BUT: How can E-eld remain constant?
ANSWER: By having extra charge on capacitor plates.
Recall: For conductors,
E =

0
(Chapter 3 note)
E =
Q
0
A
( = charge per unit area = Q/A)
After insertion of dielectric:
E
=
E
K
e
=
Q
K
e
0
A
But E-eld remains constant!
E
= E
Q
K
e
0
A
=
Q
0
A
Q
= K
e
Q > Q
5.7. GAUSS LAW IN DIELECTRIC 60
Capacitor C = Q/V C
K
e
C
Energy stored U =
1
2
CV
2
U
K
e
U
(i.e. U
new
> U
old
)
Work done to insert dielectric > 0
5.7 Gauss Law in Dielectric
The Gauss Law weve learned is applicable in vacuum only. Lets use the capac-
itor as an example to examine Gauss Law in dielectric.
Free charge
on plates
Q Q
Induced charge
on dielectric
0 Q
Gauss Law Gauss Law:
E d
A =
Q
A =
QQ
0
E
0
=
Q
0
A
(1) E
=
QQ
0
A
(2)
However, we dene E
=
E
0
K
e
(3)
From (1), (2), (3)
Q
K
e
0
A
=
Q
0
A

Q
0
A
Induced charge density
=
Q
A
=
_
1
1
K
e
_
<
where is free charge density.
Recall Gauss Law in Dielectric:
A = Q Q

E-eld in dielectric free charge induced charge
5.8. OHMS LAW AND RESISTANCE 61

0
A = QQ
_
1
1
K
e
_

0
A =
Q
K
e
S
K
e
A =
Q
0
Gauss Law
in dielectric
Note :
(1) This goes back to the Gauss Law in vacuum with E =
E
0
K
e
for dielectric
(2) Only free charges need to be considered, even for dielectric where there
are induced charges.
(3) Another way to write:
E d
A =
Q
where

E is E-eld in dielectric, = K
e
0
is Permittivity
Energy stored with dielectric:
Total energy stored: U =
1
2
CV
2
With dielectric, recall C =
K
e
0
A
d
V = Ed
Energy stored per unit volume:
u
e
=
U
Ad
=
1
2
K
e
0
E
2
and u
dielectric
= K
e
u
vacuum
More energy is stored per unit volume in dielectric than in vacuum.
5.8 Ohms Law and Resistance
ELECTRIC CURRENT is dened as the ow of electric charge through a
cross-sectional area.
i =
dQ
dt
Unit: Ampere (A)
= C/second
Convention :
(1) Direction of current is the direction of ow of positive charge.
(2) Current is NOT a vector, but the current density is a vector.
j = charge ow per unit time per unit area

i =

j d
A
Drift Velocity :
Consider a current i owing through
a cross-sectional area A:
In time t, total charges passing through segment:
Q = q A(V
d
t)
. .
Volume of charge
passing through
n
where q is charge of the current carrier, n is density of charge carrier
per unit volume
Current: i =
Q
t
= nqAv
d
Current Density:

j = nqv
d
Note : For metal, the charge carriers are the free electrons inside.

j = nev
d
for metals
Inside metals,

j and v
d
are in opposite direction.
We dene a general property, conductivity (), of a material as:
j =
E
Note : In general, is NOT a constant number, but rather a function of position
and applied E-eld.
A more commonly used property, resistivity (), is dened as =
1

E =
j
Unit of : Ohm-meter (m)
where Ohm () = Volt/Ampere
OHMS LAW:
Ohmic materials have resistivity that are independent of the applied electric eld.
i.e. metals (in not too high E-eld)
Example :
Consider a resistor (ohmic material) of
length L and cross-sectional area A.
Electric eld inside conductor:
V =

E ds = E L E =
V
L
Current density: j =
i
A
=
E
j
=
V
L

1
i/A
V
i
= R =
L
A
where R is the resistance of the conductor.
Note: V = iR is NOT a statement of Ohms Law. Its just a denition for
resistance.
5.9. DC CIRCUITS 64
ENERGY IN CURRENT:
Assuming a charge Q enters
with potential V
1
and leaves with
potential V
2
:
Potential energy lost in the wire:
U = QV
2
QV
1
U = Q(V
2
V
1
)
Rate of energy lost per unit time
U
t
=
Q
t
(V
2
V
1
)
Joules heating P = i V =
Power dissipated
in conductor
For a resistor R, P = i
2
R =
V
2
R
5.9 DC Circuits
A battery is a device that supplies electrical energy to maintain a current in a
circuit.
In moving from point 1 to 2, elec-
tric potential energy increase by
U = Q(V
2
V
1
) = Work done by c
Dene c = Work done/charge = V
2
V
1
5.9. DC CIRCUITS 65
Example :
V
a
= V
c
V
b
= V
d
_
assuming
(1)
perfect conducting wires.
By Denition: V
c
V
d
= iR
V
a
V
b
= c
c = iR i =
c
R
Also, we have assumed
(2)
zero resistance inside battery.
Resistance in combination :
Potential dierece (P.D.)
V
a
V
b
= (V
a
V
c
) + (V
c
V
b
)
= iR
1
+iR
2
Equivalent Resistance
R = R
1
+R
2
for resistors in series
1
R
=
1
R
1
+
1
R
2
for resistors in parallel
5.9. DC CIRCUITS 66
Example :
For real battery, there is an
internal resistance that
we cannot ignore.
c = i(R +r)
i =
c
R +r
Joules heating in resistor R :
P = i (P.D. across resistor R)
= i
2
R
P =
c
2
R
(R +r)
2
Question: What is the value of R to obtain maximum Joules heating?
Answer: We want to nd R to maximize P.
dP
dR
=
c
2
(R +r)
2

c
2
2R
(R +r)
3
Setting
dP
dR
= 0
c
2
(R +r)
3
[(R +r) 2R] = 0
r R = 0
R = r
5.9. DC CIRCUITS 67
ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX CIRCUITS:
KIRCHOFFS LAWS:
(1) First Law (Junction Rule):
Total current entering a junction equal to the total current leaving the
junction.
(2) Second Law (Loop Rule):
The sum of potential dierences around a complete circuit loop is zero.
Convention :
(i)
V
a
> V
b
Potential dierence = iR
i.e. Potential drops across resistors
(ii)
V
b
> V
a
Potential dierence = +c
i.e. Potential rises across the negative plate of the battery.
Example :
5.9. DC CIRCUITS 68
By junction rule:
i
1
= i
2
+i
3
(5.1)
By loop rule:
Loop A 2c
0
i
1
R i
2
R +c
0
i
1
R = 0 (5.2)
Loop B i
3
R c
0
i
3
R c
0
+i
2
R = 0 (5.3)
Loop C 2c
0
i
1
R i
3
R c
0
i
3
R i
1
R = 0 (5.4)
BUT: (5.4) = (5.2) + (5.3)
General rule: Need only 3 equations for 3 current
i
1
= i
2
+i
3
(5.1)
3c
0
2i
1
R i
2
R = 0 (5.2)
2c
0
+i
2
R 2i
3
R = 0 (5.3)
Substitute (5.1) into (5.2) :
3c
0
2(i
2
+i
3
)R i
2
R = 0
3c
0
3i
2
R 2i
3
R = 0 (5.4)
Subtract (5.3) from (5.4), i.e. (5.4)(5.3)
3c
0
(2c
0
) 3i
2
R i
2
R = 0
i
2
=
5
4

c
0
R
Substitute i
2
into (5.3) :
2c
0
+
_
5
4

c
0
R
_
R 2i
3
R = 0
5.10. RC CIRCUITS 69
i
3
=
3
8

c
0
R
Substitute i
2
, i
3
into (5.1) :
i
1
=
_
5
4

3
8
_
c
0
R
=
7
8

c
0
R
Note: A negative current means that it is owing in opposite direction from the
one assumed.
5.10 RC Circuits
(A) Charging a capacitor with battery:
Using the loop rule:
+c
0
iR
..
P.D.
across R
Q
C
..
P.D.
across C
= 0
Note: Direction of i is chosen so that the current represents the rate at
which the charge on the capacitor is increasing.
c = R
i
..
dQ
dt
+
Q
C
1st order
dierential eqn.
dQ
cC Q
=
dt
RC
Integrate both sides and use the initial condition:
t = 0, Q on capacitor = 0
Q
0
dQ
cC Q
=
t
0
dt
RC
ln(cC Q)
Q
0
=
t
RC
t
0
ln(cC Q) + ln(cC) =
t
RC
ln
_
1
1
Q
EC
_
=
t
RC
1
1
Q
EC
= e
t/RC
Q
cC
= 1 e
t/RC
Q(t) = cC(1 e
t/RC
)
Note: (1) At t = 0 , Q(t = 0) = cC(1 1) = 0
(2) As t , Q(t ) = cC(1 0) = cC
= Final charge on capacitor (Q
0
)
(3) Current:
i =
dQ
dt
= cC
_
1
RC
_
e
t/RC
i(t) =
c
R
e
t/RC
_
_
_
i(t = 0) =
c
R
= Initial current = i
0
i(t ) = 0
(4) At time = 0, the capacitor acts like short circuit when there is
zero charge on the capacitor.
(5) As time , the capacitor is fully charged and current = 0, it
acts like a open circuit.
(6)
c
= RC is called the time constant. Its the time it takes for
the charge to reach (1
1
e
) Q
0
0.63Q
0
(B) Discharging a charged capacitor:
Note: Direction of i is chosen so that the current represents the rate at
which the charge on the capacitor is decreasing.
i =
dQ
dt
Loop Rule:
V
c
iR = 0
Q
C
+
dQ
dt
R = 0
dQ
dt
=
1
RC
Q
Integrate both sides and use the initial condition:
t = 0, Q on capacitor = Q
0
Q
Q
0
dQ
Q
=
1
RC
t
0
dt
ln Qln Q
0
=
t
RC
ln
_
Q
Q
0
_
=
t
RC
Q
Q
0
= e
t/RC
Q(t) = Q
0
e
t/RC
(i =
dQ
dt
) i(t) =
Q
0
RC
e
t/RC
(At t = 0) i(t = 0) =
1
R

Q
0
C
..
Initial P.D. across capacitor
i
0
=
V
0
R
At t = RC = Q(t = RC) =
1
e
Q
0
0.37Q
0
Chapter 6
Magnetic Force
6.1 Magnetic Field
For stationary charges, they experienced an electric force in an electric eld.
For moving charges, they experienced a magnetic force in a magnetic eld.
Mathematically,

F
E
= q
E (electric force)
F
B
= qv

B (magnetic force)
Direction of the magnetic force determined from right hand rule.
Magnetic eld

B : Unit = Tesla (T)
1T = 1C moving at 1m/s experiencing 1N
Common Unit: 1 Gauss (G) = 10
4
T magnetic eld on earths surface
Example: Whats the force on a 0.1C charge moving at velocity v = (10
j
20
k)ms
1
in a magnetic eld

B = (3
i + 4
k) 10
4
T
F = qv

B
6.1. MAGNETIC FIELD 74
= +0.1 (10
j 20
k) (3
i + 4
k) 10
4
N
= 10
5
(30
k + 40
i + 60
j + 0)N
Eects of magnetic eld is usually quite small.
F = qv

B
[
F[ = qvBsin , where is the angle between v and

B
Magnetic force is maximum when = 90
(i.e. v

B)
Magnetic force is minimum (0) when = 0
, 180
(i.e. v |

B)
Graphical representation of B-eld: Magnetic eld lines
Compared with Electric eld lines:
Similar characteristics :
(1) Direction of E-eld/B-eld indicated by tangent of the eld lines.
(2) Magnitude of E-eld/B-eld indicated by density of the eld lines.
Diereces :
(1)

F
E
| E-eld lines;

F
B
B-eld lines
(2) E-eld line begins at positive charge and ends at negative charge; B-
eld line forms a closed loop.
Example : Chap35, Pg803 Halliday
Note: Isolated magnetic monopoles do not exist.
6.2. MOTION OF A POINT CHARGE IN MAGNETIC FIELD 75
6.2 Motion of A Point Charge in Magnetic Field
Since

F
B
v, therefore B-eld only changes the direction of the velocity but not
its magnitude.
Generally,

F
B
= qv

B = q v
B ,
We only need to consider the motion
component to B-eld.
We have circular motion. Magnetic
force provides the centripetal force on the
moving charge particles.
F
B
= m
v
2
r
[q[ vB = m
v
2
r
r =
mv
[q[B
where r is radius of circular motion.
Time for moving around one orbit:
T =
2r
v
=
2m
qB
Cyclotron Period
(1) Independent of v (non-relativistic)
(2) Use it to measure m/q
Generally, charged particles with con-
stant velocity moves in helix in the pres-
ence of constant B-eld.
6.3. HALL EFFECT 76
Note :
(1) B-eld does NO work on particles.
(2) B-eld does NOT change K.E. of particles.
Particle Motion in Presence of E-eld & B-eld:
F = q
E +qv

B Lorentz Force
Special Case :

E

B
When [
F
E
[ = [
F
B
[
qE = qvB
v =
E
B
For charged particles moving at v = E/B, they will pass through the
crossed E and B elds without vertical displacement.
velocity selector
Applications :
Cyclotron (Lawrence & Livingston 1934)
Measuring e/m for electrons (Thomson 1897)
Mass Spectrometer (Aston 1919)
6.3 Hall Eect
Charges travelling in a conducting wire will be pushed to one side of the wire by
the external magnetic eld. This separation of charge in the wire is called the
Hall Eect.
6.3. HALL EFFECT 77
The separation will stop when F
B
experienced by the current carrier is balanced
by the force

F
H
caused by the E-eld set up by the separated charges.
Dene :
V
H
= Hall Voltage
= Potential dierence across the conducting strip
E-eld from separated charges: E
H
=
V
H
W
where W = width of conducting strip
In equilibrium: q
E
H
+qv
d

B = 0, where v
d
is drift velocity
V
H
W
= v
d
B
Recall from Chapter 5,
i = nqAv
d
where n is density of charge carrier,
A is cross-sectional area = width thickness = W t
V
H
W
=
i
nqWt
B
n =
iB
qtV
H
To determine density
of charge carriers
Suppose we determine n for a particular metal ( q = e), then we can measure
B-eld strength by measuring the Hall voltage:
B =
net
i
V
H
6.4. MAGNETIC FORCE ON CURRENTS 78
6.4 Magnetic Force on Currents
Current = many charges moving together
Consider a wire segment, length L,
carrying current i in a magnetic eld.
Total magnetic force = ( qv
d

B
. .
force on one
charge carrier
) n A L
. .
Total number of
charge carrier
Recall i = nqv
d
A
Magnetic force on current

F = i
L

B
where

L = Vector of which: [
L[ = length of current segment; direction =

direction of current
For an innitesimal wire segment d
l
d
F = i d
l

B
Example 1: Force on a semicircle current loop
d
l = Innitesimal
arc length element

B
dl = Rd
dF = iRBd
By symmetry argument, we only need to consider vertical forces, dF sin
Net force F =

0
dF sin
= iRB

0
sin d
F = 2iRB (downward)
Method 2: Write d
l in

i,
j components
d
l = dl sin
i +dl cos
j
= Rd (sin
i + cos
j)
B = B

k (into the page)
d
F = i d
l

B
= iRBsin d
j iRBcos

F =

0
d
F
= iRB
_

0
sin d
j +

0
cos d
i
_
= 2iRB
j
Example 2: Current loop in B-eld
For segment2:
F
2
= ibBsin(90
+) = ibBcos (pointing downward)

For segment4:
F
2
= ibBsin(90
) = ibBcos (pointing upward)

For segment1: F
1
= iaB
For segment3: F
3
= iaB
Net force on the current loop = 0
But, net torque on the loop about O
=
1
+
3
= iaB
b
2
sin +iaB
b
2
sin
= i ab
..
A = area of loop
Bsin
Suppose the loop is a coil with N turns of wires:
Total torque = NiABsin
Dene: Unit vector n to represent the area-vector (using right hand rule)
Then we can rewrite the torque equation as
= NiA n

B
Dene: NiA n = = Magnetic dipole moment of loop
=

B
Chapter 7
Magnetic Field
7.1 Magnetic Field
A moving charge
_
_
experiences magnetic force in B-eld.
can generate B-eld.
Magnetic eld

B due to moving point charge:
B =

0
4

qv r
r
2
=

0
4

qv r
r
3
where
0
= 4 10
7
Tm/A (N/A
2
)
Permeability of free space (Magnetic constant)
[
B[ =

0
4

qv sin
r
2
_
maximum when = 90
minimum when = 0
/180
B at P
0
= 0 =

B at P
1
B at P
2
<

B at P
3
However, a single moving charge will NOT generate a steady magnetic eld.
stationary charges generate steady E-eld.
steady currents generate steady B-eld.
Magnetic eld at point P can be
obtained by integrating the contribu-
tion from individual current segments.
(Principle of Superposition)
d
B =

0
4

dq v r
r
2
Notice: dq v = dq
ds
dt
= i ds
d
B =

0
4

i ds r
r
2
Biot-Savart Law
For current around a whole circuit:
B =
entire
circuit
d
B =
entire
circuit
0
4

i ds r
r
2
Biot-Savart Law is to magnetic eld as
Coulombs Law is to electric eld.
Basic element of E-eld: Electric charges dq
Basic element of B-eld: Current element i ds
Example 1 : Magnetic eld due to straight current segment
[ds r[ = dz sin
= dz sin( ) (Trigonometry Identity)
= dz
d
r
=
d dz
d
2
+z
2
dB =

0
4

i dz
r
2

d
r
=

0
i
4

d
(d
2
+z
2
)
3/2
dz
B =
L/2
L/2
dB =

0
id
4
+L/2
L/2
dz
(d
2
+z
2
)
3/2
B =

0
i
4d

z
(z
2
+d
2
)
1/2
+L/2
L/2
B =

0
i
4d

L
(
L
2
4
+d
2
)
1/2
Limiting Cases : When L d (B-eld due to long wire)
_
L
2
4
+d
2
_
1/2
_
L
2
4
_
1/2
=
2
L
B =

0
i
2d
;
direction of B-eld determined
from right-hand screw rule
Recall : E =

2
0
d
for an innite long line of charge.
Example 2 : A circular current loop
Notice that for every current element ids
1
, generating a magnetic eld d
B
1
at point P, there is an opposite current element ids
2
, generating B-eld
d
B
2
so that
d
B
1
sin = d
B
2
sin
Only vertical component of B-eld needs to be considered at point P.
dB =

0
4

i ds sin
ds r
..
90
r
2
B-eld at point P:
B =
around
circuit
dB cos
. .
consider vertical
component
B =
2
0
i cos
4r
2
ds
..
Rd
=

0
i
4

R
r
3
2
0
ds
. .
Integrate around circum-
ference of circle = 2R
B =

0
iR
2
2r
3
B =

0
iR
2
2(R
2
+z
2
)
3/2
;
Limiting Cases :
(1) B-eld at center of loop:
z = 0 B =

0
i
2R
(2) For z R,
B =

0
iR
2
2z
3
_
1 +
R
2
z
2
_
3/2

0
iR
2
2z
3

1
z
3
Recall E-eld for an electric dipole: E =
p
4
0
x
3
A circular current loop is also called a magnetic dipole.
(3) A current arc:
B =
around
circuit
dB cos
. .
z = 0
= 0 here.
=

0
i
4

R
r
3
..
R = r
when = 0
R = length of arc
..

0
ds
..
Rd
B =

0
i
4R
Example 3 : Magnetic eld of a solenoid
Solenoid is used to produce a strong and uniform magnetic eld inside its
coils.
Consider a solenoid of length L consisting of N turns of wire.
Dene: n = Number of turns per unit length =
N
L
Consider B-eld at distance d from the
center of the solenoid:
For a segment of length dz, number of
current turns = ndz
Total current = ni dz
7.2. PARALLEL CURRENTS 86
Using the result from one coil in Example 2, we get B-eld from coils of
length dz at distance z from center:
dB =

0
(ni dz)R
2
2r
3
However r =
_
R
2
+ (z d)
2
B =
+L/2
L/2
dB
(Integrating over the
entire solenoid)
=

0
niR
2
2
+L/2
L/2
dz
[R
2
+ (z d)
2
]
3/2
B =

0
ni
2
_
_
L
2
+d
_
R
2
+ (
L
2
+d)
2
+
L
2
d
_
R
2
+ (
L
2
d)
2
_
_
along negative z direction
Ideal Solenoid :
L R
then B =

0
ni
2
[1 + 1]
B =
0
ni ;
Question : What is the B-eld at the end of an ideal solenoid? B=
0
ni
2
7.2 Parallel Currents
Magnetic eld at point P

B due to two
currents i
1
and i
2
is the vector sum of
the

B elds

B
1
,

B
2
due to individual cur-
rents. (Principle of Superposition)
7.2. PARALLEL CURRENTS 87
Force Between Parallel Currents :
Consider a segment of length L on i
2
:
B
1
=

0
i
1
2d
(pointing down)

B
2
=

0
i
1
2d
(pointing up)
Force on i
2
coming from i
1
:
[
F
21
[ = i
2
L

B
1
=

0
Li
1
i
2
2d
= [
F
12
[ (Def n of ampere, A)
Parallel currents attract, anti-parallel currents repel.
Example : Sheet of current
Consider an innitesimal wire of width dx at position x, there exists another
element at x so that vertical

B-eld components of

B
+x
and

B
x
cancel.
Magnetic eld due to dx wire:
dB =

0
di
2r
where di = i
_
dx
a
_
Total B-eld (pointing along x axis) at point P:
B =
+a/2
a/2
dBcos =
+a/2
a/2
0
i
2a

dx
r
cos
7.3. AMP
`
ERES LAW 88
Variable transformation (Goal: change r, x to d, , then integrate over ):
_
d = r cos r = d sec
x = d tan dx = d sec
2
d
Limits of integration:
0
to
0
, where tan
0
=
a
2d
B =

0
i
2a
0
d sec
2
d
d sec
cos
=

0
i
2a
0
d
B =

0
i
0
a
=

0
i
a
tan
1
_
a
2d
_
Limiting Cases :
(1) d a
tan =
a
2d

a
2d
B =

0
i
2a
B-eld due to
innite long wire
(2) d a (Innite sheet of current)
tan =
a
2d
=

2
B =

0
i
2a
Constant!
Question : Large sheet of opposite owing currents.
Whats the B-eld between & outside the sheets?
7.3 Amp` eres Law
In our study of electricity, we notice that the inverse square force law leads
to Gauss Law, which is useful for nding E-eld for systems with high level of
symmetry.
For magnetism, Gauss Law is simple
7.3. AMP
`
ERES LAW 89
B d
A = 0
There is no mag-
netic monopole.
A more useful law for calculating B-eld for highly symmetric situations is the
Amp` eres Law:
B ds =
0
i
C
= Line intefral evaluated around a closed loop C (Amperian curve)
i = Net current that penetrates the area bounded by curve C
(topological property)
Convention : Use the right-hand screw rule to determine the sign of current.
B ds =
0
(i
1
i
3
+i
4
i
4
)
=
0
(i
1
i
3
)
Applications of the Amperes Law :
(1) Long-straight wire
Construct an Amperian
curve of radius d:
By symmetry argument, we know

B-eld only has tangential compo-
nent
B ds =
0
i
7.3. AMP
`
ERES LAW 90
Take ds to be the tangential vector around the circular path:

B ds = Bds
B
C
ds
. .
Circumference
of circle = 2d
=
0
i
B(2d) =
0
i
B-eld due to long,
straight current
B =

0
i
2d
(Compare with 7.1 Example 1)
(2) Inside a current-carrying wire
Again, symmetry argument
implies that

B is tangential
to the Amperian curve and
B B(r)
Consider an Amperian curve of radius r(< R)
B ds = B
ds = B(2r) =
0
i
included
But i
included
cross-sectional area of C
i
included
i
=
r
2
R
2
i
included
=
r
2
R
2
i
B =

0
i
2R
2
r r
Recall: Uniformly charged innite long rod
(3) Solenoid (Ideal)
Consider the rectangular
Amperian curve 1234.
7.3. AMP
`
ERES LAW 91
B ds =
B ds +
&
&
&
&
&
B ds +
&
&
&
&
&
B ds +
&
&
&
&
&
B ds
2
=
4
= 0
_

B ds = 0 inside solenoid
B = 0 outside solenoid
3
= 0

B = 0 outside solenoid
B ds =
B ds = Bl =
0
i
tot
But i
tot
= nl
..
Number of coils included
i
B =
0
ni
Note :
(i) The assumption that

B = 0 outside the ideal solenoid is only
approximate. (Halliday, Pg.763)
(ii) B-eld everywhere inside the solenoid is a constant. (for ideal
solenoid)
(4) Toroid (A circular solenoid)
By symmetry argument, the B-eld lines form concentric circles inside
the toroid.
Take Amperian curve C to be a circle of radius r inside the toroid.
B ds = B
C
ds = B 2r =
0
(Ni)
B =

0
Ni
2r
inside toroid
7.4. MAGNETIC DIPOLE 92
Note :
(i) B ,= constant inside toroid
(ii) Outside toroid:
Take Amperian curve to be circle of radius r > R.
B ds = B
C
ds = B 2r =
0
i
incl
= 0
B = 0
Similarly, in the central cavity B = 0
7.4 Magnetic Dipole
Recall from 6.4, we dene the magnetic dipole moment of a rectangular
current loop
= NiA n
where n =
area unit vector with direction
determined by the right-hand rule
N = Number of turns in current loop
A = Area of current loop
This is actually a general denition of a magnetic dipole, i.e. we use it for
current loops of all shapes.
A common and symmetric example: circular current.
Recall from 7.1 Example 2, magnetic
eld at point P (height z above the ring)
B =

0
iR
2
n
2(R
2
+z
2
)
3/2
=

0
2(R
2
+z
2
)
3/2
7.5. MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN A CONSTANT B-FIELD 93
At distance z R,
B =

0
2z
3
E =
p
4
0
z
3
due to magnetic dipole due to electric dipole
(for z R) (for z d)
Also, notice = magnetic dipole moment
_
Unit: Am
2
J/T
_
0
= Permeability of free space
= 4 10
7
Tm/A
7.5 Magnetic Dipole in A Constant B-eld
In the presence of a constant magnetic eld, we have shown for a rectangular
current loop, it experiences a torque =

B . It applies to any magnetic
dipole in general.
7.6. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 94
External magnetic eld aligns the magnetic
dipoles.
Similar to electric dipole in a E-eld, we can con-
sider the work done in rotating the magnetic di-
pole. (refer to Chapter 2)
dW = dU, where U is potential energy of dipole
U =

B
Note :
(1) We cannot dene the potential energy of a magnetic eld in general.
However, we can dene the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a
constant magnetic eld.
(2) In a non-uniform external B-eld, the magnetic dipole will experience
a net force (not only net torque)
7.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials
Recall intrinsic electric dipole in molecules:
Intrinsic dipole (magnetic) in atoms:
In our classical model of atoms, electrons
revolve around a positive nuclear.
Current i =
e
P
, where P is period of one orbit around nucleus
P =
2r
v
, where v is velocity of electron
Orbit magnetic dipole of atom:
= iA =
_
ev
2r
_
(r
2
) =
erv
2
Recall: angular momentum of rotation l = mrv
=
e
2m
l
In quantum mechanics, we know that
l is quantized, i.e. l = N
h
2
where N = Any positive integer (1,2,3, ... )
h = Plancks constant (6.63 10
34
J s)
Orbital magnetic dipole moment
l
=
eh
4m
. .
Bohrs magneton
B
=9.2710
24
J/T
N
There is another source of intrinsic magnetic dipole moment inside an atom:
Spin dipole moment: coming from the intrinsic spin of electrons.
Quantum mechanics suggests that e
are always spinning and its either an up

spin or a down spin
e
= 9.65 10
27

B
So can there be induced magnetic dipole?
Recall: for electric eld
E
dielectric
= K
e
E
vacuum
; K
e
1
For magnetic eld in a material:
B
net
=

B
0
+

B
M

applied
B-eld
B-eld produced
by induced dipoles
In many materials (except ferromagnets),
B
M

B
0
Dene :
B
M
=
m
B
0
m
is a number called magnetic susceptibility.

B
net
=

B
0
+
m
B
0
= (1 +
m
)

B
0
B
net
=
m
B
0
;
m
= 1 +
m
Dene :
m
is a number called relative permeability.
One more term ......
Dene : the Magnetization of a material:
M =
d
dV
where is magnetic dipole
moment, V is volume
(or, the net magnetic dipole moment per unit volume)
In most materials (except ferromagnets),
B
M
=
0

M
Three types of magnetic materials:
(1) Paramagnetic:
m
1
(
m
0)
,
induced magnetic dipoles aligned
with the applied B-eld.
e.g. Al (
m
.
= 2.2 10
5
), Mg (1.2 10
5
), O
2
(2.0 10
6
)
(2) Diamagnetic:
m
1
(
m
0)
,
induced magnetic dipoles aligned
opposite with the applied B-eld.
e.g. Cu (
m
1 10
5
), Ag (2.6 10
5
), N
2
(5 10
9
)
(3) Ferromagnetic:
e.g. Fe, Co, Ni
Magnetization not linearly proportional
to applied eld.
B
net
B
app
not a constant (can be as
big as 5000 100, 000)
Interesting Case : Superconductors
m
= 1
A perfect diamagnetic.
NO magnetic eld inside.
Chapter 8
Faradays Law of Induction
8.1 Faradays Law
In the previous chapter, we have shown that steady electric current can give
steady magnetic eld because of the symmetry between electricity & magnetism.
We can ask: Steady magnetic eld can give steady electric current.
OR Changing magnetic eld can give steady electric current.
Dene :
(1) Magnetic ux through surface S:
m
=
B d
A
Unit of
m
: Weber (Wb)
1Wb = 1Tm
2
(2) Graphical:
m
= Number of magnetic eld lines passing through surface S
Faradays law of induction:
Induced emf [c[ = N
d
m
dt
where N = Number of coils in the circuit.

8.2. LENZ LAW 99
B = Constant

B = Constant

B = Constant

B = Constant
A = Constant

A = Constant dB/dt ,= 0 A = Constant
dA/dt ,= 0

A = Constant d

A/dt ,= 0
c = 0 [c[ > 0 [c[ > 0 [c[ > 0
Note : The induced emf drives a current throughout the circuit, similar to the
function of a battery. However, the dierence here is that the induced emf
is distributed throughout the circuit. The consequence is that we cannot
dene a potential dierence between any two points in the circuit.
Suppose there is an induced current in the loop, can we
dene V
AB
?
Recall:
V
AB
= V
A
V
B
= iR > 0
V
A
> V
B
Going anti-clockwise (same as i),
If we start from A, going to B, then we get V
A
> V
B
.
If we start from B, going to A, then we get V
B
> V
A
.
We cannot dene V
AB
!!
This situation is like when we study the interior of a battery.
A battery
The loop
_
_
provides the energy needed to drive the
charge carriers around the circuit by
_
_
chemical reactions.
changing magnetic ux.
sources of emf non-electric means
8.2 Lenz Law
(1) The ux of the magnetic eld due to induced current opposes the change
in ux that causes the induced current.
8.3. MOTIONAL EMF 100
(2) The induced current is in such a direction as to oppose the changes that
produces it.
(3) Incorporating Lentz Law into Faradays Law:
c = N
d
m
dt
If
d
m
dt
> 0,
m
c appears
Induced current
appears.

B-eld due to
induced current
change in
m
so that
=
m

(4) Lenz Law is a consequence from the principle of conservation of energy.
8.3 Motional EMF
Lets try to look at a special case when the changing magnetic ux is carried by
motion in the circuit wires.
Consider a conductor of length L moving
with a velocity v in a magnetic eld

B.
Hall Eect for the charge carriers in the rod:
F
E
+

F
B
= 0
q
E +qv

B = 0 (where

E is Hall electric eld)

E = v

B
Hall Voltage inside rod:
V =
L
0
E ds
V = EL
Hall Voltage : V = vBL
Now, suppose the moving wire slides without
friction on a stationary U-shape conductor.
The motional emf can drive an electric cur-
rent i in the U-shape conductor.
Power is dissipated in the circuit.
P
out
= V i (Joules heating)
(see Lecture Notes Chapter 4)
What is the source of this power?
Look at the forces acting on the conducting rod:
Magnetic force:
F
m
= i
L

B
F
m
= iLB (pointing left)
For the rod to continue to move at constant velocity v, we need to apply
an external force:
F
ext
=
F
m
= iLB (pointing right)
Power required to keep the rod moving:
P
in
=

F
ext
v
= iBLv
= iBL
dx
dt
= iB
d(xL)
dt
( xL = A, area
enclosed by circuit)
= i
d(BA)
dt
( BA =
m
, magnetic ux)
Since energy is not being stored in the system,
P
in
+P
out
= 0
iV +i
d
m
dt
= 0
We prove Faradays Law V =
d
m
dt
Applications :
(1) Eddy current: moving conductors in presence of magnetic eld
Induced current
Power lost in Joules heating
_
c
2
R
_
Extra power input to keep moving
To reduce Eddy currents:
(2) Generators and Motors:
Assume that the circuit loop is rotating at a constant angular velocity
, (Source of rotation, e.g. steam produced by burner, water falling
from a dam)
Magnetic ux through the loop
Number of coils
B
= N
loop
B d
A = NBAcos
changes with time! = t

B
= NBAcos t
Induced emf: c =
d
B
dt
= NBA
d
dt
(cos t)
= NBA sin t
Induced current: i =
c
R
=
NBA
R
sin t
Alternating current (AC) voltage generator
Power has to be provided by the source of rotation to overcome the
torque acting on a current loop in a magnetic eld.
=

..
Ni
B
= NiABsin
8.4. INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELD 104
The net eect of the torque is to oppose the rotation of the coil.
An electric motor is simply a generator
operating in reverse.
Replace the load resistance R with
a battery of emf c.
With the battery, there is a current in the coil, and it experiences a
torque in the B-eld.
Rotation of the coil leads to an induced emf, c
ind
, in
the direction opposite of that of the battery. (Lenz Law)
i =
c c
ind
R
As motor speeds up, c
ind
, i
mechanical power delivered = torque delivered = NiABsin
In conclusion, we can show that
P
electric
= i
2
R + P
mechanical
Electric power input Mechanical power delivered
8.4 Induced Electric Field
So far we have discussed that a change in mag-
netic ux will lead in an induced emf distributed
in the loop, resulting from an induced E-eld.
However, even in the absence of the loop (so that there is no induced current),
the induced E-eld will still accompany a change in magnetic ux.
Consider a circular path in a region
with changing magnetic eld.
The induced E-eld only has tangential components. (i.e. radial E-eld = 0)
Why?
Imagine a point charge q
0
travelling around the circular path.
Work done by induced E-eld = q
0
E
ind
. .
force
2r
..
distance
Recall work done also equals to q
0
c, where c is induced emf
c = E
ind
2r
Generally,
c =

E
ind
ds
where
is line integral around a closed loop,

E
ind
is induced E-eld, s is
tangential vector of path.
Faradays Law becomes
E
ind
ds =
d
dt
B d
A
L.H.S. = Integral around a closed loop C
R.H.S. = Integral over a surface bounded by C
Direction of d
A determined by direction of line integration C (Right-Hand Rule)

Regular E-eld Induced E-eld
created by charges created by changing B-eld
E-eld lines start from +ve and end
on ve charge
E-eld lines form closed loops
can dene electric potential so that
we can discuss potential dierence
between two points
Electric potential cannot be dened
(or, potential has no meaning)

Conservative force eld Non-conservative force eld
The classication of electric and magnetic eects depend on the frame of reference
of the observer. e.g. For motional emf, observer in the reference frame of the
moving loop, will NOT see an induced E-eld, just a regular E-eld.
(Read: Halliday Chap.33-6, 34-7)
Chapter 9
Inductance
9.1 Inductance
An inductor stores energy in the magnetic eld just as a capacitor stores energy
in the electric eld.
We have shown earlier that a changing B-eld will lead to an induced emf in
a circuit.
Question : If a circuit generates a changing magnetic eld, does it lead to an
induced emf in the same circuit? YES! Self-Inductance
The inductance L of any current element is
c
L
= V
L
= L
di
dt
The negative sign
comes from Lenz Law.
Unit of L: Henry(H) 1H=1
Vs
A
All circuit elements (including resistors) have some inductance.
Commonly used inductors: solenoids, toroids
circuit symbol:
Example : Solenoid
c
L
= V
B
V
A
= L
di
dt
< 0 c
L
= V
B
V
A
= L
di
dt
> 0
V
B
< V
A
V
B
> V
A
9.1. INDUCTANCE 108
Recall Faradays Law,
c
L
= N
d
B
dt
=
d
dt
(N
B
)
where
B
is magnetic ux, N
B
is ux linkage.
Alternative denition of Inductance:
d
dt
(N
B
) = L
di
dt
L =
N
B
i
Inductance is also ux linkage per unit current.
Calculating Inductance:
(1) Solenoid:
To rst order approximation,
B =
0
ni
where n = N/L = Number of
coils per unit length.
Consider a subsection of length l of the solenoid:
Flux linkage = N
B
= nl BA
where A is
cross-sectional area
L =
N
B
i
=
0
n
2
lA
L
l
=
0
n
2
A = Inductance per unit length
Notice :
(i) L n
2
(ii) The inductance, like the capacitance, depends only on geometric
factors, not on i.
9.1. INDUCTANCE 109
(2) Toroid:
Recall: B-eld lines are concentric cir-
cles.
Inside the toroid:
B =

0
iN
2r
(NOT a constant)
where r is the distance from center.
Outside the toroid:
B = 0
Flux linkage through the toroid
N
B
= N

B da
_
Notice

B | da
Write da = hdr
_
KEY
=

0
iN
2
2
b
a
hdr
r
=

0
iN
2
h
2
ln
_
b
a
_
Inductance L =
N
B
i
=

0
N
2
h
2
ln
_
b
a
_
Again, L N
2
Inductance with magnetic materials :
We showed earlier that for capacitors:
_

E

E/
e
C
e
C
(after insertion of
dielectric
e
> 1)
For inductors, we rst know that
B
m
B
(after insertion of
magnetic material)
Inductance L =
N
B
i
However
B
=

B d
A
m
B
9.2. LR CIRCUITS 110
L
m
L
(after insertion of
magnetic material)
To increase inductance, ll the interior of inductor with ferromagnetic
materials. (10
3
10
4
)
9.2 LR Circuits
(A) Charging an inductor
When the switch is adjusted to position a,
By loop rule (clockwise) :
c
0
V
R
+ V
L
= 0

c
0
iR L
di
dt
= 0
di
dt
+
R
L
i =
c
0
L
First Order Dier-
ential Equation
Similar to the equation for charging a capacitor! (Chap5)
Solution: i(t) =
c
0
R
_
1 e
t/
L
_
where
L
= Inductive time constant = L/R
[V
R
[ = iR = c
0
(1 e
t/
L
)
[V
L
[ = L
di
dt
= L
c
0
R

1
L
e
t/
L
= c
0
e
t/
L
9.2. LR CIRCUITS 111
(B) Discharging an inductor
When the switch is adjusted at position b after the inductor has been
charged (i.e. current i = c
0
/R is owing in the circuit.).
By loop rule:
V
L
V
R
= 0

L
di
dt
iR = 0
(Treat inductor as source of emf)
di
dt
+
R
L
i = 0
Discharging a capacitor
(Chap5)
i(t) = i
0
e
t/
L
where i
0
= i(t = 0) = Current when the circuit just switch to position b.
Summary : During charging of inductor,
1. At t = 0, inductor acts like open circuit when current owing is zero.
2. At t , inductor acts like short circuit when current owing is
stablized at maximum.
3. Inductors are used everyday in switches for safety concerns.
9.3. ENERGY STORED IN INDUCTORS 112
9.3 Energy Stored in Inductors
Inductors stored magnetic energy through the magnetic eld stored in the circuit.
Recall the equation for charging inductors:
c
0
iR L
di
dt
= 0
Multiply both sides by i :
c
0
i
..
Power input by emf
(Energy supplied to
one charge = qc
0
)
= i
2
R
..
Joules heating
(Power dissipated
by resistor)
+ Li
di
dt
. .
Power stored
in inductor
Power stored in inductor =
dU
B
dt
= Li
di
dt
Integrating both sides and use initial condition
At t = 0, i(t = 0) = U
B
(t = 0) = 0
Energy stored in inductor: U
B
=
1
2
Li
2
Energy Density Stored in Inductors :
Consider an innitely long solenoid of cross-sectional area A.
For a portion l of the solenoid, we know from 8.1,
L =
0
n
2
lA
Energy stored in inductor:
U
B
=
1
2
Li
2
=
1
2

0
n
2
i
2
lA
..
Volume of
solenoid
Energy density (= Energy stored per unit volume) inside inductor:
u
B
=
U
B
lA
=
1
2

0
n
2
i
2
Recall magnetic eld inside solenoid (Chap7)
B =
0
ni
u
B
=
B
2
2
0
This is a general result of the energy stored in a magnetic eld.
9.4. LC CIRCUIT (ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATOR) 113
9.4 LC Circuit (Electromagnetic Oscillator)
Initial charge on capacitor = Q
Initial current = 0
No battery.
Assume current i to be in the direction that increases charge on the positive
capacitor plate.
i =
dQ
dt
(9.1)
By Lenz Law, we also know the poles of the inductor.
Loop rule: V
C
+ V
L
= 0
Q
C
L
di
dt
= 0 (9.2)
Combining equations (9.1) and (9.2), we get
d
2
Q
dt
2
+
1
LC
Q = 0
This is similar to the equation of motion
of a simple harmonic oscillator:
d
2
x
dt
2
+
k
m
x = 0
Another approach (conservation of energy)
Total energy stored in circuit:
U = U
E
+ U
B

U =
Q
2
2C
+
1
2
Li
2
Since the resistance in the circuit is zero, no energy is dissipated in the circuit.
Energy contained in the circuit is conserved.
dU
dt
= 0
Q
C

dQ
dt
+L
i
di
dt
= 0 ( i =
dQ
dt
)
9.4. LC CIRCUIT (ELECTROMAGNETIC OSCILLATOR) 114
L
di
dt
+
Q
C
= 0
d
2
Q
dt
2
+
1
LC
Q = 0
The solution to this dierential equation is in the form
Q(t) = Q
0
cos(t +)
dQ
dt
= Q
0
sin(t +)
d
2
Q
dt
2
=
2
Q
0
cos(t +)
=
2
Q
d
2
Q
dt
2
+
2
Q = 0

2
=
1
LC
Angular frequency
of the LC oscillator
Also, Q
0
, are constants derived from the initial conditions. (Two initial condi-
tions, e.g. Q(t = 0), and i(t = 0) =
dQ
dt
t=0
are required.)
Energy stored in C =
Q
2
2C
=
Q
2
0
2C
cos
2
(t +)
Energy stored in L =
1
2
Li
2
=
1
2
L
2
Q
2
0
sin
2
(t +)
L
2
=
1
C
=
Q
2
0
2C
sin
2
(t +)
Total energy stored =
Q
2
0
2C
= Initial energy stored in capacitor
9.5. RLC CIRCUIT (DAMPED OSCILLATOR) 115
9.5 RLC Circuit (Damped Oscillator)
In real life circuit, theres always resistance.
In this case, energy stored in the LC oscillator is
NOT conserved,
and
dU
dt
= Power dissipated in the resistor = i
2
R (Joules heating)
Negative sign shows that energy U is decreasing.
Li
di
dt
+
Q
C

i
..
dQ
dt
= i
2
R
d
2
Q
dt
2
+
R
L

dQ
dt
+
1
LC
Q = 0
This is similar to the equation of motion of a damped harmonic oscillator (e.g.
if a mass-spring system faces a frictional force

F = bv).
Solution to the equation is in the form Q(t) = e
t
If damping is not too big (i.e. R not too big), solution would become
Q(t) = Q
0
e
R
2L
t
. .
exponential
decay term
cos(
1
t +)
. .
oscillating
term
where
2
1
=
1
LC

_
R
2L
_
2
2
1
=
2
_
R
2L
_
2
Damped oscillator always oscillates
at a lower frequency than the
natural frequency of the oscillator.
(Refer to Halliday, Vol1, Chap17 for
more details.)
Check this at home: What is U
E
(t) +U
B
(t) for the case when damping is small?
(i.e. R )
Chapter 10
AC Circuits
10.1 Alternating Current (AC) Voltage
Recall that an AC generator described in Chapter 9 generates a sinusoidal emf.
i.e. c = c
m
sin(t +)
Note :
This circuit is the RLC circuit with one
additional element : the time varying AC
power supply. This is similar to a driven
(damped) oscillator.
L
d
2
Q
dt
2
+R
dQ
dt
+
1
C
Q = c
m
sin(t +)
The general solution consists of two parts:
transient : rapidly dies away in a few cycles (not interesting)
steady state : Q(t), i(t) varies sinusoidally with the same frequency as input
Note : Current does NOT vary at frequency
2
1
=
1
LC

_
R
2L
_
2
Since we only concern about the steady state solution, therefore we can take any
time as starting reference time = 0
For convenience, we can write
c = c
m
sin t
And we can write
i = i
m
sin(t )
where i
m
is current amplitude, is phase constant.
Our goal is to determine i
m
and .
10.2. PHASE RELATION BETWEEN I, V FOR R,L AND C 117
10.2 Phase Relation Between i, V for R,L and C
(A)
Resistive Element
V
R
= V
A
V
B
= iR
V
R
= i
m
Rsin(t )
V
R
and i are in phase, i.e. whats
inside the sine bracket (phase) is the
same for V
R
and i.
Graphically, we introduce phasor diagrams properties of phasors:
(1) Length of a phasor is proportional to the maximum value.
(2) Projection of a phasor onto the vertical axis gives instantaneous value.
(3) Convention: Phasors rotate anti-clockwise in a uniform circular mo-
tion with angular velocity.
V
R
= (V
R
)
m
sin(t )
(V
R
)
m
= i
m
R
Ohms Law like rela-
tion for AC resistor
10.2. PHASE RELATION BETWEEN I, V FOR R,L AND C 118
(B)
The Inductive Element
Potential drop across inductor
V
L
= V
A
V
B
= c
L
= L
di
dt
V
L
= Li
m
cos(t )
= Li
m
sin(t +

2
) [ cos = sin( +

2
)]
= i
m
X
L
sin(t +

2
)
(V
L
)
m
= i
m
X
L
Ohms Law like rela-
tion for AC inductor
where X
L
= Inductive Reactance
X
L
= L
As i , V
A
> V
B
V
L
> 0
i , V
A
< V
B
V
L
< 0
V
L
leads i by

2
i lags V
L
by

2
(C) Capacitive Element
V
C
= V
A
V
B
=
Q
C
10.3. SINGLE LOOP RLC AC CIRCUIT 119
where Q = charge on the positive plate of the capacitor.
i =
dQ
dt
Q =
i dt
=
i
m
sin(t ) dt
=
i
m
cos(t )
V
C
=
i
m
C
cos(t )
= i
m
X
C
sin(t

2
) [ cos = sin(

2
)]
(V
C
)
m
= i
m
X
C
Ohms Law like rela-
tion for AC capacitor
where X
C
=
1
C
= Capacitive Reactance
V
C
lags i by

2
i leads V
C
by

2
10.3 Single Loop RLC AC Circuit
Given that c = c
m
sin t, we want to
nd i
m
and so that we can write i =
i
m
sin(t )
Loop rule: c V
R
V
L
V
C
= 0
c = V
R
+ V
L
+ V
C
10.3. SINGLE LOOP RLC AC CIRCUIT 120
Using results from the previous section, we can write
c
m
sin t = i
m
Rsin(t )
+i
m
X
L
cos(t ) i
m
X
C
cos(t )
c
m
sin t = i
m
_
Rsin(t ) + (X
L
X
C
) cos(t )
_
Answer :
1. Take tan =
X
L
X
C
R
2. Dene
Z =
_
R
2
+ (X
L
X
C
)
2
as the impedance of the circuit.
3. Then
i
m
=
c
m
Z
or c
m
= i
m
Z
Ohms Law like relation
for AC RLC circuits
Check :
R.H.S. = i
m
Z
_
R
Z
sin(t ) +
X
L
X
C
Z
cos(t )
_
= i
m
Z
_
cos sin(t ) + sin cos(t )
_
_
_
_
Use the relation:
sin(A +B) = sin Acos B + cos Asin B
Here: A = t , B =
_
_
_
= i
m
Z sin(t +)
= i
m
z sin t
= L.H.S. if c
m
= i
m
Z QED.
Phasor Approach :
10.4. RESONANCE 121
10.4 Resonance
i
m
=
c
m
Z
is at maximum for an AC circuit of xed input frequency when Z
is at minimum.
Z =
_
R
2
+ (X
L
X
C
)
2
=
R
2
+
_
L
1
C
_
2
is at a minimum for a xed when
X
L
X
C
= L
1
C
= 0
L =
1
C

2
=
1
LC
same as that for
a RLC circuit
In Hong Kong, the AC power input is 50Hz.
(In US, as mentioned in Halliday, is 60Hz.)
= 2f = 314.2s
1
10.5 Power in AC Circuits
Consider the Power dissipated by R in an AC circuit:
P = i
2
R = i
2
m
Rsin
2
(t )
The average power dissipated in each cycle:
P
ave
=
2/
0
P dt
2/
(
2
is period of each cycle)
2/
0
P dt = i
2
m
R
2/
0
sin
2
(t ) dt
= i
2
m
R
2/
0
1
2
_
1 cos 2(t )
_
dt
= i
2
m
R
_
t
2

sin
2
(t )
4
_
2/
0
= i
2
m
R
1
2

2
10.5. POWER IN AC CIRCUITS 122
P
ave
=
i
2
m
2
R = i
2
rms
R
where i
rms
= root-mean-square current
i
rms
=
i
m
2
Current is a
sinusoidal func.
Symbol : P) = P
ave
= Average of P over time
For sine and cosine functions of time:
Average : sin t) = cos t) = 0
Amplitude : Peak value, e.g. c
m
, i
m
, (V
R
)
m
,
Root-Mean-Square(RMS) : Its a measure of the time-averaged deviation
from zero.
x
rms
=
_
x
2
)
For sines and cosines, for whatever quantity x:
x
rms
=
x
m
2
(x
m
is amplitude)
For an AC resistor circuit:
P) = i
2
rms
R =
c
2
rms
R
Laws for DC circuits can be used to describe AC circuits if we use rms values
for i and c.
For general AC circuits:
P = ci =
E
..
c
m
sin t
i
..
i
m
sin(t )
= c
m
i
m
sin t [sin t cos cos t sin ]
P = c
m
i
m
[ sin
2
t
. .
1
2
cos sin t cos t
. .
0
(check this!)
sin ]
P) =
c
m
i
m
2
cos
P) = c
rms
i
rms
cos
. .
power factor
10.6. THE TRANSFORMER 123
Recall tan =
X
L
X
C
R
cos =
R
Z
Maximum power dissipated in circuit when
cos = 1
Two possibilities:
(1) X
L
= X
C
= 0
(2) X
L
X
C
= 0 X
L
= X
C
L =
1
C

2
=
1
LC
(Resonance Condition)
10.6 The Transformer
Power dissipated in resistor
P) = i
2
rms
R
For power transmission, wed like to keep i
rms
at minimum.
HIGH potential dierence across transmission wires. (So that total power
transmitted P = i
rms
c
rms
is constant.)
However, for home safety, we would like LOW emf supply.
Solution : Transformers
Primary : Number of winding = N
P
10.6. THE TRANSFORMER 124
Secondary : Number of winding = N
S
In primary circuit, R
P
C
P
0
Pure inductive
Power factor : cos =
R
Z
0
No power delivered from emf to transformer.
The varying current ( AC!) in the primary produces an induced emf in the
secondary coils. Assuming perfect magnetic ux linkage:
emf per turn in primary
= emf per turn in secondary
=
d
B
dt
emf per turn in primary =
V
P
N
P
(V
P
is P.D.
across primary)
emf per turn in secondary =
V
S
N
S
V
P
V
S
=
N
P
N
S
If N
P
> N
S
, then V
P
> V
S
Step-Down
If N
P
< N
S
, then V
P
< V
S
Step-Up
Consider power in circuit:
i
P
V
P
= i
S
V
S
In the secondary, we have
V
S
= i
S
R
Combining the 3 equations, we have
V
P
=
_
N
P
N
S
_
2
R i
P
Equivalence Resistor =
_
N
P
N
S
_
2
R
Chapter 11
Displacement Current and
Maxwells Equations
11.1 Displacement Current
We saw in Chap.7 that we can use
Ampères law to calculate magnetic
elds due to currents.
We know that the integral
B ds
around any close loop C is equal to
0
i
incl
, where i
incl
= current passing an
area bounded by the closed curve C.
e.g.
= Flat surface bounded by loop C
= Curved surface bounded by loop C
If Ampères law is true all the time, then the i
incl
determined should be inde-
pendent of the surface chosen.
11.1. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT 126
Lets consider a simple case: charging a
capacitor.
From Chap.5, we know there is a current
owing i(t) =
E
R
e
t/RC
, which leads
to a magnetic eld observed

B. With
Ampères law,
B ds =
0
i
incl
.
BUT WHAT IS i
incl
?
If we look at , i
incl
= i(t)
If we look at , i
incl
= 0
( There is no charge ow between the
capacitor plates.)
Ampères law is either WRONG or
INCOMPLETE.
Two observations:
1. While there is no current between the capacitors plates, there is a time-
varying electric eld between the plates of the capacitor.
2. We know Ampères law is mostly correct from measurements of B-eld
around circuits.
Can we revise Ampères law to x it?

Electric eld between capacitors plates: E =

0
=
Q
0
A
, where Q = charge on
capacitors plates, A = Area of capacitors plates.
Q =
0
E A
. .
Electric ux
=
0
E
We can dene
dQ
dt
=
0
d
E
dt
= i
disp
where i
disp
is called Displacement Current (rst proposed by Maxwell).
Maxwell rst proposed that this is the missing term for the Ampères law:
B ds =
0
(i
incl
+
0
d
E
dt
) Ampère-Maxwell law
11.2. INDUCED MAGNETIC FIELD 127
Where i
incl
= current through any surface bounded by C,
E
= electric ux through that same surface bounded by curve C,
E
=
E da.
11.2 Induced Magnetic Field
We learn earlier that electric eld can be generated by
_
charges
changing magnetic ux
.
We see from Ampère-Maxwell law that a magnetic eld can be generated by
_
moving charges (current)
changing electric ux
.
That is, a change in electric ux through a surface bounded by C can lead to an
induced magnetic eld along the loop C.
Notes The induced magnetic eld is along the same direction as caused by the
changing electric ux.
Example What is the magnetic eld strength inside a circular plate capacitor
of radius R with a current I(t) charging it?
Answer Electric eld of capacitor
E =
Q
0
A
=
Q
0
R
2
11.3. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS 128
Electric ux inside capacitor through a
loop C of radius r:
E
= E r
2
=
Qr
2
0
R
2
Ampère-Maxwell Law inside capacitor:
B ds
. .
B
induced
ds
=
0
(
i
incl
+
0
d
E
dt
)
2r
..
Length of loop C
B
induced
=
0
0
d
dt
_
Qr
2
0
R
2
_
=
0
r
2
R
2
dQ
dt
..
I(t)
B
induced
=

0
r
2R
2
I(t) for r < R
Outside the capacitor plate:
Electric ux through loop C:
E
= E
R
2
=
Q
B ds =
0
(i
incl
+
0
d
E
dt
)
2rB
induced
=
0
0
_
1
dQ
dt
_
B
induced
=

0
I(t)
2r
11.3 Maxwells Equations
The four equations that completely describe the behaviors of electric and magnetic
elds.
11.3. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS 129
E da =
Q
incl
B da = 0
E ds =
d
dt
B da
B ds =
0
i
incl
+
0
0
d
dt
E da
The one equation that describes how matter reacts to electric and magnetic elds.
F = q(
E +v

B)
Features of Maxwells equations:
(1) There is a high level of symmetry in the equations. Thats why the study
of electricity and magnetism is also called electromagnetism.
There are small asymmetries though:
i) There is NO point charge of magnetism / NO magnetic monopole.
ii) Direction of induced E-eld opposes to B-ux change.
Direction of induced B-led enhances E-ux change.
(2) Maxwells equations predicted the existence of propagating waves of E-eld
and B-eld, known as electromagnetic waves (EM waves).
Examples of EM waves: visible light, radio, TV signals, mobile phone
signals, X-rays, UV, Infrared, gamma-ray, microwaves...
(3) Maxwells equations are entirely consistent with the special theory of rela-
tivity. This is not true for Newtons laws!

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PHYS1112 - Electricity and Magnetism

r originated from Origin O

i.e. Doesnt matter how you measure

l is a vector that is always tangential to the curve C with innitesimal

d from negative to positive charge)

E points in opposite direction of

A = Area vector for

A over whole surface S

Total volume of sphere

inside the conductor:

Note: Calculating V involves summation of scalars, which is easier than

l is tangent to equipotential surface

can be generally applied

Gauss Law Gauss Law:

j = charge ow per unit time per unit area

F[ = qvBsin , where is the angle between v and

L[ = length of current segment; direction =

+) = ibBcos (pointing downward)

) = ibBcos (pointing upward)

Consider an Amperian curve of radius r(< R)

are always spinning and its either an up

where N = Number of coils in the circuit.

changes with time! = t

is line integral around a closed loop,

A determined by direction of line integration C (Right-Hand Rule)

is period of each cycle)

10.5. POWER IN AC CIRCUITS 122

Can we revise Amp`eres law to x it?

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