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INTRODUTION
One of the factors in learning process is textbook. Textbook has an important role
in teaching and learning process. Textbook become the main source of guidance for
teacher and students. The textbook is made to achieve the learning objective. As stated by
Tarigan and Tarigan (1990) that textbook is an important and functional book for student
in the school, it is designed by many expert to achieve the goal and instructional
objective, complete with appropriate facilities in order to make the user of the book
understand easily. The writer agrees with the statement because textbook has function to
support and apply the curriculum. So it’s designed and created based on the curriculum.
as stated by Tarigan and tarigan (1990) said that. The textbook is a manual or
instructional or a standard book in any branch of study. It is usually published by many
publisher to every request for an understanding of every subject that can be taught.
Based on the opinion above, the selection of textbook becomes the importance
process (Ariew, 1982). So teacher should select and choose the appropriate textbook
which is going to be used. Which one of the textbook that make teaching and learning
process run easily, and the textbook is appropriate with the students language, simple,
interesting and effective in sentence, so it can make the student understand and
comprehend the material easily and the learning objective can be achieved.
As stated in school level-based curriculum (curriculum 2006) that the skills to be
achieved by students are dealing with speaking, reading, writing and listening. Those
skills are expected to be achieved by the students with the expectation that students are
ready to face the globalization. The students are expected to be the competence users of
English in communicative with others, for example, in teaching speaking they are
expected to be able to do and realize the speech (speech act, speech function, language
function). In developing the competency, the students are instructed to do the speech,
such as opening conversation, defending the conversation, closing the conversation, and
asking for help.
There ere so many definitions about reading. But the important thing in teaching
learning process is the way how to know the students mastering in comprehend the text.
The teacher have to observe their students related with the students difficulties, students
language and students weaknesses. Those information are very important. It can help the
teacher as references in the teaching-learning process. After we have known the
information about that, the teachers can give the reading material according to the students
level.
The way to know whether the student have mastered the material that have been
though or not is by testing. Testing is used to determine the achievement and also the
progress of an instruction. By testing, teacher can see his students weaknesses and
difficulties in order to make any improvement and to find out other strategies in
instructional process. Testing has important role in teaching-learning process. Teaching
and testing can not be separated. As stated by Heaton (1975) “both teaching and testing are
so closely interrelated that is virtually impossible to work in either field without being
constantly with the others.
There are so many ideas about the important of test. According to Harris (1993)
stated that a test is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional. In other hand
Arikunto (1993:11) states that a test is needed to know how far a programmed can be
applied by the students. And more specific idea is from Heaton (1975:2) , a language test
is needed to enable the teacher to ascertain which part of a language programmed have
been difficult by the students and to give the students an opportunity to show their abilities
in using the correct form of the language.
From the explanation above, this study is conducted to analyze the reading
comprehension Question in the English textbook entitle “Pelatihan Intensif Siswa
Terampil Dan Aktif” published by Seti Aji, Cimani. This book is used by the second
grade students in second semester of SMK Ma’arif NU in Mantup - Lamongan. Whether
the reading comprehension question in English textbook have the criteria of good test
those are validity, reliability, item difficulty and discrimination level. and this study is
only limited on the reading comprehension question because reading has the essential role
in the teaching – learning process.
In accordance with the background of the study above, the writer formulates
question in carrying out this study. Those question are :
As the problems statement that mention in above, this study are conducted to
have some objective, those are :
1. To find out the content validity of reading comprehension question in English
textbook entitle “Pelatihan Intensif Siswa Terampil Dan Aktif” for the
second semester of second grade of Vocational High School published by
Seti Aji, Cimani.
1. The teacher
The writer expect that this analysis will be useful for the teacher . this study
will give the information about the content validity, reliability, index of item
difficulty and index of discrimination level in the reading comprehension question
in the English textbook, so teacher will know the quality of reading
comprehension question whether the reading comprehension question can measure
the learning achievement that must be measure and the texts are appropriate with
the student language level, and the students response/ answer to the question and
the degrees of students in language acquisition.
2. The students
By observing the result of this study, the writer hope that students can
measure their real achievement exactly. The reason is if the fact shows that the
reading question in the English textbook have/does not have a good quality, they
will see that their mark got from the test actually reflect/do not reflect their real
achievement.
This study hopefully can give the information to the textbook writer. The
textbook writer has made the appropriate textbook in reading comprehension
question or not, it can be seen from this study, so it can be references to the
textbook writer in the future for better English textbook.
From this study the writer try to analysis reading comprehension question in
English textbook entitle “Pelatihan Intensif Siswa Terampil Dan Aktif”. Actually there
are so many topics and sub topics in the textbook related to the four skill ( speaking,
listening, reading and writing), but the writer only limited on analyzing the reading
comprehension question in the textbook for the second semester of second grade
students in SMK Ma’arif NU Lamongan..
In order to avoid misunderstanding about the problems that will be discussed. the
writer list and define the principle terms that used in this research. Those are as follows :
validity of the test is the extent to it measure what it is supposed to measure nothing
else.(Heaton ,1975)
1.6.3 Reliability
Oller (1974) stated that the reliability of a test is a matter of how consistently it
produces similar result on different occasions under similar circumstances. Its mean
that it shows the consistence of the test score or other evaluation result from one
measurement to another.
The index of difficulty or facility value of an item simply shows how easy or difficult
the particular item proved in the test (Heaton,1988). In one line with this definition is
from Oller (1979) points out that item difficulty is about how difficult or how easy a
test item for the students being investigated.
1.6.5 Discrimination.
The discrimination index is item discrimination between the testes, separating the able
testes from the less able (Heaton, 1988:179). It means that the index of discrimination
level is used to differ the students who achieve well (upper group) on the test and
those who achieve poor (lower groups).
Reading comprehension question is the question that have the purpose to measure
students understanding or comprehension in reading.
CHAPTER 2
This chapter consist of some related literature that will be discussed. Those are :
(1) Textbook (2) Reading, (3) Test, (4) Validity & Reliability of the test , and (5) Item
analysis, item difficulty and discrimination.
2.1. TEXTBOOK
From those argument, the writer can conclude that textbook has big role in
teaching learning process and become the effective tool and guidance to reach the
teaching learning achievement. Teachers can’t avoid using textbook which is
very important in giving instruction at the school. Textbook is a media to achieve
the learning objective. And better for the students to have the textbook to make
teaching learning process easily.
In our society, there are so many kinds of textbooks used by teachers and
students in teaching and learning activity. Grand (1975) stated that textbook has
two type that are mostly used in teaching and learning process, they are
traditional and communicative textbook. Traditional textbook make the student
learn the language as a system. It’s expected that they use the language for their
own purpose in any way they think in their daily life. The traditional textbook
have criteria as follows : (1) Emphasize the form or pattern of language more than
the communicative language function, (2) Focus on reading and writing activities
rather than listening and speaking activities, (3) focus rather narrowly on a
syllabus and examination, and (4) attractive to some teachers because they seems
easy to use.
Based on Green and Petty (1990) the criteria of good textbook are : (1) It
should arouse students’ interest, (2) It should give motivation for user (students
and teachers), (3) It consist of interesting illustration, (4) It should consider
linguistic aspect to the students’ ability, (5) It content should be integrating to
other subject matter, (6) It should avoid ambiguity concept which can make
students confused, (7) It should have a clear point of view, (8) It should be able to
give stressing point and value to users, (9) It should appreciate the individual
differences of the students.
2.2 READING
Reading is an interactive and constructive process involving the reader, the
text, and the context of the reading experience. Reading involve the development of
an understanding of text, thinking about text in different ways, and using variety of
text types for different purpose (from the framework for the NAEP reading
assessment, Grigg, Daane, Jin, & Campbel,2003, P.3). other definition that reading is
a complex developmental challenge that we know to be intertwined with many others
developmental accomplishments : attention, memory, language, and motivation. For
example, reading is not only a cognitive Psycholinguistic activity but also asocial
activity. ( snow, burns & Griffin, 1998, P. 15).
In here, the researchers will explain the essential aspect related reading, that
is reading comprehension, the stage in reading, some factor influence in reading and
reading material, as in turn.
1. Skimming
Skimming is a technique used to look for the “gist” of what the author
is saying without a lot of detail (Kustaryo, 1988:5). This reading technique is
used if one wants to get a general impression of a book, essay, article and
determine whether or not to read it more carefully. Moreover, Yorkey (134)
defines that there are two purposes of skimming: to locate a specific word,
fact, or idea quickly, and to get a rapid general impression of the material.
2. Scanning
Scanning is quickly reading to find the specific information Brown
(2001:308) stated that, scanning is quickly searching for some particular
piece or pieces of information in a text.
By scanning, a reader mean glancing rapidly through a text either a
text either to search a specific piece of information (e.g. name, date) or to get
an initial impression of whether the text is suitable for a given purpose”,
Nuttall in Kahayanto (2005:11). When scanning the reader lets his or her
eyes wander over the text until he or she is looking for, whether it is a place,
a kind of food, a kind of verb, or a specific information. To enable the student
to scan effectively, he or she should know what kinds of information he or
she needs, also, he or she should have the strong belief where he or she will
find such information needed from the text.
2.3 TEST
Harris (1969) mention the objectives of the test are : (1) To determine
readiness for instructional program, (2) To classify or place individual in appropriate
language classes, (3) To diagnose the individual’s specific strengths and weakness,
(4) To measure aptitude for learning, (5) To measure the extent of student
achievement of the instructional goal, (6) To evaluate the effectiveness of
instruction.
Amari (1996) groups the test under three major types, according to
characteristics, purpose, and the test maker. There are two kinds the type of the
test, that is standardize and teacher made test. Standardize test is the test
prepare by professional testing service to assist intuition in the selection,
placement, and evaluating of the students. And the meaning of teacher made
test is generally prepared, administered and score by one teacher himself, and it
used by the teacher to the achievement of his own students on his own objective
after finishing the teaching learning process.
Based on it’s form the test is divided into two kinds (Heaton, 1995) .
they are subjective test and objective test. Subjective test and objective test are
the terms refer to the scoring of the test. Objective test usually has one correct
answer so they can be scored mechanically, while subjective test needed scale
for scoring the test.
2.3.2.1 SUBJECTIVE TEST
The weakness of subjective test are : (1) it has low validity and
reliability, (2) the result ted to be coincidental for the materials tested are
limited, (3) It’s very difficult to determine the standard of the scoring
system, and (4) It’s not efficient in checking the students’ responses.
It same with subjective test, the objective test also have the
strength and the weakness. According to Nuriyantoro (1987). The strength
of objective test are : (1) It enables us to take the material that will be
tested more completely than essay test, (2) it consist of one correct
answer only, (3) It’s very easy to be corrected for just match the students’
responses to the key answer prepared, (4) The responses can be corrected
fast with reliable result.
It can conclude that there is no best form of the test because both
of the subjective test and objective test have the strength and the
weaknesses. There for, the teacher should apply both item in teaching and
learning process. There are several type of objective test. There are several
kinds of objective test. Witherington (1986) state that there are four kinds
of the most commons of the objective test those are true-false, multiple
choice, completion and matching test.
2.3.3 THE CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TEST
A test can be said as a good test if it is fulfill the criteria of a good test.
According to Harris (1969) state that all good test posses three qualities, namely
Validity, Reliability and practically. In this study, validity and reliability will be
discussed since they are the most important characteristics of good test. Bloom
(1981) state that a teacher who wishes to use a good test to take an important
decision about an individual or group, must be sure that the test possesses two
absolutely essentials characteristics, validity and reliability. In line with bloom,
Bachman (1990) state that reliability and validity are those two essential to the
interpretation and use of language ability.
2.3.3.1 VALIDITY
According to Heaton (1975) state that the validity of the test is the
extent to measure what it is supposed to measure nothing else. If the test is
able to measure what its purposes, than the test has high validity. All type
of test must be valid. Whether the test is short or long and whether it is
informal test or achievement test. There are three types of validity
according to Gronlund (1979) they are Content Validity, criterion related
validity, and construct validity. In this study the writer will focus only on
the content validity.
2.3.3.2 RELIABILITY
Heaton (1975) state that there are five factor effecting the
reliability of the test they are : (1) The extent of the sample material
selecting for testing. It means the test which has bigger items will be
more reliable than the test which small number of items, (2) The
administration of the test. It means that the condition of administrating of
the test will affect the reliability of the test, (3) The instruction. The
clarity of the instruction will affect the students comprehension to answer
the tests, (4) Personal factor. Such as motivation and illness, (5) Scoring
the test. It means that the objective test is more reliable than the subjective
test.
Heaton’s formula is used since it avoids trouble some and it
involve only the test mean and standard deviation, both of which normally
calculated any how as a matter of routine (Heaton, 1988).
N m( N − 1)
r = 1 −
N − 1 Nx 2
Where :
r = coefficient Reliability
N = The number of items in the test.
M = The mean score on the test for all the testees.
X = The standard deviation of all the testees score.
(Heaton, 1975:157)
K X(K − X )
r = 1 −
K − 1 K .SD
Where :
r = Reliability
K = The number of items in the test.
X = The mean of the test score..
SD = The standard deviation of the test.
2.3.3.3 ITEM ANALYSIS
All item should be examined from the point of view of (1) the
difficulty level, and (2) the discrimination level.
2n
Where :
F.V = the index of difficulty
Correct U = the number of students in upper group who
It’s mean that the test is too difficult since the student can
not answer all the item if the index of difficulty shows 0,00 , it is
not good to be given to the students. Moreover, the test is too
easy since the students can answer all the item if the index of
difficulty show 1,00 , this test also not good to be given to the
students. Actually, the test which is good to be given to the
students is the test with criterion index difficulty between 0,31 –
0,70. Those according to Arikunto (1986:212) state that the test
which is good to be given to the students is the test with the
criteria between 0,31 – 0,70.
2.3.3.3.2 INDEX OF DISCRIMINATION.
D = Correct U – Correct L
2n
where :
In this chapter, the writer present the description of methodology used in this study. It
involve research design, the object of the study, the data collection, the instrument, and the
data analysis. All of the steps will be explained in the following points.
In analyzing the data, the researchers used quantitative method in order to get
correct result. The quantitative is used because the data include of the student score from
the reading examination. So, it consists of numerical data. Beside the writer used
statistical formula to describe the data as the main point and the result of this study.
In collecting the data, its done in four steps. Firstly the writer permit to head
master of the school and the second the writer determine the book that will be analyzed,
and the third , the writer listed down the frequency of reading comprehension question in
the English textbook which will be analyzed. Those steps are done to get a specific
material of reading comprehension question. The fourth, the writer make reading
examination according to the content of the reading comprehension question in the
textbooks which will be tested to the students.
The reading comprehension questions which are used in this study are
reading comprehension questions in unit 1, unit 3, unit 4, unit 6, unit 7, unit 8, unit
9, unit 10. The total number of reading comprehension are eleven which contain 67
question and consist of nine multiple choice questions and fifty eight essay
questions.
The data obtain should be analyzed in order to get the empirical evidence of the
research. The data can be analyzed by using statistical or non-statistical method
(Arikunto, 1996:242). And in this study uses statistical method. The statistical method
was used for the analysis of the content validity, the reliability, the item difficulty and
the index of discrimination level.
Arikunto (1953 : 208) present the way how to analyze the content validity
of a test by checking up of every item of the test with the specific objective stated
in the curriculum. In doing the analysis of content validity of the test, the writer
follow this steps :
2. Placing each of the test item into an appropriate place with the
content of school level-based curriculum to identify whether or
not the content of the test item represent all language aspect that
should be tested.
The writer uses the Alpha’s formula to calculate the reliability in the form
of essay test as stated by Arikunto (1993:104) the writer use the following steps to
determine the reliability.
s.d =
∑d²
N
Where :
Where :
r = coefficient Reliability
N = The number of items in the test.
M = The mean score on the test for all the testees.
X = The standard deviation of all the testees score.
(Heaton, 1975:157)
Where :
r = Reliability
K = The number of items in the test.
X = The mean of the test score..
SD = The standard deviation of the test.
The index of difficulty shows how easy or difficult the particular items
proved in the text.
1. Arranging the students score from the highest score to the lowest one.
2. Finding the top and the bottom 27% of the students score, as upper and
lower groups.
2n
Where :
The discriminating index of item indicates the extend to which the item
discriminates between the testees, separating the students who have achieved
poorly. In this case, the way to analyze the discrimination power is the same with
the item difficulty until the writer find the top and the bottom 27% of the students’
score as upper and lower groups. Then, computing the discrimination index by
using the formula below :
D = Correct U – Correct L
2n
where :
(Heaton, 1975:174).