Project Report on Drilling of Directional Wells

Submitted to: Mr B. Rama Gopal, C.E. (Directional Drilling), ONGC, Ahmedabad

Submitted By: Arihant Bothra Kuldeep Singh Anirudh Gupta Utkarsh Srivastava B. Tech. PE, Final Year, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad

INDEX

SECTION

TOPIC Index Acknowledgement Abstract Aim and Objective INTRODUCTION History and Applications of Directional Drilling Types of Directional Wells Geometry of a Directional Well DIRECTIONAL WELL PLANNING Directional Surveying Survey Calculation Methods Directional Well Planning Directional Well Drilling Directional Drilling Tools Bottom Hole Assembly DEFLECTION TOOLS AND METHODS Drilling Tools Deflection Tools and Methods Measurement While Drilling RIGSITE OPERRATIONS BHA Weight Hole Washout Orientation Reactive Torque Magnetic and Gravity Tool Face Single Shot Kick-Off/ Correction Run/ Oriented Side Track Tool Face: MTF, GTF and TFO CASE STUDY: KDS WELL Gallery: Visit to Rig Sites References

PAGE NUMBER 2 3 4 5 6 6 12 13 15 15 23 29 43 43 53 64 64 67 76 86 86 89 89 90 91 94 98 108 127 128

1 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 3 3.1 3.2 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 5 5.1 5.2 5..3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We take this opportunity to formally thank Mr B. Rama Gopal, C.E. (Directional Drilling), ONGC, Ahmedabad for permitting me to work under him, and to benefit from his knowledge and experience. Even in the short while that we have been here till now, we gained from all the time that he gives to students, despite his own busy schedule, and the effort he puts in for our advantage. This project, Directional Drilling in KDS Well gave us an excellent opportunity to work on real data, and we are sure this has consolidated our theoretical knowledge of drilling.

We extend our heartfelt thanks to Mr D. Sanyal, Head of Dilling Services, ONGC Ahmedabad for assigning us this topic, which is as highly educative as it is practically useful, and for allowing us the use of ONGCs excellent facilities.

We also thank Prof. AK Pathak, HOD, Petroleum Engineering, ISM, Dhanbad, for facilitating this project.

At a different level, we thank our friends and colleagues for their help in the preparation of this project.

Arihant Bothra

Anirudh Gupta

Kuldeep Singh

Utkarsh Srivastava

(B.Teh. Final Year, Petroleum Engineering) ISM, Dhanbad.

ABSTRACT
Directional drilling is the process of directing the wellbore being drilled along a defined trajectory to a predetermined target. Traditional drilling methods were limited to drill the vertical wells. But as it is said that Necessity is the mother of invention , when traditional methods were not able to fulfil our need ,different techniques of drilling non vertical sites were developed over last 2-3 decades. The first directional well was drilled in California Hunting Beach field in 1962 using PDM and Bent sub. Today number of well trajectories of different shapes can be drilled using recent techniques like down hole mud motors, steerable motors, rotary steerable systems etc. and these techniques have revolutionized drilling industry. Ahmadabad Asset, ONGC plans drilling directional wells in Vasna, Ghamji, Jhalora, Kalol, Nawagam. High angle Directional drilling could expand the drilling area to minimize pressure interference among wells at same rig site as well as can expand production area over currently in use. One well from Ahmadabad oil field is considered for study under present dissertation work. A detailed study will be undertaken on latest methods of planning well to its execution from directional drillers point of view. Currently, different computer based directional drilling software are available for planning of well trajectory, survey calculations etc. but it is must for a directional driller to know what is actually being calculated.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE

Directional Drilling technology has steadily improved the ability to optimize recovery, improve project return and lower the impact of exploration and development operations on environment. With technological advancements, directional drilling is gaining popularity among clients and service companies to develop ageing oil fields.

The aims and objective of this study include: 1. Learning the basics of directional well planning: Understanding how a well plan for a directional well is calculated. It includes: a) Preliminary information that are required for the directional well. b) Selection and choosing of well profile, KOP, build up rate, drop off rate and implications from a drilling standpoint. c) Design of the optimum well path trajectory(build up, slant and drop off sections)

2. Execution of directional plan: Methods of calculating well path trajectory from survey points and its presentation in 3-D co-ordinate system and projection to know whether it is on plan and if not, how far it is from target/landing point.

3. Drill string design for directional control: Calculation of side forces and lead angle of the bit and determination of the shape of the string for a given bottom hole configuration, performance analysis of single vs. multiple stabalizer bottomhole assembly and design of bottomhole assembly for build-up, slant and drop-off sections of the well trajectory.

4. Hands-on training computer software for planning well path trajectory ,calculation and presentation of well path trajectory from survey points , analysis and design of bottom hole assembly for different well configurations and case studies. Overall to introduce and familiarise reader with a directional drillers job.

Introduction

1.1

History and Applications of Directional Drilling

Directional drilling is defined as an art and science involving deflection of a well bore in a specified direction in order to reach a predetermined object below the surface of the earth

1.1.1 Historical Background Many prerequisites enabled this suite of technologies to become productive. Probably, the first requirement was the realization that oil wells, or water wells, are not necessarily vertical. This realization was quite slow, and did not really grasp the attention of the oil industry until the late 1920s when there were several lawsuits alleging that wells drilled from a rig on one property had crossed the boundary and were penetrating a reservoir on an adjacent property. Initially, proxy evidence such as production changes in other wells was accepted, but such cases fuelled the development of small diameter tools capable of surveying wells during drilling. Measuring the inclination of a wellbore (its deviation from the vertical) is comparatively simple, requiring only a pendulum. Measuring the azimuth (direction with respect to the geographic grid in which the wellbore is running from the vertical), however, was more difficult. In certain circumstances, magnetic fields could be used, but could be influenced by metalwork used inside wellbores, as well as the metalwork used in drilling equipment. The next advance was in the modification of small gyroscopic compasses by the Sperry Corporation, which was making similar compasses for aeronautical navigation. Sperry did this under contract to Sun Oil (which was involved in a lawsuit as described above), and a spin-off company "SperrySun" was formed, which brand continues to this day, absorbed into Halliburton. Three components are measured at any given point in a wellbore in order to determine its position: the depth of the point along the course of the borehole (measured depth), the inclination at the point, and the magnetic azimuth at the point. These three components combined are referred to as a "survey". A series of consecutive surveys are needed to track the progress and location of a wellbore. Many of the earliest innovations such as photographic single shot technology and crow's feet baffle plates for landing survey tools were developed by Robert Richardson, an independent directional driller who first drilled in the 1940s and was still working in 2012. Prior experience with rotary drilling had established several principles for the configuration of drilling equipment down hole ("Bottom Hole Assembly" or "BHA") that would be prone to "drilling crooked hole" (i.e., initial accidental deviations from the vertical would be increased). Counter-experience had also given early directional drillers ("DD's") principles of BHA design and drilling practice that would help bring a crooked hole nearer the vertical. In 1934, H. John Eastman of Long Beach, California, became a pioneer in directional drilling when he and George Failing of Enid, Oklahoma, saved the Conroe, Texas, oil field. Failing had recently patented a portable drilling truck. He had started his company in 1931 when he mated a drilling rig to a truck and a power take-off assembly. The innovation allowed rapid drilling of a series of slanted wells. This capacity to quickly drill multiple relief wells and relieve the enormous gas pressure was critical to extinguishing the Conroe fire. (E&P, "Making a hole was hard work," Kris Wells, American Oil & Gas Historical Society

Contributing Editor, 1 Nov. 2006 and "Technology and the Conroe Crater"). In a May, 1934, Popular Science Monthly article, it was stated that "Only a handful of men in the world have the strange power to make a bit, rotating a mile below ground at the end of a steel drill pipe, snake its way in a curve or around a dog-leg angle, to reach a desired objective." Eastman Whip stock, Inc., would become the world's largest directional company in 1973. Combined, these survey tools and BHA designs made directional drilling possible, but it was perceived as arcane. The next major advance was in the 1970s, when down hole drilling motors ( mud motors, driven by the hydraulic power of drilling mud circulated down the drill string) became common. These allowed the bit to be rotated on the bottom of the hole, while most of the drill pipe was held stationary. A piece of bent pipe (a "bent sub") between the stationary drill pipe and the top of the motor allowed the direction of the wellbore to be changed without needing to pull all the drill pipe out and place another whip stock. Coupled with the development of Measurement While Drilling tools (using mud pulse telemetry or EM telemetry, which allows tools down hole to send directional data back to the surface without disturbing drilling operations), directional drilling became easier. Certain profiles could not be drilled without the drill string rotating at all times. Drilling directionally with a motor requires occasionally "sliding" the drill pipe, which means stopping the pipe rotation and pushing the pipe in the hole as the motor cuts a curved section of hole. "Sliding" can be difficult in some formations, and it is almost always slower and therefore more expensive than drilling while rotating, so the ability to control wellbore direction while rotating is desirable. Several companies have developed tools which allow directional control while rotating. These tools are referred to as Rotary Steerable systems, or RSS. RSS technology has allowed access to and/or directional control in previously inaccessible or uncontrollable formations. Robert Zilles pioneered many of the RSS drilling procedures for Baker Hughes Inteq and is considered the Grandfather of RSS technology. In 2010 he became the first BHI directional driller to drill a well in each of the last 7 decades. 1.1.2 Applications of directional drilling 1. Multiple wells from offshore structure: Directional drilling from a multiwall offshore platform is the most economical way to develop off shore oil fields. Onshore, a similar method is used where there are space restrictions e.g. jungle, swamp, etc. 2. Relief wells: A relief well is a well drilled to intersect an oil or gas well that has experienced a blowout. Specialized liquid, such as heavy (dense) drilling mud followed by cement, can then be pumped down the relief well in order to stop the flow from the reservoir in the damaged well.

3. Controlling vertical wells: It occurs quite often that vertical wells do not follow their planned trajectory. It may be because of some down hole operational problems. So to correct their path directional drilling can be used.

4. Sidetracking: Sidetracking was the original directional drilling technique. Initially, sidetracks were blind. The objective was simply to get past a fish in vertical hole. Oriented sidetracks are performed to hit a specific target. It may be necessary due to an unsuccessful fishing job in a deviated well. Oriented sidetracks are most widely used. They are often performed when , for example, there are unexpected changes in geological configuration.

5. Inaccessible Locations: The targets located beneath city , river or environmentally sensitive areas make it necessary to locate the drilling rig some distance away. A directional well is drilled to reach the target.

6. Fault Drilling: Crooked holes are common when drilling vertical wells.ths is often due to faulted subsurface formations. It is often easier to drill a directional well into such formation without crossing fault lines.

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7. Horizontal drilling: There may be different reasons for the depletion of production in a particular field. For a field facing problems of severe gas and water conning, has good vertical permeability one can plan drilling a horizontal well.

8. Salt dome drilling: Salt domes have been found to be natural traps of oil accumulating in strata beneath the overhanging hard cap. There are severe drilling problems associated with drilling a well through salt formations. These can be somewhat alleviated by using a salt-saturated mud. Another solution is to drill a directional well to reach the reservoir (Figure 1-3), thus avoiding the problem of

drilling through the salt.

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9. Multiple sands from single wellbore: In this application, a well is drilled directionally to intersect several inclined reservoirs. This allows completion of the well using a multiple completion system. The well may have to enter the targets at a specific angle to ensure maximum penetration of the reservoirs.

10. Multilateral drilling: In this type of drilling number of re-entry wells are drilled from a single mother bore so that production from different zones can be achieved.

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1.2

Types of Directional Wells

A large number of shapes can be imagined between a given surface point and the target point. But it is not possible to drill any shape we imagine. Therefore , the following basic well profiles are assumed and each can be used for different situations. Directional Patterns Build and hold(Type I) profile Build , Hold and Drop (S) Profile(Type II) Deep kick off and build(J) profile (Type III) Horizontal _ _ Single Extended reach well (ERW) _ Multilateral

1.2.1. Build and hold(Type I) profile The well is drilled at shallow depth and inclination is locked in until the target zone is penetrated.

1.2.2. Build , Hold and Drop (S) Profile(Type II) The well is deflected at a shallow depth until the maximum required inclination is achieved. The well path is then locked in and, finally, the inclination is reduced to a lower value or, in some cases, the well is returned back to vertical by gradually dropping off the angle. 1.2.3. Deep kick off and build (J) profile (Type III) The well is deflected at a much deeper position and after achieving the desired inclination the well is locked in until target zone is penetrated.

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1.2.4. Horizontal well The well is deflected at a deeper depth and angle of inclination is 90 degrees.

1.3

Geometry of a Directional well

A directional well is drilled from a surface point to the subsurface target point through the shortest path. Due to irregularities in rock properties a directional well never remains in a single plane. Its inclination and direction continuously changes. The terms that are used in directional well geometry are defined below: Kick off point: It is the point at which well is deviated from vertical. It can be referred as start of build up section. Build up section: In this section well is continuously deflected at a constant build rate. Build rate is generally expressed in Degrees per 100 feet or degrees per 30 meter. Tangent Section: It is also called as hold section. in this section well is drilled at constant angle. Inclination: It is angle of the wellbore from vertical. Azimuth: The Azimuth or direction of the well is expressed w.r.t. some plane generally True North. Rotary Kelly Bushing: It is taken as reference for defining the co-ordinates of a point in the well in the Cartesian system.

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True Vertical Depth: It is expressed as vertical distance below RKB. Departure: IT is the distance between two survey points as projected on horizontal plane. Drop off section: It is the section of the well in which angle is dropped continuously with a constant drop rate expressed in degrees per 100 feet or degrees per 30 meter.

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Chapter 2

DIRECTIONAL WELL PLANNING

2.1 Directional Surveying Directional surveying can be defined as a completed measurement of the inclination and azimuth of a location in a well, typically the total depth at the time of measurement. In both directional and straight holes, the position of the well must be known with reasonable accuracy to ensure the correct wellbore path and to know its position in the event a relief well must be drilled. The measurements themselves include inclination from vertical, and the azimuth (or compass heading) of the wellbore if the direction of the path is critical. These measurements are made at discrete points in the well, and the approximate path of the wellbore computed from the discrete points. The following parameters are measured in directional surveying: Measured Depth: Measured depth refers to the actual depth of the hole drilled as measured from the surface location, to any point along the wellbore or to the total depth. Inclination: Inclination is the angle of the wellbore measured from the vertical. It is measured in degrees. An inclination of 0 degrees would mean vertical wellbore and 90 degrees would mean horizontal wellbore. Azimuth: The azimuth of a wellbore at any point is defined as the direction of the wellbore on a horizontal plane measured clockwise form a north reference. Azimuths are usually expressed in angles from 0-360 degrees.

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Importance of Directional Surveying: Directional surveying is required: To monitor the progress of the well. Actual directional data can be used to plot the course of the well and that can be compared with the planned trajectory. To plan the well path correction strategies for deviated wells. To prevent the collision of the present well with the nearby existing wells. To determine the actual deflection tool orientation in correct direction. To determine the exact location of the bit as drilling progresses. To plan and monitor relief well during event of blowout, fire accidents etc. To calculate Dog leg severity. 2.1.1 When and how to survey: A survey can be taken while drilling is in progress or after the completion of drilling. 2.1.1.1 Surveying while drilling Single surveys can be performed during drilling process to record the inclination and azimuth. This is done by temporarily stopping the drilling and lowering the survey tool and taking the survey. Now, a days, due to the development of Measurement While Drilling tools (MWD), surveys can be taken continuously without stopping the drilling process. The information is stored in computer memory down hole or is transmitted to the surface. At surface this information is decoded by the surface computers and survey is continuously

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recorded on a chart recorder. Surveying while drilling allows driller to know the current situation of the well and helps him to decide his course of action.

2.1.1.2 Surveying After Drilling Multiple surveys are performed after drilling has been completed. After a long length of hole is drilled, a survey instrument is run into the hole and survey records are gathered over the entire length of the hole. Unlike single surveys, this information is used to plot the path the wellbore has taken to reach its reach its current position. Inclination and azimuth data recorded during the surveys will be used to produce the final survey plot.

2.1.2 Survey Instruments

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1. Acid bottle Surveying: this tool is based on simple principle that the free surface of a liquid always remains horizontal regardless of the position of the container. in this instrument the container is a glass cylinder and liquid is acid. The instrument is allowed to rest in an inclined position for a certain period of time(30 min.). Acid will react with the glass surface and leave a mark on the side of the cylinder indicating horizontal surface. The distance between the mark and acids original position, whe n the cylinder was leveled, can be used to calculate the inclination angle. The strength of the acid should be chosen carefully so that it can leave a distinct mark on the glass surface. To measure the direction an additional compartment is was required containing gelatin and a magnetic compass needle. The compass needle was free floating and aligned itself with the magnetic north. The direction of a deviated well can therefore be reference to the magnetic north. The major disadvantage of this method is that acid was unable to leave a distinct mark on the glass surface. 2. Magnetic Single Shot: The magnetic single shot was first used in the 1930s for measuring the inclination and direction of a well. The instrument consists of 3 sections: An angle unit consisting of a magnetic compass and an inclination measuring device. A camera section A timing device or motion sensor unit The angle unit of the tool consists of a magnetic compass and a plumb bob. When the tool is in the correct position (near the bit) the compass is allowed to rotate until it aligns itself With the Earths magnetic field. The plumb bob hangs vertical irrespective of the Deviation from the vertical. The camera consists of a photographic disc, which is mounted in the tool in a Light proof loading device, a set of bulbs which are used to illuminate the angle unit, when required, and a battery unit, which provides power to the light bulbs. The timing device is used to operate the light bulbs when the instrument is in the correct position. The surveyor must estimate the time required to lower the instrument into position and set the timer accordingly. Since it is sometimes difficult to estimate the time required for the tool to reach the bit, more modern instruments use a motion sensor unit. This electronic device will illuminate the light bulbs when the instrument stops moving. When the light bulbs are illuminated a photograph image of the plumb bob is superimposed on the compass card.

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3. Magnetic Multi-shot surveying: The magnetic multi shot instruments are similar to the single shot, except that a film magazine is used so that the survey data can be recorded at a regular interval of time. Also the camera is a modified movie camera. This instrument can be run on a wire line to land in a NMDC or simply dropped from the surface. A continuous record is taken as the drill string is pulled out of the hole. Surveys are taken when each stand is broken off and string is stationary. Magnetic multi shot instruments are useful for wells free from magnetic materials or magnetic geological formations. 4. Gyro single shot: Since magnetic surveys which rely on compass readings are unreliable in cased hole, or in open hole where nearby wells are cased, an alternative method of assessing the direction of the well must be used. The inclination of the well can be assessed in the same way as in the magnetic tools. The Magnetic effects can be completely eliminated by using a gyroscopic compass. A gyroscope is a wheel which spins around one axis, but is also free to rotate about one or both of the other axes, since it is mounted on gimbals. The inertia of the spinning wheel tends to keep its axis pointing in one direction. In a gyro single shot tool, a gyroscope is rotated by an electric motor at approximately 40,000 rpm. On surface the gyro is lined up with a known direction (True North) and as the tool is run in hole the axis of the tool should continue to point in the direction of true North regardless of the forces which would tend to deflect the axis from a northerly direction. A compass card is attached to, and aligned with, the axis of the gyroscope and this acts as the reference direction from which all directional surveys are taken. 5. Measurement While Drilling: MWD is a survey tool which measures survey data and other hole parameters while drilling. these tools are made up as a part of BHA. They measure the survey data in the same way as wireline steering tools using magnetometers, which measures component of earths magnetic field. and accelerometers which measure the component of gravity. The raw data is transmitted to the surface through mud telemetry systems (pressure pulses). These pressure pulses represent binary 0 and 1.MWD tools are not only used to orient deflection tools but also to take directional surveys at regular intervals while well is being drilled. 6. Wireline Steering Tool: It is a survey tool used to give continuous surface readout of data while drilling with a down hole motor and bent sub assembly The downhole tool comprises of a solid state electronics probe plus spacer bars and a muleshoe. The raw data from the probe is transmitted to the surface via the conducting wireline. A surface computer decodes the signal and calculates the survey data. In order to have a Wire line running-in-hole while drilling fluid is circulated , it is necessary to use either a special circulating head or a side entry sub. 7. Gyroscopic multi shot: It is a survey instrument which is not adversely affected by casing or other magnetic influences. The gyro multi shot tool is lowered into the well on a wire line. At fixed intervals tool is stopped to take the survey. Inertial Navigation System: Inertial navigation is a very precise method of surveying used in aircraft and missile guidance systems. In the late 1970s this technique was adopted for borehole surveying in the North Sea. The FINDS tools (Ferranti Inertial Navigation Directional Surveyor) based on an inertial platform consisting of 3 accelerometers and 3 gyroscopes mounted on gimbals was the first IN system used in borehole surveying. Although the FINDS tool is no longer used it is the most generic type of tool and will therefore be described On the surface the platform is automatically levelled and the N-S accelerometer aligned with true North. As the tool is run down the hole on wireline any misalignment of the platform is detected by the gyroscopes which send signals to the gimbals

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mechanism to restore the platform to its original position. The running procedure is to stop the tool for 1 minute, then run for 1 minute and so on until it reaches bottom. During the 1 minute transit periods the accelerometer readings give the inertial velocity. Once back on surface this data can be integrated to give the incremental X, Y and Z displacements for each transit period. These distances can then be added to the previous co-ordinates to give the trajectory of the cased borehole (Note that the FINDS tool calculates the co-ordinates directly, not by measuring azimuth and inclination). The FINDS tool was generally considered to be the most accurate surveying device available. Its accuracy was about 0.2 ft. per 1000 ft. of hole length (i.e. it can locate a 13 5/8" casing shoe, set at 5000 ft, to within 1 foot, compared with 15 - 30 ft. using conventional gyro methods). The FINDS tool does however have certain disadvantages : The tool diameter was 10 5/8", and so could only be used down to the 13 3/8" casing shoe. It is much more expensive to run than a gyro multi-shot. Only a limited number of tools were available. Its major application was to provide a definitive trajectory of the hole from surface down to the 13 5/8" casing shoe. High accuracy is required here when drilling from multi-well platforms where the wells are very close to each other and there is a risk of intersection. Since the FINDS tool a number of new surveying tools were introduced. In 1986 Schlumberger, introduced the GCT (Guidance Continuous Tool). This instrument is only 3 5/8" diameter and it can therefore be used to survey the entire well path down to TD (minimum casing size is 4 1/4"). The inertial platform in the GCT consists of a 2 axis accelerometer and a 2 axis gyroscope, mounted on gimbals. The spin axis of the gyroscope is parallel with one axis of the accelerometer and aligned with true North. Any drift of the gyro is detected by positional sensors and corrected by the gimbal mechanism. The inclination and azimuth are calculated from the accelerometer reading and the angle between the outer and inner gimbals. The inclination and azimuth are given on a surface display as the tool is being run. The survey depth is given by the wireline measurement. The accuracy of this tool is about 2.6 ft. per 1000 ft. per 1000 ft. of hole length, in the North Sea.

2.1.2.1 Classification of survey systems The most basic classification is magnetic and gyroscopic. Magnetic survey systems have sensors which detect the earths magnetic field and hence use magnetic north as reference. Thus while using these systems magnetic declination must be known for the correction. The gyroscopic systems use a gyroscope to provide a direction reference.

Survey systems can also be classified on the basis shown below. Those which tell where the well is going Magnetic single shot Gyro single shot Wireline steering tool MWD Those which tell where the well has gone Magnetic multishot

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Gyro multishot INS

2.1.2.2 Borehole Survey References All survey systems measure inclination and azimuth at a particular measured depths (except INS) These measurements must be made with respect to a fixed reference so that all the survey data can be recorded conveniently. Following reference systems are used: 1. Depth References: Measured Depth(MD): It is the distance measured along the actual course of the drilled hole from surface reference point to the survey point. It is also called as Along Hole Depth. True Vertical Depth: It is the vertical distance foem the depth reference level to the point in the borehole. In general Rotary Kelly bushing (RKB) or Rotary table elevation(RTE) is used as depth reference. 2. Inclination references Inclination is the angle between the vertical and the tangent to the wellbore at the desired point. Conventionally 0 degrees is Vertical and 90 degrees is horizontal. Vertical reference is the direction of the local gravity vector and could be indicated by a plumb bob or measured with an accelerator. 3. Azimuth reference system For directional surveying three azimuth reference systems are used Magnetic North(MN) This is the direction of the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field lines at a particular point on the Earths surface. A magnetic compass will align itself to these lines with the positive pole of the compass indicating North. True North(TN) This is the direction of the geographic North Pole. This lies on the axis of rotation of the Earth. The direction is shown on maps by the meridians of longitude. Grid North(GN)

The meridians of longitude converge towards the North Pole and South Pole, and therefore do not produce a rectangular grid system. The grid lines on a map form a rectangular grid system, the Northerly direction of which is determined by one specified meridian of longitude. The direction of this meridian is called Grid North. For example, in the often used Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) co-ordinate system the world is divided into 60 zones of 6 degrees of latitude, in which the central meridian defines Grid North. Grid North and True North are only identical for the central meridian. Comparison of co-ordinates is only valid if they are in the same grid system. To be meaningful, all azimuths must be quoted in the same reference system. This is

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usually the Grid North system. In practice, azimuths are often measured in systems other than the Grid North system. 4. Magnetic declination Magnetic declination is the angle between magnetic north (the direction the north end of a compass needle points) and true north. The declination is positive when the magnetic north is east of true north. The term magnetic variation is a synonym, and is more often used in navigation. Isogonic lines are where the declination has the same value, and the lines where the declination is zero are called agonic lines. Magnetic declination varies both from place to place, and with the passage of time. As a traveller cruises the east coast of the United States, for example, the declination varies from 20 degrees west (in Maine) to zero (in Florida), to 10 degrees east (in Texas), meaning a compass adjusted at the beginning of the journey would have a true north error of over 30 degrees if not adjusted for the changing declination. The magnetic declination in a given area will change slowly over time, possibly as much as 2-25 degrees every hundred years or so, depending upon how far from the magnetic poles it is. Complex fluid motion in the outer core of the Earth (the molten metallic region that lies from 2800 to 5000 km below the Earth's surface) causes the magnetic field to change slowly with time. This change is known as secular variation. Because of secular variation, declination values shown on old topographic, marine and aeronautical charts need to be updated if they are to be used without large errors. Unfortunately, the annual change corrections given on most of these maps cannot be applied reliably if the maps are more than a few years old since the secular variation also changes with time in an unpredictable manner.

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If the compass at your place is pointing clockwise with respect to the True North, declination is positive or EAST If the compass at your place is pointing counter-clockwise with respect to the True North, declination is negative or WEST

2.2 Survey Calculation Methods At the end of each successful survey (e.g. single-shot, multishot, steering tool, surface Read-out gyro, MWD) the following data is measured: survey measured depth wellbore inclination wellbore azimuth (corrected to relevant North). The above data will then enable the bottom hole location at the last survey point to be calculated accurately in terms of: TVD Northing Easting Vertical section dog-leg severity

The calculated data is then plotted on the directional well plot (TVD vs vertical section on the vertical plot, N/S vs E/W rectangular coordinates on horizontal plot). 2.2.1 Definitions 1. SURVEY STATION: A survey station (A or B) is any point along the well bore at which a survey is taken. 2. COURSE LENGTH:

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A course length (AB) is the measured distance between two survey stations. 3. TRUE VERTICAL DEPTH (TVD) True vertical depth (AC) is the length of line made by projecting the course length on to a vertical plane. TVD = Course Length x cosine of Average drift angle 4. DRIFT ANGLE (INCLINATION): Drift angle is the angle measured in degrees which a well bore makes from a true vertical line. 5. MEASURED DEPTH: Measured depth refers to actual depth of the hole drilled as measured from surface location to any point along the well bore.

6. HOLE DIRECTION: It is the direction of the well bore at any point along its length. It is measured in degrees and expressed in quadrant form (NW, SW, NE, SE) 7. COURSE DEVIATION: Course deviation is the length of line made by projecting the course length on to a horizontal plane. The length of the course deviation depends on drift angle and course length. Greater the course length/ drift angle greater is the course deviation. Course Deviation = Course length x sine of average drift angle 8. LATITUDE: Latitude is defined as horizontal distance the well bore moves from one survey station to another in a due NORTH-SOUTH direction. It is

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the result of interaction of hole direction, drift angle and course length. N-S coordinates = Course deviation x cosine of average direction.

9. DEPARTURE: Departure is defined as horizontal distance the well bore moves from one survey station to another in a due EAST-WEST direction. interaction of hole direction, drift angle and course length. E-W coordinates = Course deviation x sine of average direction 10. VERTICAL SECTION: Vertical section is the horizontal distance the well bore moves in the direction of the target from one survey station to another. It would be the result of direction of course length vs direction of target and course deviation. Vertical section = Course deviation x cosine of difference between target direction and the average direction. 11. NET DIRECTION: Net direction is the direction from surface location to the last survey station. Net direction = Tan -1 (departure/ latitude) It is the result of

2.2.2 Calculation Techniques There are several methods for calculation of directional surveys. However, only four of these methods are presented here. Those are:

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Average angle method Tangential method Balanced Tangential method Radius of Curvature method Minimum Curvature method

Symbols Used: 1& 2 = angle at upper & lower stations respectively 1 & 2 = azimuth at upper & lower stations respectively avg= average azimuth t = target azimuth L = Distance between upper & lower stations V = Incremental TVD between two stations CD = Course Deviation between two stations N = Incremental distance along North between two stations E = Incremental distance along East between two stations 2.2.2.1 Average angle method This method assumes a straight line between survey stations A and B. The inclinations and directions are averaged. The objective is to calculate the following for the survey point B in the diagram below: - TVD - North Co-ordinate - East Co-ordinate - Vertical Section (VS) - Dogleg Severity (DLS) This method assumes only one straight line that intersects both upper and lower Stations. The straight line is defined by averaging the inclination and azimuth at both stations. V = L x Cos(1 + 2) /2 CD = L x Sin(1 + 2) /2 N/S = L x Sin(1 + 2) /2 x Cos(1 + 2) /2 E/W = L x Sin(1 + 2) /2 x Sin(1 + 2) /2 This is very popular method since it yields accurate results and is fairly simple to use with the aid of a hand calculator . For this reason it is often used at well site provided the survey stations are not far apart.

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2.2.2.2 Tangential method

In this model the wellpath is assumed to be a straight line defined by the inclination and azimuth at the lower survey station. The angles measured at the upper station are not used in the analysis V = L x Cos2 CD = L x Sin2 N / S = CD x Cos2 E / W = CD x Sin2

Drawback: Clearly this method gives large error in wellbore position when the trajectory is changing significantly between stations. This method of calculation is not recommended.

2.2.2.3 Balanced Tangential Method This method assumes that the actual well path can be approximated by two straight line segments of equal length. The upper segment is defined by 1 & 1, while lower segment is defined by 2 & 2. The length of each segment = L/2 V = L/2 x Cos1 + L/2 x Cos2 = L/2 x (Cos1 + Cos2) CD = L/2 x Sin1 + L/2 x Sin2

= L/2 x (Sin1 + Sin2) N/S = L/2 x Sin1 x Cos1 + L/2 x Sin2 x Cos2 = L/2 x (Sin1 x Cos1 + Sin2 x Cos2) E/W = L/2 x Sin1 x Cos1 + L/2 x Sin2 x Cos2 = L/2 x (Sin1 x Sin1 + Sin2 x Sin2) This method is more accurate than tangential method since it does take in to account both sets of survey data. 2.2.2.4 Radius of Curvature Method This method assumes that well path is not a straight line but a circular arc . The arc is tangential to the inclination and azimuth at each survey station . The well path can be described as an arc in the plane, which is wrapped around a right vertical cylinder.

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V = L/(2 -1) x (180/) x (Sin2 Sin1) CD = L/(2-1) x (180/ ) x (Cos1 Cos2) N/S = L/(2-1) x (180/)2 x (Cos1 Cos2) x (Sin2 - Sin1)/ (2 - 1) E/W = L/(2-1) x (180/)2 x (Cos1 Cos2) x (Cos1 - Cos2)/ (2 - 1) This method provides better results than average angle method in section of the hole where path is closer to circular arc. (e.g. during Kick-off). However it assumes a constant radius which may not be true over longer intervals. In straight sections of the hole there are computational problems due to division by zero. 2.2.2.5 Minimum Curvature Method

This method is an extension of balanced tangential method. This method assumes well path by circular arc instead of straight lines. For this a ratio factor is used which is based on the amount of bending in the well path between the two stations. This is called dog-leg angle which can be calculated from DL = Cos-1[Cos1 x Cos 2 + Sin 1 x Sin 2 x Cos(2 - 1)] and ratio factor F is given as F = 2/ DL x (180 / ) x Tan DL / 2 This ratio factor is applied to the results of V , N / S , E /W , as in balanced tangential method .

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V = F x L / 2 x (Cos N/S = F x L / 2 x (Sin1 x Cos 1 E/W = F x L / 2 x (Sin1 x Sin 1 + Sin2 x Sin2)

1 +

+ Sin2

Cos 2) x Cos2)

This method is most often adopted for directional surveying calculations. Due to more complicated mathematics involved, this method is more suitable for computer techniques.

Comparison of above techniques

2.3 DIRECTIONAL WELL PLANNING The careful planning of a directional well prior to commencement of the actual operations is probably the most important part of the project. Each directional well has a specific objective. Care must be taken that all aspects of the well are tailored to meet those objectives at the planning. Directional well drilling basically involves drilling a hole from one point in space (surface location) to another point in the space (target location) in such a way that the drilled well meets its objectives. The planning of a directional well requires the following information:

1.Surface and Target Co-ordinates: UTM, Lambert or geographical. 2. Size of and shape target(s). 3. Local Reference Co-ordinates: For multi-well sites, these must include template, platform centre and slot location. 4. Required well inclination when entering the target horizon. 5. Prognosed Litho logy: including formation types, TVD of formation tops, formation dipand direction.

30

6. Offset well bit and BHA data: Required for bit walk, building tendencies of BHAs. 7. Casing programme and drilling fluid types. 8. Details of all potential hole problems which may impact the directional well plan or surveying requirements. 9. A listing of definitive survey data of all near-by wells which may cause a collision risk. For offshore drilling, this listing should include all wells drilled from the same platform template or near-by platforms and all abandoned wells in the vicinity of the new wells. 2.3.1 Factors Involved in well planning: 1. Target size and shape: The smaller the target zone the greater the number of correction runs necessary to hit the target. It results in longer drilling times and higher drilling cost . The target zone should be as large as the geologist or the reservoir engineer can allow. The job of directional driller is then to place the well bore with in the target at minimum cost. 2. Formation characteristics (KOP & Lead ) Hard formations may give poor response to deflection tool resulting in long time and several bit runs while soft formation may result in large washouts. A soft-medium

formation provides a better opportunity for a successful kick-off. Formations exhibit a tendency to deflect the bit either left or to right. The directional driller can compensate this effect by allowing some lead angle when orienting the deflection tool. 3. Walking Tendencies Under normal rotary drilling the bit will tend to walk to the right. Sometimes the bit may also turn towards left. R.H. walk is more at higher WOB and lower inclinations R.H. walking decreases with:

Increase in RPM Low WOB and High inclination

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4. Optimum Surface Location For The Rig It is essential to select an optimum surface location for the rig taking advantage of natural formation tendencies. The bit tends to drill at right angle (up-dip) to the dipping formations if dip angle <45o. The bit tends to drill parallel to the dipping formations (down- dip) if dip angle >45o. Effect Of Formation Attitude: Likewise, the formation attitudes also have effect on directional tendencies. If proposed direction is due up dip, it follows the built. But if the proposed direction is left of up dip the bit will tend to turn to the right. And if the proposed direction is right of up dip, the bit will deviate to the left. The rotation of DHM force the bit to turn to the left. 5. Hole Size: Larger diameter holes are easier to control directionally than smaller diameter holes. As slim hole requires smaller drill collars and pipes which limits the range of weight available. 6.Casing And Mud Programme: Most directional wells follow the same casing program as used in straight hole drilling. Mud control is extremely important in reducing the torque and drag in directional hole. 7. Location Of Adjacent Well Bores: To avoid collisions directly below the platform KOPs for adjacent wells are chosen at varying depths to give some separations. Outer slot is allocated to a target having large horizontal displacement with shallower KOP while wells having less inclination are allocated to center of the platform with deeper KOP. 8. Choice Of Build Up Rate: If BUR is very high, severe dog-legs can occur. These dog-legs can cause difficulty in running tubular and wear on the pipe. If BUR is very less it will consume more drilling depth and time. Hence gradual BUR of 1.5/100 to 3/100 is commonly used. natural bit tendencies and drift angle can be readily

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9. Experience Gained From Drilling Previous

Directional Wells:

A review of previous drilling practices and problems will give better guide lines for future wells. Depending on all these factors KOP,BUR and DOR are selected.

2.3.2 Well Profile Definitions

2.3.2.1 Inclination angle The inclination angle of a well at any point is the angle the wellbore forms between its axis and the vertical. 2.3.2.2 Measured Depth Measured depth (MD) is the distance measured along the well path from one reference point to the survey point. Measured depth is also known as Along Hole Depth and is measured with the pipe tally or by a wire line. 2.3.2.3 True vertical depth (TVD) is the vertical distance measured from a reference point to the survey point. TVD is usually referenced to the rotary table, but may also be referenced to mean sea level. 2.3.2.4 Kick-off point The kick off point is defined as the point below the surface location where the well is Deflected from the vertical. The position of the kick off depends on several parameters including: geological considerations, geometry of well and proximity of other wells.

2.3.2.5 Build up rate and Drop off rates

The maximum permissible build up /drop off rate is normally determined by one or more of the following:

The total depth of the well Maximum torque and drag limitations Mechanical limitations of the drill string or casing Mechanical limitations of logging tools and production strings. Formation of Key seats in the kick off regions.

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The optimum build up and drop off rates in conventional directional wells are in the range of 1.50 to 30 per 100 ft, although much higher build up rates are used for horizontal and Multi-lateral wells. 2.3.3 Types of well profiles If the position of the surface location is known and given the location of the target, its TVD and rectangular coordinates, it is possible to calculate the best well profile that fits the coordinates of the surface and the bottom hole target that fit this data. There are three basic well profiles which include the design of most directional wells: 1. Type one: Build and hold trajectory. This is made up of a kick off point, one build up section and a tangent section to target. 2. Type two: S -Shape trajectory. This is made up of a vertical section, kick- off point, build-up section, tangent section, drop-off section and a hold section to target. 3. Type three: Deep Kick off trajectory.

This is made up of a vertical section, a deep kick off and a build up to target. Another secondary type is horizontal wells. A horizontal well is a well which can have any one of the above profiles plus a horizontal section within the reservoir. The horizontal section is usually drilled at 90 degrees and therefore the extra maths involved is quite simple as we only need the measured length of the horizontal section to calculate the total well departure and total measured depth. The hole total TVD usually remains the same as the TVD of the well at the start of the horizontal section. However, if the horizontal section is not drilled at 90 degrees or there are dip variations within the reservoir, then the total hole TVD will be the sum of the TVD of the horizontal section and the TVD of the rest of the well.

2.3.3.1 Type I To carry out the geometric planning for a Type I well, Figure 11.13, the following information is required: Surface Co-ordinates Target Co-ordinates TVD of target TVD to KOP Build-up rate

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Using the detailed trigonometry shown in above figure the maximum inclination angle for type I trajectory can be calculated for two cases: First Case R > D2 The maximum inclination angle for type I trajectory is given by:

Second Case R < D2 The maximum inclination angle is given by:

Build- up Section 1. Radius of curvature (R) of build-up section:

where BUR = build-up rate, degrees/100ft

2. Measured length of build-up section:

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where = maximum inclination angle at end of build up section

3. Vertical length of build-up section:

4. Horizontal displacement (departure) at end of build-up section:

Tangent Section

5. Measured length of tangent section:

6. Vertical length of tangent section:

7. Horizontal displacement at end of tangent section:

8. Total measured depth for type I wells:

2.3.3.2 'S' TYPE WELL DESIGN

To carry out the geometric planning for a type II well the following information is required: Surface Co-ordinates Target Co-ordinates TVD of target TVD at end of drop-off (usually end of well) TVD to KOP Build-up rate drop-off rate Final angle of inclination through target Because these wells have two curves, two radii need to be calculated and compared with the

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total departure D3. These quantities are then used to calculate the maximum possible inclination angle at end of build up curve.

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Design Procedure for S Type Well

1. Radius of curvature (R1) of build-up section:

where BUR = build-up rate, degrees/100ft

2. Radius of curvature of drop-off section:

where DOR = Drop off rate, degrees/100ft The total departure, D3 (or horizontal displacement) of the target is calculated.

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First Case D3 > R1 + R2, Figure 11.14

If the S well returns to vertical at end of drop off section at point D, Figure 11.14, then the maximum inclination angle is given by:

Second Case D3 < R1 + R2, Figure 11.16

The maximum allowable inclination angle is determined by:

The above equation is only valid if the well returns to vertical at point D,

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For S well that do not return to vertical, first calculate D3,

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For S-wells that partially drop angle and maintain a certain inclination to target V3 is given by:

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Measured depth at end of a partial drop section where the angle of inclination is maintained to target is given by:

Total measured depth at end of an S well where the angle of inclination is maintained to target is given by:

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2.3.3.3 Type III Trajectory

This type of trajectory is used for salt dome drilling and for planning appraisal wells to assess the extent of the discovered reservoir.

The following data is required: Surface Coordinates Target Coordinates Then one other parameter from: Maximum inclination angle TVD to KOP Build-up rate

Final inclination angle is give by:

Then, Horizontal, vertical and Measured depths can be calculated as before.

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Chapter 3

DIRECTIONAL WELL DRILLING

3.1 Directional Drilling Tools In search of alternative to conventional rotary drilling where the entire drill string is rotated from the surface, various types of downhole motors have been proposed. Drill string rotation can be eliminated by having a motor place down hole to drive the bit hydraulic power. After second world war, Smith tool co. developed a down hole motor known as positive displacement motor(PDM).Similarly a turbine motor is also used for drilling. In such down hole motors hydraulic power of mud that is continuously

circulated inside a wellbore and the hydraulic power of mud in terms of pressure and flow rate is converted into mechanical power at the bit in terms of rotational speed and torque.

4.1.1 Down hole Motors Down hole motors are powered by mud flow. The two major type of down hole motors are:

Turbine Positive Displacement Motor(PDM)

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The operating principles of turbo-drill and PDM are shown in the above figure. Though their operating principle is same, their designs are totally different. Turbo-drills were widely used some years ago.But, due to improvements in PDM turbodrills are used in special applications today.

3.1.1.1 Turbo Drill

The turbine motor consists of a multistage blade-type motor and stator sections, a thrust bearing section and a drive shaft. The number of rotor/stator section may vary from 25 to 250. The stator remains stationary and its function is to deflect the mud to the rotor blades. The rotor blades are attached to the drive shaft, which in turn is attached to the bit.

Mud under high pressure is pumped down the drill string to the motor section, where it is deflected by stator blades to the rotor blades. This, then, imparts rotation to the rotor and , in turn to the drive shaft and drill bit.

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3.1.1.2 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT MOTORS (PDM)

3.1.1.2.1 Design of PDM

A positive displacement motor (PDM) consists of: Power section (rotor and stator) By-pass valve Universal joint Bearing assembly

1.Power Section

The PDM consists of a helical steel rotor fitted inside a spirally -shaped elastomer moulded stator. Mud flowing under pressure fills the cavities between the dissimilar shapes of the rotor and stator and under the pressure of mud, the rotor is displaced and begins to rotate, the rotor actually moves in an elliptical shape. This eccentric movement is

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converted to true circular motion by a universal joint assembly.

The magnitude of rotation produced is proportional to the volume of mud pumped through the motor. The torque generated by the PDM is proportional to the pressure drop across the motor and is also a function of WOB. An increase in WOB will create more torque and will in turn increase the differential pressure required across the power module, eventually stalling the motor due to lack of pressure. Hence, an increase in WOB will cause an increase in pumping pressure due to the increased differential pressure across the power section. This fact must be taken into account in drilling operations where only a limited pumping pressure is available.

2. Lobes

The available rotation and torque from a PDM depend on the pitch angle and number of lobes in the stator and rotor. The stator always has one lobe more than the rotor.The rotor/stator configurations (or lobe ratio) currently in use are: 1/2, 3/4, 5/6, 7/8 or 9/10. Configuration 1/2 gives the highest speed and is only suitable for PDC and natural diamond bits. The greater the number of lobes, the higher the motor torque and the lower the output RPM. Common mud motors from Baker Hughes Inteq are the Mach 1 which is a 5/6 lobe ratio motor and is compatible with compatible with tri-cone bits. The Mach 2 is a 1/2 lobe ratio motor and is used with PDC or diamond bits when high rotation is required.

3. By-Pass valve

This valve allows the drilling fluid to by-pass the mud motor allowing the drill string to fill during tripping in and drain when making a connection or pulling out of hole. The valve operates by spring which holds a piston in the upper position. In this position, ports in the by-pass valve are open allowing mud to flow in or out of the drill string. At 30% of recommended flow rate, the piston is forced down, closing the ports and directing flow through the mud motor.

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4.Universal Joint:

A Connecting Rod Assembly is attached to the lower end of the rotor. It transmits the torque and rotational speed from the rotor to the drive shaft and bit. Universal joints convert the eccentric motion of the rotor into concentric motion at the drive shaft. These are now being replaced by titanium alloy flex shafts.

5.Bearing and Drive Shaft Assembly

The drive shaft is a rigidly-constructed hollow steel component. It is supported within the bearing housing by radial and axial thrust bearings. The bearing assembly transmits drilling thrust and rotational power to the drill bit. Most of the mud flows straight through the centre of the drive shaft to the bit.

3.1.1.2.2 Mud Motor Hydraulics

1. Range of flow rates allowable: Each size and type of PDM is designed to take a certain range of volumes of fluid. Multilobe motors have a broader flow rate range and a much higher maximum allowable flow rate than 1:2 lobe PDM of the same OD. This gives better hole cleaning capability- useful when ROP is high.

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2. No-Load Pressure Loss: When mud is pumped through a mud motor which is turning freely off-bottom, a certain pressure loss is needed to overcome rotor/stator friction forces and cause the motor to turn. This pressure loss and motor RPM are proportional to flow rate. Their values are known for each size and type of PDM. The no-load pressure loss is usually greater than 100 psi. 3. Pressure Drop Across the Motor: As the bit touches the bottom and effective WOB is applied, pump pressure increases. This increase in pressure is normally called motor differential pressure. Motor torque increases in direct proportion to the increase in differential pressure. This differential pressure is required pump a given volume of mud through the motor to perform useful work. It is also called as pressure drop across the motor. 4. Stallout Pressure: There is a maximum recommended value of motor differential pressure. At this point, the optimum torque is produced by the motor. If the effective WOB is increased beyond this point, pump pressure increases further. The pressure across the motor increases to a point where the lining of the stator is deformed. The rotor/stator seal is broken and the mud flows straight through without turning the bit (blow-by or slippage). The pump pressure reading jumps sharply and does not vary as additional WOB is applied. This is known as stall-out condition. Studies have shown that the power output curve is a parabola and not a smooth upward curve, as originally thought. If the PDM is operated at 50%-60% of the maximum allowable motor differential pressure, the same performance should be achieved as when operating at 90% of differential. The former situation is much better however, there is a much larger cushion available before stall-out. This should result in significantly longer motor life. The greater the wear on the motor bearings, the easier it is to stall-out the motor. It is useful to deliberately stall out the PDM briefly on reaching bottom. It tells the directional driller what the stall-out pressure is. He may want to operate the motor at about 50% of stall-out differential pressure. In any case, he must stay within the PDM design specifications. It is obvious that, if the pump pressure while drilling normally with a mud motor is close to the rigs maximum, stalling of the PDM may lead to tripping of the pop-off valve. This should be taken into account in designing the hydraulics program. 5. Rotor Nozzle: Most multi-lobe motors have a hollow rotor. This can be blanked off or jetted with a jet nozzle. When the standard performance range for the motor matches the drilling requirements, a blanking plug is normally fitted. The selection of the rotor nozzle is critical. Excessive bypass will lead to a substantial drop in motor performance and, consequently, drilling efficiency. If a rotor nozzle is used at lower flow rates, the power of the motor will be greatly reduced

6. Pressure Drop at the Bit: For a given mud weight and flow rate, the TFA(tool face angle) of the bit nozzles determine the pressure drop across the bit. The smaller the TFA, greater the bit pressure drops. This affects the volume of the mud diverted to cool the bearings. The greater the percentage of the mud diverted the greater the wear on the bearings. For ANADRILL multi lobe motors, pressure drop across the bit must be in the range of 500-1500 psi. Because of their design, multi lobe motors have significantly higher flow rate limits than 1:2 designs. Higher flow rates lead to faster ROP and better hole cleaning. The

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higher pressure drop across the motor means increased WOB should be used. The higher pressure drop across the bit means smaller nozzles can be used.

3.1.1.2.3 Hydraulic Thrust In all PDMs, back pressure from the flow of mud through the motor and bearing assembly creates a downward axial hydraulic thrust(Wt). During motor drilling, the weight applied to the bit and formation creates an upward thrust. The difference between the two thrust forces is supported by the thrust bearing assembly and transmitted to the body of the motor. Wt< WOB means OFF-BOTTOM bearings are loaded Wt=WOB means BALANCED Wt> WOB means ON-BOTTOM bearings are loaded For extended bearing life, Wt and WOB should be balanced as closely as possible. In many extended-interval programs, it is desirable to match bit hydraulics with the weight on the bit in order to achieve the best drilling results. This is not easily achievable in practice. When Pbit is high, the WOB required to balance the hydraulic thrust may exceed that recommended for the PDM and the bit. Hydraulic thrust data and graphs are available to help in optimizing bearing life. 3.1.1.3 Steerable Drilling Systems A steerable drilling system allows directional changes (azimuth and/or inclination) of the well to be performed without tripping to change the BHA, hence its name. It consists of: a drill bit; a stabilized positive displacement steerable mud motor; a stabilizer; and a directional surveying system which monitors and transmits to surface the hole azimuth, inclination and toolface on a real time basis. The capability to change direction at will is made possible by placing the tilt angle very close to the bit, using a navigation sub on a standard PDM. This tilt angle can be used to drill in a specific direction, in the same way as the tilt angle generated by a bent sub with the the drillbit being rotated by the mud motor when circulating. However, since the tilt angle is much closer to the bit than a conventional bent sub assembly, it produces a much lower bit offset and this means that the drill bit can also be rotated by rotating the entire string at surface (in the same way as when using a conventional assembly). Hence the steerable assembly can be used to drill in a specific direction by orienting the bent sub in the required direction and simply circulating the fluid to rotate the bit (as in the bent sub assembly) or to drill in a straight line by both rotating and circulating fluid through the drillstring. When rotating from surface we will of course be circulating fluid also and

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therefore the rotation of the bit generated by the mud motor will be super-imposed on the rotation from surface. This does not alter the fact that the effect of the bit tilt angle will be eliminated by the rotation of the entire assembly. When using the navigation sub and mud motor to drill a deviated section of hole (such as build up or drop off section of hole) the term oriented or sliding drilling is used to describe the drilling operation. When drilling in a straight line, by rotation of the assembly, the term rotary drilling is used to describe the drilling operation. The directional tendencies of the system are principally affected by the navigation sub tilt angle and the size and distance between the PDM stabilizer and the first stabilizer above the motor. The steerable drilling systems are particularly valuable where: changes in the direction of the borehole are difficult to achieve; where directional control is difficult to maintain in the tangent sections of the well (such as in formations with dipping beds) or where frequent changes may be required. The steerable systems are used in

conjunction with MWD tools which contain petrophysical and directional sensors. These types of MWD tools are often called Logging Whilst Drilling, LWD tools. The

petrophysical sensors are used to detect changes in the properties of the formations (lithology, resistivity or porosity) whilst drilling and therefore determine if a change in direction is required. Effectively the assembly is being used to track desirable formation properties and place the wellbore in the most desirable location from a reservoir engineering perspective. The term Geosteering is often used when the steerable system is used to drill a directional well in this way. Components There are five major components in a Steerable Drilling System (Figure 11). These components are:

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(a) Drill Bit (b) Mud Motor (c) Navigation Sub (d) Navigation Stabilizers (e) Survey System (a) Drill Bit

Steerable systems are compatible with either tricone or PDC type bits. In most cases, a PDC bit will be used since this eliminates frequent trips to change the bit.

(b) PDM

The motor section of the system causes the bit to rotate when mud is circulated through the string. This makes oriented drilling possible. The motors may also have the navigation sub and a bearing housing stabilizer attached to complete the navigation motor configuration.

(c) Navigation Sub

The navigation sub converts a standard Mud motor into a steerable motor by tilting the bit at a predetermined angle. The bit tilt angle and the location of the sub at a minimal distance from the bit allows both oriented and rotary drilling without excessive loads and wear on the bit and motor. The design of the navigation sub ensures that the deflecting forces are primarily applied to the bit face (rather than the gauge) thereby maximizing cutting efficiency.

Two types of subs are presently available for steerable Systems: The double tilted universal joint housing or DTU and The tilted kick-off sub or TKO. The DTU and TKO both utilize double tilts to produce the bit tilt required for hole deflection. The DTUs two opposing tilts reduce bit offset and sideload forces, and thereby maintaining an efficient cutting action. The TKO has two tilts in the same direction that are close to the bit.

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(d) Navigation Stabilizers

Two specially designed stabilizers are required for the operation of the system and influence the directional performance of a steerable assembly. The motor stabilizer or Upper Bearing Housing Stabiliser, UBHS is an integral part of the navigation motor, and is slightly undergauge. The upper stabilizer, which defines the third tangency point, is also undergauge and is similar to a string stabilizer. The size and spacing of the stabilizers also can be varied to fine-tune assembly reactions in both the oriented and rotary modes.

(e) Survey System

A real time downhole survey system is required to provide continuous directional information. A measurement while drilling, MWD system is typically used forthis purpose. An MWD tool will produce fast, accurate data of the hole inclination, azimuth, and the navigation sub toolface orientation. In some cases, a wireline steering tool may be used for this purpose. 3.1.1.4 Rotary Steerable system: A rotary steerable system is a new form of drilling technology used in directional drilling. It employs the use of specialized downhole equipment to replace conventional directional tools such asmud motors.They are generally programmed by the MWD engineer or directional driller who transmits commands using surface equipment (typically using either pressure fluctuations in the mud column or variations in the drill string rotation) which the tool understands and gradually steers into the desired direction. In other words, a tool designed to drill directionally with continuous rotation from the surface, eliminating the need to slide a steerable motor. The advantages of this technology are many for both main groups of users: geoscientists & drillers. Continuous rotation of the drill string allows for improved transportation of drilled cuttings to the surface resulting in better hydraulic performance, better weight transfer for the same reason allows a more complex bore to be drilled, and reduced well bore tortuosity due to utilizing a more steady steering model. The well geometry therefore is less aggressive and the wellbore (wall of the well) is smoother than those drilled with motor. This last benefit concerns to geoscientists because the measurements taken of the properties of the formation can be obtained with a higher quality.

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3.2 BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY

The bottom hole assembly refers to the drill collars, HWDP, stabilizers and other accessories used in the drill string. All wells whether vertical or deviated require careful design of the Bottom hole assembly (BHA) to control the direction of the well in order to achieve the target objectives. Stabilizers and drill collars are the main components used to control hole inclination. 3.2.1 There are three ways in which the BHA may be used for directional control: 1. Pendulum Principle 2. Fulcrum principle 3. Packed hole stabilization principle

3.2.1.1 Pendulum Technique

The pendulum technique is used to drop angle especially on high angle wells where it is usually very easy to drop angle.The pendulum technique relies on the principle that the force of gravity can be used to deflect the hole back to vertical.The force of gravity is related to the length of drillcollars between the drill bit and the first point of tangency between the drillcollars and hole. This length is called the active length of drillcollars and can be resolved into two forces: one perpendicular to the axis of the wellbore and is called

54

the side force and one acts along the hole. Increasing the active length of drillcollars causes the side force to increase more rapidly then the along hole component. The side force is the force that brings about the deflection of the hole back to the vertical. Some pendulum assemblies may also use an under gauge near-bit stabilizer to moderate the drop rate. High WOBs used with a pendulum assembly may bend the BHA and cause the hole angle to build instead of drop. Also pendulum assemblies have a tendency to walk to the right depending on the type of bit used and since they are flexible they will follow the natural walk of the drill bit.

3.2.1.2 Fulcrum Principle This is used to build angle (or increase hole inclination) by utilising a near bit stabiliser to act as a pivot or a fulcrum of a lever. The lever is the length of the drillcollars from their point of ontact with the low side of the hole and top of the stabiliser.The drillbit is pressed to the high side of the hole causing angle to be built as drilling ahead progresses.Since the drillcollars bend more as more WOB is applied, the rate of angle build will also increase with WOB. The build rate also increases with: distance from near bit stabilizer to first stabilizer in the BHA reduction in RPM increase in hole angle

reduction in drill collar diameter

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3.2.1.3 Packed Hole Stabilization Principle

This is used to hold or maintain hole inclination and direction and are typically used to drill the tangent section of a well. The packed BHA relies on the principle that two points will contact and follow a sharp curve, while three points will follow a straight line. Packed BHA have several full gauge stabilizers in the lowest portion of the BHA, typically three or four stabilizers. This makes the BHA stiff and hence it tends to maintain hole angle and direction.

3.2.2 Standard BHA Configurations

Using the three principles of BHA control discussed above, there are five basic types of BHAs which may be used to control the direction of the well 1. Pendulum assembly 2. Packed bottom hole assembly 3. Rotary build assembly 4. Rotary drop assembly 5. Steerable assembly 6. Mud motor and bent sub assembly

1. Pendulum Assembly The pendulum assembly makes use of the gravitational effects acting on the bit and lower portion of the BHA to maintain vertical hole or drop angle back to the vertical. In this assembly, the first string stabiliser is placed approximately 30, 40 or 60 feet above the bit. The assembly is commonly used as an angle reducing assembly on deviated wells but is difficult to control.

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2. Packed Assembly A packed assembly typically uses a near-bit stabiliser and string stabilisers a further 30 and 60 feet from the bit, Figure 11.30. A tightly packed assembly incorporates a further string stabiliser normally located 15 feet from the bit. This type of assembly is often run where formation dip cause angle building tendency and is also used to maintain vertical hole when higher weights (WOB) are used. This BHA is typically used in 12" and 8" hole sections on vertical well and in tangent sections of deviated wells to maintain the hole inclination.

3. Rotary Build Assemblies A rotary build assembly is based on the fulcrum principle and is used to build hole angle after initial steering runs on deviated wells. Rotary build assemblies are usually used after the initial kick-off to eliminate the need for further use of a mud motor. The BHA consists of: near bit stabiliser, two drillcollars, a first string stabiliser located a further 60 feet from the bit, DC and a further string stabiliser 30 feet above. During drilling operations, application of WOB causes the two drillcollars above the near bit stabiliser to be bent and consequently cause the drillbit to loaded on the high side of the hole thereby causing increases in hole angle as the hole is drilled.

4. Steerable Assemblies Steerable assemblies include the use of the following: Bent motor housing tool and MWD tool Double tilted U-joint housing (DTU) and MWD tool The above BHAs are run stabilised and can be used to drill the build and tangent sections of a hole. When used in steering mode, a steerable system can be used to correct both hole angle and direction. In rotary mode, a steerable system is used to maintain hole direction. When using a steerable system it is essential to determine its directional characteristics in rotary mode. Where possible, once the main build has been completed, 2 stands should be drilled in rotary mode to determine the inclination and azimuth tendencies to enable the tangent section to be drilled without the need for numerous corrections. From experience, it has been found that numerous small corrections can lead to micro doglegs and severe increases in torque when drilling deep or extended reach wells.

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5. Mud Motor And Bent Sub This assembly is typically run for performing the initial kick-off and build up sections of deviated wells, Figure 11.24. It is then pulled prior to running a packed BHA for drilling the tangent sections. This BHA may also be used for correction runs.

3.2.3 Design Criteria

Design criteria are general guidelines based on equipment specifications and operating experience for building the bottom hole assembly (BHA). BHAs should be

designed for maximum efficiency. Assembly efficiency is a measure of how well the assembly does its design function during drilling. This depends on operation, deviation, and stabilization tools, as well as formation dip, hardness, and drill ability. Computer programs can aid in the design process. BHAs can be exposed to extremely harsh operating conditions, depending upon the angle and number of bends and turns, depth, and related factors. They have a larger diameter and are stronger than the drill pipe string, so tensile strength usually is not a factor. The simplest BHA, the limber assembly, is a string of drill collars with a bit on bottom. Larger, full-sized drill collars should be placed in the lower part of the assembly, and worn, smaller collars should be located in the upper part. Stabilizers and other equipment should be connected in various combinations to the drill collars for building different assemblies. The diverting equipment should be placed in the lower section of the assembly, where it has the most influence on directional control. Small variations in tool spacing may have a large effect on BHA efficiency. Pony drill collars and spacer subs are used for correct spacing. The amount of stabilization and resulting assembly rigidity should be minimized as much as possible without sacrificing efficiency. Connections are points of weakness and potential failure. Crossover subs and other connections should be eliminated whenever possible. Additional equipment such as key seat wipers and drilling jarbumpers should be installed in the upper part of the assembly. Deflection tools such as a bent sub or bent-housing motor change the direction of the hole. These are identified by degrees of bend, the actual angle built into the tool . This is a reference and not the actual angular rate of change made during drilling. Normally the actual angular change is considerably higher than the reference bend angle. The amount of change depends upon tool placement in the drilling assembly,

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equipment used, form-

ations, and operating parameters. For example, a 2 bent sub will

curve the hole about 30~!100 ft drilled, depending upon assembly design and the other factors noted. Deflection tools in combination cause higher rates of change. A 1 bent sub above a 1bent-housing motor in a standard assembly will curve the hole about 8/100 ft. The same assembly with a 2 bent sub and 3 bent-housing motor will curve the hole about 20/100 ft. Supporting the bent-housing motor increases the build rate to about 24/100 ft. The number of nonmagnetic drill collars, usually one to three, depends upon hole and assembly diameters, drift, direction, and the earth's magnet lines of declination at the drill site. It is important to ensure that the steel in the remainder ofthe BHA does not affect compass-type course measurements. The actual number required may be found from empirical charts and tables. Nonmagnetic stabilizers should be used If necessary. These stabilizers may have some magnetic material such as the hard facing. The measuring instrument receptacle should be placed so that the compass is near, or slightly below, the center of the nonmagnetic collar section and as near to the bottom ofthe assembly as possible.The position may vary depending upon the equipment on the bottomhole assembly. It should be noted that drill tools develop or gain magnetism due to movement in the hole. There is a high incidence of key seating and wall sticking in directional and horizontal drilling compared to vertical drilling. Spiral or fluted collars should be used when applicable. Torque and drag normally are higher in directional wells and are main considerations in drillstring design. Torque and .drag in common directional holes are about 15-30% more than that of a vertical hole at the same equivalent depth (TVD). Higher values are not uncommon on more complicated directional designs and on most horizontal holes. Assembly weight should be reduced to minimize high drag and torque. Part of the regular collars can be replaced with heavy drillpipe, especially for drilling in horizontal holes. Additional bit weight may be obtained by concentrating heavy BHA components near the bit. Part ofthe collars in the upper part of the assembly can be replaced with heavy drillpipe. One acceptable practice is to place heavy drillpipe above drilling jars. Heavy drillpipe generally should not be used in the bottom part of most BHAs because it is less rigid. Some BHAs (split assemblies) can be divided into two parts for severe conditions, moving the upper part of the BHA to the vertical hole section in some directional and many horizontal holes. These can be connected together with compression pipe, or sometimes heavy or regular drill pipe.

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3.2.4 Classification of BHA Assemblies

Bottomhole assemblies are subdivided into rotary and motor classifications Rotary bottomhole assemblies are turned with a rotary or top drive. The bit on motor assemblies is turned with a turbine or positive displacement motor in the lower drill collar assembly while the drillstring remains stationary. Bottomhole assemblies can be further divided into categories or types, some common to both classifications. The kind of equipmentand position in the BHA normally decide the assembly type.

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Limber, coring, and reaming assemblies are standard vertical drilling assemblies, but they are used in directional and horizontal drilling in special situations. A logical question is, Why have so many different assemblies if the deviation motor assembly drills in any direction? The answer is that another type of assembly often is more efficient for certain directional drilling operations, reducing costs and sometimes risk. For example, a deviation motor assembly can drop angle. But, an angle-drop rotary assembly often will drop angle faster, more economically, and with less risk. Another good example is the angle-hold rotary assembly that is very efficient in applicable conditions.

LIMBER Limber rotary assemblies have standard drill collars, usually 12 to 20, connected together with a bit on bottom. First it is necessary to determine the exact number of drill collars needed based on collar weight, projected bit weight, and the location ofthe free point as described in the section concerning free point. Ajar-bumper sub and keyseat wiper are commonly used as safety features. Limber assemblies are general-purpose assemblies commonly used in vertical drilling. They may be used in directional and horizontal operations for cleaning out the hole and when drilling without directional control. There is less risk of failure and sticking, and recovery by fishing is more successful. Limber assemblies also serve as a base for constructing other assemblies, either by adding tools between the drill collars or to the bottom of the assembly. Limber motor assemblies are similar to limber rotary assemblies except that a turbine or positive displacement motor is positioned immediately above the bit. They serve similar purposes and may increase the penetration rate in vertical and some directional drilling. Bit rotation is a major factor affecting penetration rate. A rotary or top drive rotates the bit about 50 to 150 revolutions per minute (rpm). A positive displacement motor turns the bit about 250 to 450 rpm, and the turbine will turn it faster. The normal practice is to turn the assembly slowly with the rotary or top drive when drilling straight, vertical or straight, inclined sections with the motor. The high rpm of the motor gives the main drilling action and may increase appreciably the amount of hole drilled. The basic criteria for selecting a motor assembly versus a rotary assembly depend on the incremental amount of hole drilled and additional cost of the turbine or motor.

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DEVIATION Deviation motor assemblies change the direction of the hole, drilling the new hole in a different heading. They deviate, sidetrack, and correct hole direction as described previously. Anglebuild rates are 2-5/100 ft for regular assemblies and more for high angle-build assemblies.

ANGLE BUILD Angle-build assemblies build or increase the angle of the hole in the vertical direction as previously described. Regular angle-build rotary assemblies build angle at 2-5/100 ft in a wellbore with an established buildup curvature. The build rate may be adjusted by changing the position of the stabilizer near the bit. Maximum efficiency is obtained in holes with inclinations of 10-25. The angle-build motor assembly has a motor or turbine immediately above the bit. The most common assembly has a bent sub above the motor. There are many variations for building angle at different rates such as pads under bend sections, fixed stabilizer blades under the lower motor section, bent housings, and combination tools. Buildup angles range from a few degrees to more than 20/100 ft for more aggressive assemblies. Drainhole angle-build assemblies are a special type guided by a whipstock mechanism. The Hooligan angle-build assembly is a special angle-building assembly. It is similar to the standard angle-build assembly except that it has a short section, 30-50 ft, of smaller diameter pipe or collars above the near-bit stabilizer. The smaller diameter pipe is flexible and bends more easily to increase the angle-build rate. The motor version has a positive displacement motor immediately above the bit. Hooligan assemblies build angle at 3-8/100 ft. They are structurally weaker than the other assemblies because of the smaller diameter pipe. They must be operated carefully to prevent failure. The rate of angle build may be increased with higher bit weight and lower rotary speed.

ANGLE DROP Angle-drop assemblies, often called pendulums, reduce the angle of the hole in the vertical plane. They are also used in vertical drilling to drill vertically downward where there is a formation tendency to cause the hole to deviate. A regular pendulum has one stabilizer located about 60 ft above the bit as previously described in the directional control section. These assemblies drop angle at 2-4/100 ft in high-angle holes and at a lesser rate as the angle of the hole decreases. The drop rate reduces at lower hole angles. The drop rate can be

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changed by adjusting the distance between the stabilizer and bit. A bit with aggressive sidecutting action drills more on the low side of the hole, increasing the angle-drop rate. Angledrop rotary assemblies are very efficient. Angle-drop motor assemblies are similar to rotary assemblies but have a turbine or motor placed above the bit. A packed-hole pendulum is similar to a regular pendulum except that it has two stabilizers, normally next to each other or separated by a pony drill collar. The extra stabilizer gives additional support at the fulcrum point for out-of-gauge holes or when the single stabilizer embeds in soft formations. Another variation has an extra stabilizer placed 30 ft above the fulcrum stabilizer. This reduces the drill collar sag above the fulcrum stabilizer and increases the aggressiveness of the assembly. The forced pendulum is similar to the regular pendulum except that the stabilizer is closer to the bit, usually within 30-45 ft. Additional weight flexes the collars so that they bend, causing the bit to drill a downward curve. The forced pendulum is used instead of the regular pendulum to increase the drilling rate and still permit angle-dropping when conditions are favorable. The stabilizer spacing, bit weight, and rotary speed may be adjusted to improve performance.

REAMING Reaming assemblies straighten and smooth crooked holes, restore Under gauge holes to gauge, smooth out irregularities in the wellbores, and remove key seats. They reduce excessive hole curvature over short intervals such as those entering and exiting a sharply curved section. Most reaming is a high-risk operation as described in the section on reaming. Two basic types of reaming assemblies are drill-collar reaming assemblies and string reamer assemblies. The drill-collar reaming assembly has a near-bit reamer and reamers on top of the first and second drill collars above the bit. More aggressive reaming assemblies are run for severe hole conditions. They may have a near-bit reamer, a pony collar located above the bit with another reamer above it, and reamers on top of the next several drill collars. It is always a good practice to use a pilot-type hole opener on bottom instead of a bit for severe reaming conditions. This reduces the risk of accidentally sidetracking. String reamers include one or more reamers positioned in the drillpipe string above the BHA. They rotate with the drill string for reaming with the bit off bottom. They can be positioned in the drill pipe string so that they ream through specific hole sections while continuing drilling with the bit on bottom.

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HOLD Hold or stiff rotary assemblies maintain the drift and direction of the wellbore while drilling vertical or inclined hole sections. Hold motor assemblies are similar except that a turbine or motor on bottom rotates the bit. One modification is a slight build or steerable assembly. It is similar to angle-build motor assemblies but is designed for a low angle of build. The construction and action of hold assemblies was described in the directional control section.

Fig.: Various Bottom Hole Assemblies with Stabilizers

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Chapter 4

DEFLECTION TOOLS AND METHODS

4.1 DRILLING TOOLS

4.1.1 HEAVY WALL DRILLPIPE (HWDP) Heavy wall drillpipe (or heavy weight drillpipe) has a greater wall thickness than ordinary drillpipe and is often used at the base of the drillpipe where stress concentration is greatest. The stress concentration is due to: The difference in cross section and therefore stiffness between the drillpipe and drillcollars. The rotation and cutting action of the bit can frequently result in a vertical bouncing effect. HWDP is used to absorb the stresses being transferred from the stiff drill collars to the relatively flexible drill-pipe. The major benefits of HWDP are: Increased wall thickness Longer tool joints Uses more hard facing May have a long central upset section HWDP should always be operated in compression. More lengths of HWDP are required to maintain compression in highly deviated holes. 4.1.2 DRILL COLLARS Drillcollars are tubulars which have a much larger outer diameter and generally smaller inner diameter than drillpipe. A typical drillstring would consist of 9 O.D. x 2 13/16 I.D. drillcollars and 5 O.D. x 4.276 I.D. drillpipe. The drillcollars therefore have a significantly thicker wall than drillpipe. The function of drill collars are: To provide enough weight on bit for efficient drilling To keep the drillstring in tension, thereby reducing bending stresses and failures due to fatigue. To provide stiffness in the BHA for directional control. Since the drillcollars have such a large wall thickness tooljoints are not necessary and the connection threads can be machined directly onto the body of the collar. The weakest point in the drill collars is the connection and therefore the correct make up torque must be applied to prevent failure. The external surface of a regular collar is round (slick), although other profiles are available. Drill collars are normally supplied in Range 2 lengths (30-32 ft). The collars are manufactured from chrome-molybdenum alloy, which is fully heat treated over the entire length. The bore of the collar is accurately machined to ensure a smooth, balanced rotation. Drill collars are produced in a large range of sizes with various types of joint connection.

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Fig.: Different Sizes of Drill Collars SPECIAL TYPES OF COLLAR Anti-wall stick When drilling through certain formations the large diameter drillcollars can become stuck against the borehole (differential sticking). This is likely to happen when the formation is highly porous, a large overbalance of mud pressure is being used and the well is highly deviated. One method of preventing this problem is to reduce the contact area of the collar against the wellbore. Spiral grooves can be cut into the surface of the collar to reduce its surface area. (Figure 7) Square collars These collars are usually 1/16 less than bit size, and are run to provide maximum stabilisation of the bottom hole assembly. Monel collars These collars are made of a special non-magnetic steel alloy. Their purpose is to isolate directional survey instruments from magnetic distortion due to the steel drillstring.

Fig.: Spiral drill collar

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4.1.3 STABILISERS: Stabilisers consist of a length of pipe with blades on the external surface. These blades may be either straight or spiral and there are numerous designs of stabilisers (Figure 8). The blades can either be fixed on to the body of the pipe, or mounted on a rubber sleeve (sleeve stabiliser), which allows the drillstring to rotate within it.

Fig.: Different types of stabilizers The function of the stabiliser depends on the type of hole being drilled. Their role has been clearly elucidated in the section on BHA. 4.1.4 SHOCK SUB (VIBRATION DAMPENER) A shock sub is normally located above the bit to reduce the stress due to bouncing when the bit is drilling through hard rock. The shock sub absorbs the vertical vibration either by using a strong steel spring, or a resilient rubber element (Figure 11). 4.1.5 SUBS (SUBSTITUTES) Subs are short joints of pipe which act as crossovers (i.e. connect components which cannot otherwise be screwed together because of differences in thread type or size). 4.1.6 DRILLING JARS The purpose of these tools is to deliver a sharp blow to free the pipe if it becomes stuck in the hole. Hydraulic jars are activated by a straight pull and give an upward blow. Mechanical jars

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are preset at surface to operate when a given compression load is applied and give a downward blow. Jars are usually positioned at the top of the drill collars. 4.1.7 ROLLER REAMERS
A roller reamer consists of stabiliser blades with rollers embedded into surface of the blade. The rollers may be made from high grade carburised steel or have tungsten carbide inserts (Figure 10). The roller reamer acts as a stabiliser and is especially useful in maintaining gauge hole. It will also ream out any potential hole problems (e.g. dog legs, key seats, ledges).

Fig: Roller Reamers

4.2 DEFLECTION TOOLS AND METHODS

There are a number of tools and techniques which can be used to change the direction in which a bit will drill. These tools and techniques can be used to change the inclination or the azimuthal direction of the wellbore or both. All of these tools and techniques work on one of two basic principles. The first principle is to introduce a bit tilt angle into the axis of the BHA just above the bit and the second is to introduce a sideforce to the bit. The introduction of a tilt angle or sideforce to the bit will result in the bit drilling off at an angle to the current trajectory. The major tools currently used for this purpose are: Bent Sub and Positive Displacement Motor Non-Rotating Steerable Drilling Systems

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Rotary Steering System Directional Bottom Hole Assemblies (BHA) Whipstocks 4.2.1 BENT SUB AND MUD MOTOR The most commonly used technique for changing the trajectory of the wellbore uses a piece of equipment known as a bent sub and a Positive Displacement (mud) motor. A bent sub is a short length of pipe with a diameter which is approximately the same as the drillcollars and with threaded connections on either end. It is manufactured in such a way that the axis of the lower connection is slightly offset (less than 3 degrees) from the axis of the upper connection. When made up into the BHA it introduces a tilt angle to the elements of the BHA below it and therefore to the axis of the drillbit. However, the introduction of a bent sub into the BHA means that the centre of the bit is also offset from the centre line of the drillstring above the bent sub and it is not possible therefore to rotate the drillbit by rotating the drillstring from surface. Even if this were possible, the effect of the tilt angle would of course be eliminated since there would be no preferential direction for the bit to drill in.

Fig.: Bent Sub

The bent sub must therefore be used in conjunction with a Positive Displacement Motor, PDM or a Drilling Turbine. The PDM is often called a mud motor and is used in far more wells than the turbine. The bent sub and PDM can of course only be used in the build up or drop off portion of the well since the bit will continue to drill in the direction of the tilt angle as long as the bent sub is in the assembly and the mud motor is being used to rotate the bit. This leads to the major disadvantage of using a bent sub and PDM to change the trajectory of the well. When drilling a well, the conventional assembly (without bent sub and mud motor) used to drill the straight portion of the well must be pulled from the hole and the bent sub and PDM assembly run in hole before the well trajectory can be changed. The bent sub and motor will then be used to drill off in a particular direction. When the well is drilling in the required

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direction (inclination and azimuth), the bent sub and PDM must then be pulled and the conventional assembly re-run.

Fig.: BHA with bent sub and mud motor

4.2.2 STEERABLE DRILLING SYSTEMS A steerable drilling system allows directional changes (azimuth and/or inclination) of the well to be performed without tripping to change the BHA, hence its name. It consists of: a drill bit; a stabilized positive displacement steerable mud motor; a stabilizer; and a directional surveying system which monitors and transmits to surface the hole azimuth, inclination and toolface on a real time basis. The capability to change direction at will is made possible by placing the tilt angle very close to the bit, using a navigation sub on a standard PDM. This tilt angle can be used to drill in a specific direction, in the same way as the tilt angle generated by a bent sub with the drillbit being rotated by the mud motor when circulating. However, since the tilt angle is much closer to the bit than a conventional bent sub assembly, it produces a much lower bit offset and this means that the drill bit can also be rotated by rotating the entire string at surface (in the same way as when using a conventional assembly). Hence the steerable assembly can be used to drill in a specific direction by orienting the bent sub in the required direction and simply circulating the fluid to rotate the bit (as in the bent sub assembly) or to drill in a straight line by both rotating and circulating fluid through the

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drillstring. When rotating from surface we will of course be circulating fluid also and therefore the rotation of the bit generated by the mud motor will be super-imposed on the rotation from surface. This does not alter the fact that the effect of the bit tilt angle will be eliminated by the rotation of the entire assembly.

Fig.: steerable drilling system

When using the navigation sub and mud motor to drill a deviated section of hole (such as build up or drop off section of hole) the term oriented or sliding drilling is used to describe the drilling operation. When drilling in a straight line, by rotation of the assembly, the term rotary drilling is used to describe the drilling operation.

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The directional tendencies of the system are principally affected by the navigation sub tilt angle and the size and distance between the PDM stabilizer and the first stabilizer above the motor. The steerable drilling systems are particularly valuable where changes in the direction of the borehole are difficult to achieve; where directional control is difficult to maintain in the tangent sections of the well (such as in formations with dipping beds) or where frequent changes may be required. The steerable systems are used in conjunction with MWD tools which contain petrophysical and directional sensors. These types of MWD tools are often called Logging Whilst Drilling, LWD tools. The petrophysical sensors are used to detect changes in the properties of the formations (lithology, resistivity or porosity) whilst drilling and therefore determine if a change in direction is required. Effectively the assembly is being used to track desirable formation properties and place the wellbore in the most desirable location from a reservoir engineering perspective. The term Geosteering is often used when the steerable system is used to drill a directional well in this way. 4.2.3 ROTARY STEERABLE SYSTEM The rotary steering system described here operates on the priciple of the application of a sideforce in a similar way to the non-rotating systems described above. However, in these systems it is also possible to rotate the drillstring even when drilling directionally or as described above when in the "oriented mode" of drilling. It is therefore possible to rotate the string at all times during the drilling operation. This is desirable for many reasons but mostly because it has been found that it is much easier to transport drilled cuttings from the wellbore when the drillstring is rotating. When the drillstring is not rotating there is a tendency for the cuttings to settle around the drillstring and it may become stuck. There are two major methods of RSS used currently: Push the Bit Point the Bit The details of these technologies have been discussed in section 3.1.1.4.

4.2.4 WHIPSTOCKS Whipstocks were the first reliable deviating tool, but now they have been replaced by the more efficient bent sub and mud motor or turbine deviating systems. Modified whipstocks are used for deviating in cased holes and for short-radius horizontal drilling systems. It has a tapered body that guides directional tools away from the axis of the wellbore. There are 3 types of whipstock used in conventional directional drilling:

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Standard removable Whipstock The Standard Removable Whipstock is mainly used to kick off wells, but can also be used for sidetracking. It consists of a long inverted steel wedge which is concave on one side to hold and guide the drilling assembly. It is also provided with a chisel point at the bottom to prevent the tool from turning, and a heavy collar at the top to withdraw the tool from the hole. It will usually be used with a drilling assembly consisting of a bit, a spiral stabilizer, and an orientation sub, rigidly attached to the whipstock by means of a shear pin. The whipstock assembly is lowered to the bottom of the hole and orientated. Weight is applied to set the whipstock and shear the pin. The bit is then drilled down and forced to deflect to one side. A 12 to 16 foot rat hole is drilled below the toe of the whipstock and the assembly is then pulled out of hole, taking the whipstock with it. A hole opener is run to open the rat hole out to full gauge. The hole opener assembly is then tripped out and a rapid angle build assembly run in hole to follow upthe initial deflection. This whole procedure may have to be repeated several times in the kick-off. It is obvious that the major disadvantage of the standard whipstock is the number of trips involved. The other important disadvantage is that the whipstock produced a sudden, sharp deflection - in other words, a severe dogleg - which may give rise to subsequent problems with the hole. The advantages are that it is a fairly simple piece of equipment which requires relatively little maintenance and has no temperature limitations.

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Circulating Whipstock The Circulating Whipstock is run, set and drilled like the standard whipstock. However, in this case the drilling mud initially flows through a passage to the bottom of the whipstock which permits more efficient cleaning of the bottom of the hole and ensures a clean seat for the tool. It is most efficient for washing out bottom hole fills. Permanent Casing Whipstock The Permanent Casing Whipstock is designed to remain permanently in the well. It is used where a window is to be cut in casing for a sidetrack.A special stinger at the base of the whipstock slips into the packer assembly, and a stainless steel key within the packer locks the whipstock's anchor-seal and prohibits any circular movement during drilling. The normal procedure is to orientate the system and then set the packer. After this, the starting mill is pinned to the whipstock and the whole assembly run slowly in hole and seated in the packer. Although the packer has already been orientated, it is good practice to orientate the whipstock in the same manner as the packer. This will ensure that a faster latch up will take place without endangering the shear pin. After the whipstock has been seated in the packer, the pin is sheared and circulation and rotation started. The starting mill is used to make an initial cut through the casing and mill approximately 2 feet of the window. The lug that held the

Fig.: Permanent Casing Whipstock

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starting mill to the whipstock must also be milled off. This assembly is tripped out and the mill changed. A tungsten carbide or diamond speed mill is used to cut the rest of the window. Once the window has been cut, approximately 5 feet of formation is cut before pulling out of hole. Next, a taper mill is run with a watermelon mill immediately above it. This is done to clean the top and the bottom of the window. Finally, another trip is made to change over to the drilling assembly which is used to drill ahead. The advantage of using this system, instead of the normal method of milling a section and sidetracking, is that the operation usually takes less time. The main disadvantage is that it gives a sharp dogleg, and as such the casing whipstock assembly is not recommended if there is a considerable distance to drill below the sidetrack. This is because problems can occur when trying to pull stabilizers, etc back into the casing through the window. On the other hand, if there is only a short distance to be drilled below the sidetrack point, then the casing whipstock is well worth considering. In recent years, improvements in the design of the system have eliminated the need for so many trips in and out of the hole.

4.2.5 JETTING Jetting (or badgering) is a technique used to deviate wellbores in soft formations. The technique was developed in the mid 1950s and superseded the use of whipstocks as the primary deflection technique. Although jetting has subsequently been supplanted by downhole motor deflection assemblies it is still used frequently and offers several advantages which makes it the preferred method in some situations. A special jet bit may be used, but it is also common practice to use a standard soft formation tri-cone bit, with one very large nozzle and two smaller ones. Requirements for jetting: The formations must be soft enough to be eroded by the mud exiting the large nozzle. As a rough rule of thumb, if formations cannot be drilled at penetration rates of greater than 80 ft/hr using normal drilling parameters, they are not suitable for jetting. Jetting is most effective in soft, sandy formations, and its effectiveness is reduced as depth increases, since the formations become more compacted. Adequate rig hydraulic horsepower must be available. For jetting to be successful there must be adequate hydraulic energy available at the bit to erode the formation. A rule of thumb for jetting is that mud velocity through the large jet should be at least 500 ft/sec. Jetting Assemblies: A typical jetting assembly used to drill a 121/4pilot hole is: 1) 121/4jet bit, 2) extension sub, 3) 121/4stabilizer,

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4) UBHO sub, 5) 3 x 8" Drill Collars, 6) 12-1/4 stabilizer, 7) Drill Collar, 8) HWDP as required. This is essentially a strong angle build rotary assembly with a suitable bit for jetting. The upper stabilizer is optional and is often omitted. Nozzling the Jetting Bit There are three alternatives: 1. Use a specialized jet bit with a large extended nozzle in place of one of the cones. 2. Fit one large and two small nozzles in a conventional tri-cone bit. 3. Blank off one nozzle of a conventional bit to divert the flow through the other two. Flow through two jets may be desirable in large hole sizes (e.g. 17-1/2) because of the large washout required to deflect the bit and near bit stabilizer. Procedure for Jetting The assembly will be run to bottom, a survey is taken and the large jet nozzle (the tool face) is orientated in the required direction. Maximum circulation is established (e.g. 800 gpm in 12-1/4 hole) and a controlled washout is affected. The drill string may be spudded up and down periodically, but not rotated, until several feet of hole have been made and the bit and near bit stabilizer have been forced into the washed out pocket. The technique is to lift the string 5 to 10 feet off bottom and then let it fall, catching it with the brake so that the stretch of the string causes it to spud on bottom rather than the full weight of the string. Another technique which may improve the effectiveness of jetting involves turning the rotary table a few degrees (15) right and left while jetting. Having jetted 3 to 8 feet of hole (the exact distance depending on required build rate and previous results) drilling is started. The circulation rate is now reduced to about 50%. Hole cleaning considerations are ignored while drilling the next 10 feet or so. High weight on bit (40 - 45 Klb) and low rotary speed (60 70 RPM) should be used to bend the assembly and force it to follow through the trend established while jetting. Progress may be difficult at first because of interference between the stabilizer and the irregularly shaped jetted hole. After approximately 10 feet of hole has been drilled, the pump rate can be increased to perhaps 60% - 70% of the rate originally used while jetting. High WOB and low RPM should be maintained. The hole is drilled down to the next survey point. A survey is taken to evaluate progress. If the dogleg is too severe the section should be reamed and another survey taken. At the start of a kick-off, jetting is repeated every single until about 3 of angle has been built. After that, it is normal to jet every double. After drilling each section, the jet nozzle has to be re-orientated to the desired tool face setting before jetting again. The operation is repeated until sufficient angle has been built and the well is heading in the desired direction.

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The principle is that, during the initial spudding and washing process, a pocket is produced in the formation opposite the jet nozzle. When high WOB is then applied and the drill string rotated, the bit and near bit stabilizer work their way into the pocket (the path of least resistance). The collars above the NB stabilizer bend and contact the low side of the hole. This causes a bending moment about the NB stabilizer which acts as a pivot or fulcrum, and the bit is pushed harder into the pocket (i.e. the direction in which the large jet nozzle was originally orientated). Advantages of Jetting It is a simple and cheap method of deflecting well bores in soft formations. No special equipment is needed. Dogleg severity can be partly controlled from surface by varying the number of feet jetted each time. The survey tool is not far behind the bit, so survey depths are not much less than the corresponding bit depths. Orientation of tool face is fairly easy. The same assembly can be used for normal rotary drilling. Disadvantages of Jetting The technique only works in soft formation and therefore at shallow depths. For this reason, jetting is mainly used to kick wells off at shallow depths. In jetting, high dogleg severities are often produced. Deviation is produced in a series of sudden changes, rather than a smooth continuous change. For this reason, it is normal practice to jet an undergauge hole and then open it out to full gauge, which smooths off the worst of the doglegs.

4.3 MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING (MWD)

MWD stands for Measurement While Drilling in the oil & gas industry. The simplest way to describe MWD is to relate it to the measurements a pilot takes. A pilot needs to know the direction they are flying (North, South, East, or West), the angle they are fly at (up, down, or horizontal), and what type of skies they will be flying through (rough, choppy, cloudy, rainy, etc.). Like a pilot a directional driller needs to know these items about the ground formations that they are drilling through. MWD provides this information. Previous to MWD measurements were taken at various parts of the drilling process, but MWD has allowed these measurements to be sent to the surface continuously while the hole is being drilled. This allows for faster drilling, more accurate drilling, and safer drilling. Beyond the basic concept MWD is a system developed to perform drilling related measurements downhole that are transmit to the surface while drilling a well. MWD tools are installed as part of the bottom hole assembly (BHA) near the drill bit. The tools are either contained inside a thick walled, drill collar (drill collars are typically used to add weight for

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drilling) or they are built directly into the collars at a factory prior to arriving on the drilling location.

MWD systems can take several measurements such as Gamma Ray, compass direction (shown as azimuth), tool face (the direction that your bit is pointing), borehole pressure, temperature, vibration, shock, torque, etc. The MWD also provides the means of communication for operating rotary steering tools (RSTs). The measured results are stored in MWD tools and some of the results can be transmitted digitally to surface using mud pulser telemetry through the mud or other advanced technology such as electromagnetic(EM) frequency communications or wired drill pipe.

4.3.1 Type of Information Transmitted

Directional information MWD tools are generally capable of taking directional surveys in real time. The tool uses accelerometers and magnetometers to measure the inclination and azimuth of the wellbore at that location, and they then transmit that information to the surface. With a series

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of surveys; measurements of inclination, azimuth, and tool face, at appropriate intervals (anywhere from every 30 ft (i.e. 10m) to every 500 ft), the location of the wellbore can be calculated. By itself, this information allows operators to prove that their well does not cross into areas that they are not authorized to drill. However, due to the cost of MWD systems, they are not generally used on wells intended to be vertical. Instead, the wells are surveyed after drilling through the use of Multishot Surveying Tools lowered into the drillstring on slickline or wireline. The primary use of real-time surveys is in Directional Drilling. For the Directional Driller to steer the well towards a target zone, he must know where the well is going, and what the effects of his steering efforts are. MWD tools also generally provide toolface measurements to aid in directional drilling using downhole mud motors with bent subs or bent housings. For more information on the use of toolface measurements, see Directional Drilling.

Drilling mechanics information MWD tools can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit. This may include: Rotational speed of the drillstring Smoothness of that rotation Type and severity of any vibration downhole Downhole temperature Torque and Weight on Bit, measured near the drill bit Mud flow volume

Use of these information can allow the operator to drill the well more efficiently, and to ensure that the MWD tool and any other downhole tools, such as Mud Motors, Rotary Steerable Systems, and LWD tools, are operated within their technical specifications to prevent tool failure. This information also is valuable to Geologists responsible for the well information about the formation which is being drilled.

Formation properties Many MWD tools, either on their own, or in conjunction with separate Logging While Drilling tools, can take measurements of formation properties. At the surface, these measurements are assembled into a log, similar to one obtained by wireline logging. LWD Logging While Drilling tools are able to measure a suite of geological characteristics including- density, porosity, resistivity, acoustic-caliper, inclination at the drill bit (NBI), magnetic resonance and formation pressure.

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The MWD tool allows these measurements to be taken and evaluated while the well is being drilled. This makes it possible to perform Geosteering, or Directional Drilling based on measured formation properties, rather than simply drilling into a preset target. Most MWD tools contain an internal Gamma Ray sensor to measure natural Gamma Ray values. This is because these sensors are compact, inexpensive, reliable, and can take measurements through unmodified drill collars. Other measurements often require separate Logging While Drilling tools, which communicate with the MWD tools downhole through internal wires. Measurement while drilling can be cost-effective in exploration wells, particularly in areas of the Gulf of Mexico where wells are drilled in areas of salt diapirs. The resistivity log will detect penetration into salt, and early detection prevents salt damage to bentonite drilling mud.

4.3.2 MWD major Sub Components :-

Power System Directional Sensors Telemetry System

4.3.2.1 Power System Battery can provide power without drilling fluid Turbine Power generation through drilling fluid flow

Both types of power systems have inherent advantages & liabilities.

Battery Lithium-thionyl chloride are commonly used provide stable voltage source until the very near end of their service life, dont require complex electronics to condition supply. Safer at lower temp., if heated above 1800C, can go a violent, accelerated reaction, and explode with significant force. subject to strict environmental regulations.

These batteries are efficient over their service life, are not chargeable, and disposal is

Turbine Turbine is the source of abundant power generation and uses what is available in rigs drilling fluid.

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A rotor is placed in circulating stream, and circulating drilling fluid is directed onto rotor blades by a stator. This rotational force is transferred to alternator through a common shaft. Power generated is 3-pahse AC of variable frequency. Electronics is required to rectify in usable DC. Turbine rotor must be capable of handling various flow rates.

4.3.2.2 Directional Sensors

Accelerometers used for Inclination measurement. It consists of a quartz crystal suspended in an electromagnetic field. It measures the inclination of the tool by how much electromagnetic force is required to maintain the position of the crystal in the centre of the field. Magnetometers used for azimuth measurement. It consist a transformer like sensor with electronic circuitry. When it is placed in magnetic field , variations in the magnetic induction at its core are indicated by the output of its secondary windings. By this direct measurement of component of the external field parallel to the sensitivity axis of magnetometer. By combining three such sensors suitably aligned at right angle to each other, all three components of earths magnetic field can be measured.

4.3.2.3 Data Transmission Methods / Telemetry System

Electric Conductors (hard wire system) Electromagnetic Radiation Acoustic waves Mud pulses

Hardware System :Transmit electric signals through some conductor. - Insulated Conductor Attached to Drill Pipe - Conductor Cable Running through Drill String - Insulated armored-encased wires the length of the inside of the drill pipe, before disappearing into the connection end to the induction loop [Intelliserv network].

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Intellisery Network

It allow live, high speed [57000 bps] two way communication with down hole devices. A physical & signal protocol interface allows MWD/LWD to arrive at the derrick floor without having to stop drilling, the signal is stripped off by a slip ring electrical swivel.Baker Hughes modified it by introducing interface sub above the MWD tool string and used present MWD data bus for all components below the interface.this allowed unaltered tools to attach to the network, with full functioning, existing mud pulse telemetry as back up.when both telemetry systems are used in parallel, data speed found is 12bps. When mud pulse is turned off and kept as back up, a higher resolution data stream was available.

Advantage Higher data transmission rate hence more information can be transmitted in real time. Down hole power source is not required. Two way communication is possible. Unlike some other methods there is effectively no depth limitations since signal attenuation is not a problem.

Electromagnetic Method: Signals are sent through low frequency[2-10Hz] electromagnetic waves that propagates through earths crust. EM waves transmitter is mounted in BHA. Signals generated are modulated to send required data in the form of binary code. At surface these signals are detected by a antenna near rig site[approx.100 mts]. EM signal is attenuated with increasing well depth & with increasing formation conductivity and thickness of overlying formation.

Advantage No disruption to normal drilling operation. Simpler rig up than other methods. Communication and transmission can be two way.

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Limited to On shore wells, besides a hardwire to surface, EMT is the only commercial means for MWD data transmission in compressible fluid environments common in UBD applications.

Disadvantage Only low frequency waves can be transmitted. Sometimes difficult to distinguished from frequencies emitted by electrical equipment on the rig.

Acoustic Method : Propagation of sound wave through drill pipe provides the telemetry channel. To prevent back ground noise due to drilling operation a large sound wave generator is required in BHA. Though data rates are generally high,significant attenuation along the drill string[d/p connections] also makes it difficult to pick up signal at surface. So the repeater stations situated at intervals in drill string can be used to amplify the signal, but this introduces complication and cost also.

Mud pulse telemetry :This is the most common method of data transmission used by MWD (Measurement While Drilling) tools. Downhole a valve is operated to restrict the flow of the drilling mud (slurry) according to the digital information to be transmitted. This creates pressure fluctuations representing the information. The pressure fluctuations propagate within the drilling fluid towards the surface where they are received from pressure sensors. On the surface, the received pressure signals are processed by computers to reconstruct the information. The technology is available in three varieties - positive pulse, negative pulse, and continuous wave.

Positive Pulse Positive Pulse tools briefly close and open the valve to restrict the mud flow within the drill pipe. This produces an increase in pressure that can be seen at surface. Line codes are used to represent the digital information in form of pulses.

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Negative Pulse Negative pulse tools briefly open and close the valve to release mud from inside the drillpipe out to the annulus. This produces a decrease in pressure that can be seen at surface. Line codes are used to represent the digital information in form of pulses.

Advantage
Positive Pulse Systems are commonly used in current MWD & LWD. This may be because the generation of significant sized negative pulse requires pressure drop across BHA, which reduces hole cleaning capacity of fluid. Simplicity over other methods. No special drill pipe is required. No complication due to wire line in the hole. Only minor alterations to normal drilling practices are necessary.

Disadvantage
The pressure pulses travel through mud column at around 4000 -5000 ft/sec, but there is limit to the amount of information that can be sent in real time. It does not work in compressible fluids.

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Continuous Wave Continuous wave tools gradually close and open the valve to generate sinusoidal pressure fluctuations within the drilling fluid. Any digital modulation scheme with a continuous phase can be used to impose the information on a carrier signal. The most widely used modulation scheme is continuous phase modulation.

When underbalanced drilling is used, mud pulse telemetry can become unusable. This is because usually in order to reduce the equivalent density of the drilling mud a compressible gas is injected into the mud. This causes high signal attenuation which drastically reduces the ability of the mud to transmit pulsed data. In this case it is necessary to use methods different from mud pulse telemetry, such as electromagnetic waves propagating through the formation or wired drill pipe telemetry. Current mud pulse telemetry technology offers a bandwidths of up to 40 bit/s. The data rate drops with increasing length of the wellbore and is typically as low as 1.5 bit/s - 3.0 bit/s. (bits per second) at a depth of 35,000 ft - 40,000 ft (10668 m - 12192 m). Surface to down hole communication is typically done via changes to drilling parameters, i.e. change of the rotation speed of the drill string or change of the mud flow rate. Making changes to the drilling parameters in order to send information can require interruption of the drilling process, which is unfavorable due to the fact that it causes non-productive time.

4.3.3 Retrievable Tools

MWD tools may be semi-permanently mounted in a drill collar (only removable at servicing facilities), or they may be self-contained and wireline retrievable. Retrievable tools, sometimes known as Slim Tools, can be retrieved and replaced using wireline through the drill string. This generally allows the tool to be replaced much faster in case of failure, and it allows the tool to be recovered if the drillstring becomes stuck. Retrievable tools must be much smaller, usually about 2 inches or less in diameter, though their length may be 20 feet or more. The small size is necessary for the tool to fit through the drillstring, however, it also limits the tool's capabilities. For example, slim tools are not

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capable of sending data at the same rates as collar mounted tools, and they are also more limited in their ability to communicate with and supply electrical power to other LWD tools. Collar-mounted tools, also known as Fat Tools, cannot generally be removed from their drill collar at the wellsite. If the tool fails, the entire drillstring must be pulled out of the hole to replace it. However, without the need to fit through the drillstring, the tool can be larger and more capable. The ability to retrieve the tool via wireline is often useful. For example, if the drillstring becomes stuck in the hole, then retrieving the tool via wireline will save a substantial amount of money compared to leaving it in the hole with the stuck portion of the drillstring. However, there are some limitations on the process. Limitations Retrieving a tool using wireline is not necessarily faster than pulling the tool out of the hole. For example, if the tool fails at 1,500 ft (460 m) while drilling with a triple rig (able to trip 3 joints of pipe, or about 90 ft (30 m) feet, at a time), then it would generally be faster to pull the tool out of the hole than it would be to rig up wireline and retrieve the tool, especially if the wireline unit must be transported to the rig. Wireline retrievals also introduce additional risk. If the tool becomes detached from the wireline, then it will fall back down the drillstring. This will generally cause severe damage to the tool and the drillstring components in which it seats, and will require the drillstring to be pulled out of the hole to replace the failed components, thus resulting in a greater total cost than pulling out of the hole in the first place. The wireline gear might also fail to latch onto the tool, or in the case of a severe failure, might bring only a portion of the tool to the surface. This would require the drillstring to be pulled out of the hole to replace the failed components, thus making the wireline operation a waste of time.

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Chapter 5

RIGSITE OPERATIONS

A lot of the DDs time is spend on the drill floor. His duties may involve supervisingBHA make-up, orienting, setting drilling parameters, doing a simple projection,performing a sidetrack, nudging a well etc. This chapter is meant to cover the main areasof DD hands-on responsibility during the course of drilling a directional well.It is worthwhile to mention again that, during the time the DD is not on the drill floor,the driller must have explicit instructions as to drilling parameters, BHA changes etc.There must be good lines of communication with the drillers, toolpushers and, of course,the drilling supervisor(s).As steerable systems are in wide use today, it is vital that the drillers are educated in thebasics of PDM operation. They must be able to recognize, for example, when a PDMstalls out. DWOB and DTOR are very useful tools, especially when using PDC bits.Most drillers are willing to learn how to use this data. While the DD has to keep a closewatch on the drilling operation, he cannot be on the drill floor all the time! It is a goodidea to get the Anadrill MWD engineers familiar with some of the DD basics andprocedures. 5.1 BHA Weight Before a BHA is designed, an estimate is made of the maximum weight on bit (WOB)which will be required. This will depend on the bit specification and on the formation.On reaching bottom, the WOB actually applied will also depend on the BHAs directionalresponse.A BHA must be picked up which has an available WOB appropriate to the givensituation. The number of drill collars should be kept to the minimum. HWDP is used togive the remainder of the required WOB.The Neutral Point (N) of a drillstring is where the changeover from tension tocompression occurs. Everything below N is in compression. Everything above N is intension. Figure 5-1 shows a situation where N is in the DCs.The weight per foot of each size of DC and HWDP is known. Thus, the weight in air of any BHA is easily calculated. However, we must then correct this weight to actualdownhole conditions in a deviated well.In any well, the buoyancy effect of the mud on the drillstring must be accounted for. Atable of values of Buoyancy Factor (BF) is available (Chapter 15). The higher the mudweight, the lower the value of BF and the smaller the weight available for use on WOB.Buoyancy can have a significant effect on the WOB calculation. In 14 ppg mud, 21% of the weight in air is lost due to buoyancy.

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Figure 5-1 Neutral point in the DCs InFigure 5-2,an object weight W is shown lying on a plane inclined at an angle a. Wcan be divided into two components, one perpendicular to the plane and the otherparallel to the plane. The perpendicular force P will tend to hold the object against theplane. It creates the friction. The parallel force L will tend to slide the object down theplane. L is the remaining force available from the weight of the object. L is thus thecomponent of W which is usable as weight. L = Wcosa In deviated wells, the inclination must be allowed for in the calculation of availableWOB Available WOB = (Buoyed BHA Weight)(cos Inclination)

Figure 5-2 Concept of available WOB Thus, in a well having an inclination of 45, the BHA weight available as WOB is only71% of that available if the well were vertical.

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Drill pipe must not be run in compression in a non-horizontal well. To ensure that thedrill pipe is always in tension, the neutral point must be either in the HWDP or in theDCs. Obviously, the lower the WOB, the closer to the bit N is. Therefore, the BHA must be designed to account for the worst case i.e. when maximum WOB is applied. A Safety Factor (SF) is used, if practical, in the calculation of the BHA weight required. This is usually 10%.Consider a well having an inclination a. BHA Weight in Air =(Available WOB + SF)/(BF*Cosa) A tapered drillstring may be used. This normally involves use of two (or more) sizes of DCs below the HWDP. The WOB calculation is done as above, allowing for thedifferent DC weights.Finally, the position of the drilling jars must be considered. The EQ jar trip mechanismshould be 5,000 lbs. in tension to avoid a neutral point location. For optimum down-hitperformance, the jars should be positioned so that there is at least 5,000 lbs. BHA weight above them. Use 20,000 lbs. of drillpipe slack-off to obtain in the 8 free stroke requiredby the EQ Jar tripping mechanism. The jars can be run in tension or in compression inthe BHA. If 6 1/4 or 6 1/2 EQ jars are run in compression, they are often placed closeto the bottom of the 5 HWDP. 7 3/4 and larger sizes would be placed in the drillcollars.

Note A useful rule of thumb when doing a preliminary WOB calculation is:One stand of 5" x 3" HWDP weighs approximately the sameas one 8" x 2 13/16" x 30' drill collar. The bottom 120 ft will determine the directional response of the BHA. There are severalpossibilities of making up the total BHA weight required. 8 x8DC= 37,140 lbs. 6x61/2"DC =17,878 lbs. 11x5"HWDP =16,280 lbs. Total BHA Weight in Air =71,300 lbs. Note NMDCs and MWD collar can be included as part of the 8" DCs. A typical BHA could be: 12 1/4 Bit+ 12 1/4 NB Stab+ 8 SDC+ 12 1/8'' Stab + MWD + PRS + 12 1/4 Stab+ 1 x 8 NMDC + 6 x 8 DC + X/O + 6 x 6 1/2 DC + X/O + 11 x 5' HWDP +Flex Joint + 6 1/2 EQ Jars + 9 x 5 HWDP.

Note From the point of view of EQ jar position, the following general precautions apply: In tension: The worst case is when the WOB is maximum. Thus, the jars mustbe far enough away from the bit to maintain a minimum tension of 5,000 lbs. atthe trip mechanism. As WOB is reduced, the jars go further into tension.

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In compression: The worst case is when the WOB is maximum, because thetension at the jar trip mechanism is decreased. The jars must be far enough awayfrom the bit to allow for this case. As the WOB is increased, the jar tripmechanism is put closer to the 5,000 lbs. tension minimum.In designing the BHA, the jars should be positioned so that the worst case is allowed for.However, this is not always practical. When drilling conditions necessitate a largevariation in WOB, the EQ jar trip mechanism may be close to the 5,000 lbs. minimumtension at some stage. The duration of such a drilling condition should be minimizedand, if possible, avoided.In practice, a good compromise is to position the EQ Jars close to the bottom of theHWDP. Even if the jars are in compression in the BHA, it is unlikely that the tripmechanism will have 5,000 lbs. tension on it while drilling.In conclusion, ref. EQ Jar position in the BHA, there are only two restrictions:1. The EQ Jars trip mechanism must always be 5,000 lbs. in tension while drilling. TheEQ Jars can be run "in compression" from the viewpoint of weight on bit. However,the buoyed, inclined weight slacked-off above the EQ Jars while drilling must be atleast 5,000 lbs. less than the Pump Extension Force of the EQ Jar.2. There must be 5,000 lbs. BHA weight above the EQ Jars, in order to have some massfor jarring impact. This 5,000 lbs., together with 20,000 lbs. of drill pipe slack-off weight above the BHA, gives the minimum DOWN setting for the EQ Jar.

5.2 Hole Washout

5.3 Orientation A PDM/bent sub BHA may be used for kicking off wells, for correction runs or forsidetracks. A typical kickoff/ correction / sidetrack BHA is as follows:Bit + PDM + Bent sub + Float sub + Orienting Sub (UBHO) + Non-magnetic DCs +Steel DCs + HWDP + DP.Correct deflection and direction of the hole can only be accomplished by accurateorientation of the motor. The direction in which the tool should be faced in order to get acertain result can be found using the OUIJA BOARD. This uses vector diagrams.

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Figure 5-3 Muleshoe orientation method In order to actually know how the scribe line on the bent sub is faced, some method of surveying must be used. The survey should give us Inclination, Direction and Tool Face.In all cases, the bent sub scribe line is the master reference for the tool face. Up untilreliable MWD tools arrived, orientation was normally done using MMO (MagneticMethod of Orientation) or Mule Shoe method. MMO is seldom, if ever, used today. Inplaces where single-shot kickoffs are performed, the mule shoe method is whats used.The components of the mule shoe orientation method are illustrated in Figure 5-3.Holeinclination, direction and tool face are read from the survey disc. The tool face is anindication of the position of the bent sub scribe line. A decision on where to set the setthe tool face next is based on interpretation of the result of the last setting(s).

5.4) Reactive Torque Reactive torque is created by the drilling mud pushing against the stator. When drillingwith a PDM, as weight-on-bit is increased, the drilling torque created by the motorincreases. There

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is a corresponding counter-clockwise torque on the motor housing. Thistries to twist the motor and, hence, the whole BHA counter-clockwise. This changes thefacing of the bent sub, i.e., the tool face orientation.The big disadvantage of using a PDM/bent sub deflection method is that reactive torquemakes it difficult to keep a steady tool face. Using single-shot surveys, the DD mustestimate the magnitude of the reactive torque. He initially sets the tool face to the right of the desired tool face position by that angular distance, so that the reactive torque willallow the bit to drill off in the correct direction. This is one area where the "art" of theDD comes into play.On-bottom drilling parameters, especially pump pressure, should be kept constant whenusing a PDM. This should lead to constant reactive torque and a steady tool face(provided there are no formation changes).Reducing the flow rate leads to less reactive torque. Reducing WOB also leads to lessreactive torque. Finally, use of a less aggressive bit means less reactive torque.With the jetting deflection method, reactive torque does not apply. However, there is a tendency for the bit to screw to the right during jetting. Usually this is no more than 20.It can be easily compensated for when the tool face is set. 5.5) Magnetic and Gravity Tool Face From vertical until approximately 5 inclination, gravity forces are minimal. A borehole does not have a well-defined high side (or low side). Until this point, the tool face is set relative to North (e.g. N45W). This is called the Magnetic Tool Face (MTF) setting. Above 5 inclination, the tool face is set using the high side of the hole as the reference. This is called High Side Tool Face or Gravity Tool Face (GTF) setting. Exactly the same convention applies whether we're using single-shot surveys, MWD or a Steering Tool.If a plumb-bob were suspended in the hole, gravity forces would force it to hang toward the low side of the hole. The high side of the hole is 180 away from the low side of the hole. Gravity Tool Face Orientation (High Side)

(Low Side) Figure5-4 Gravity tool face

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GTF orientation is represented by Figure 5-4. In Figure 5-5,various positions of the tool face relative to the high side of the hole are shown. If GTF were exactly at 0 whiledrilling with a PDM, no change in hole direction would occur. All of the bent sub or benthousing dog-leg capability would be used to increase hole inclination. Conversely, if GTF were exactly at 180 while drilling with a PDM, no change in hole direction wouldoccur. All of the bent sub dog-leg capability would be used to drop hole inclination.Figure 5-5 is an idealized representation of GTF; there are some rules of thumb.

Figure 5-5 Relationships between GTF and hole direction. a) Above 30 inclination and when using a bent sub and PDM, at tool face settings60 away from high side, the hole will normally drop inclination as well as turn.At higher inclinations, this effect is even more evident. b) When turning left, the effect is most pronounced, as the reactive torque acts inthe same direction as the weight of the BHA and tends to "flop-over" the motor(Figure 56).Thus, particularly when doing a left-hand correction, great careshould be taken in setting the tool face. If the tool flops-over", a severe doglegcan result due to the hole dropping inclination while turning left. The higher theinclination, the greater the damage that can be done. Unconsolidated formation(e.g. loose Sand) will lead to a significant drop in inclination due to hydraulicerosion.

Figure 5-6 Relative of reactive torque and gravity

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c) A "perfect correction run is where we POOH with the same inclination as whenwe started i.e. All of the dogleg capability of the bent sub was used to turn thewell. In this case, the dogleg severity achieved is the minimum possible whenusing this bit/PDM/bent sub combination. In practice, while the ideal case israrely achieved, it is possible for a good DD to bring about minimal inclinationchange during a correction run. As a rule of thumb, it is safer to build (ratherthan drop) inclination slightly during a correction run. The inclination can bedropped off (if required) afterwards using a rotary BHA. d) Based on the above, the DD should anticipate some drop in inclination atsettings greater than 60 from high side. There are charts of expected reactivetorque at various depths and inclinations available from most PDMmanufacturers(Table 5-1).

Table 5-1 Lobe PDM Reactive torque estimate

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When doing a left-hand correction, assume that higher reactive torque will occur than estimated on the PDM guidelines. Set the tool face accordingly. If the tool face while drilling leads to an increase in inclination while turning left (i.e. less reactive torque occurred than allowed for), the DD can set the next tool face a bit further left. When doing a right-hand correction, assume that less reactive torque will occur than estimated on the PDM guidelines. Set the tool face accordingly. If the tool face while drilling leads to an increase in inclination while turning right (i.e. more reactive torque occurred than allowed for), the DD can set the next tool face a bit further right. It is normally considered easier to perform a right-hand correction than a left-hand correction, because of the above. The objective in both cases is to ensure that the correction run is started properly. If thefirst joint is drilled off with the correct tool face setting, the bent sub will lie in thisgroove and tends to stay there. Minor corrections to tool facing are then easily achieved.The hole will be turned smoothly. It is seen fromTable 5-1 that, as hole inclinationincreases, tool face setting becomes more critical. 5.6 Single Shot Kickoff/Correction Run/Oriented Sidetrack This is probably the single most difficult and most critical part of the DDs job. We willdeal here with magnetic (non-gyro) situation.In the mule shoe orientation method, there are five components involved in giving theDD the Tool Face on his Magnetic Single-Shot survey disc(see Figure 5-3). a) The scribe-line on the bent sub. b) The key of the UBHO sleeve (align exactly above a). c) The mule shoe stinger at the bottom of the survey Running-Gear. The groove of the mule shoe lands on b). d) The position of the T-head of the snubber at the top of the survey Running-Gear.This should be aligned exactly with the center of the groove on the mule shoewhen the survey orientation running gear is made up. e) The tail on the cross-hairs (in case of Sperry-Sun instrument) on the glass of thecompass/angle unit. in other instruments, it may be an arrow or a short, heavy line. This will be 180 away from d). Note To give a positive indication that the Mule Shoe has landed successfully on b), a Lead Slug (Tell-Tale) is inserted in a hole at the top of the groove in the mule shoe. This is checked every time a Single-Shot survey is run 5.6.1 Steering Tool Uses a single-conductor wireline (continuous Tool Face readings on surface equipment).Either Analog or Digital displays are available. Uses similar alignment system to Single-Shot (Mule Shoe groove seats on Keyof sleeve inside special full-Flow UBHO sub). Reactive Torque can be seen very clearly with Analog Display. Can use either Circulating Head (drill 1 stand at a time) or Side-Entry Sub withstand off for Kelly Bushing. Can only be used in oriented (non-rotary) drilling. Has a facility to "trigger" a film-disc magnetic single shot survey downhole before being pulled out at the end of the motor run. This is a useful means of double-checking the last survey given by the steering tool.

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5.6.2 Use Of MWD Tool In PDM/Turbine/Steerable BHA 1. Much easier for the DD. However, offset angle (clockwise, looking downhole) from MWD Tool Face Reference around to position of Bent Sub Scribe Line must be measured accurately. This offset is then entered into MWD surface computer. ToolFace readings on MWD Surface Readout will therefore give the position of the bent sub scribe line either as a magnetic tool face (below 5 inclination) or as a gravity tool face (when a good High Side of the hole has been established).2. In case of MWD Tool failure (and to allow a Single-Shot check of hole Inclination, Direction and Tool Face to be run, if required) a UBHO Sub is sometimes run directly above the MWD. Key of UBHO Sleeve is aligned exactly above Bent Sub Scribe-Line (after all connections are torqued up). Single-Shot Survey Disc will therefore give the same information as if doing Single-Shot Orientation. (Only difference is that we are further back from the bit with our survey) Note

In all cases (Single-Shot, Steering Tool or MWD) the bent sub scribe line is the master reference for our tool face. After all, the position of the bent sub scribe line (and thus the response of the PDM/Turbine to hold, build or drop inclination and turn the hole left or right or neither) is what we wish to set in a certain position, regardless of what type of survey system is used. With a Steerable Motor/Turbine, what we wish to see is the position of the scribeline(which is at the center of the offset on the actual motor body). This is the only difference from orienting a straight PDM/Bent Sub combination. Because of their high Torque output, it is normally considered impractical to attempt to orient a Steerable Motor using Single-Shot method. Use an MWD if possible

5.6.3 GYRO Single-Shot Orientation a) Uses same UBHO sub/sleeve/key as with Magnetic Single-Shot orientation. b) Uses a mule shoe stinger at bottom of Survey Running Gear (same system aswith Magnetic Single-Shot orientation). c) Remainder of gyro Running Gear is different from (but equivalent to) that of Magnetic Single-Shot system. d) Normally, this system is only used at shallow depths, when close to otherwells/conductors. As soon as magnetic interference has declined to an acceptable level, change over to magnetic single-shot or (if available) MWD surveys.

5.6.4 Single-shot Kickoff Procedure 1. Make up kickoff BHA..Run in hole. 2. On reaching bottom, circulate briefly. Rack back kelly, work torque out of drillstring using unlocked elevators. 3. Put in slips. 4. Put a chalk mark on the drillpipe in slips (in drillers line of sight) in line with a fixed chalk mark on the frame of the rotary table. The position of the mark on the pipe willbe changed later as desired. The fixed mark will remain our surface tool face reference point.

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5. Run orientation survey on slick-line. 6. Read survey. Inclination will be very low. Hole direction will be subjective. Whatsimportant is Tool Face. Read tool face accurately - As there is no high side, tool face has a direction, e.g., S50W. Read and record Inclination, Direction and MTF. 7. Allowing for reactive torque from the motor and expected formation walk later in the well (i.e. a certain lead angle required), calculate where the tool face must be set in order for the bit to drill off along the desired direction, e.g., target direction isN30W; estimated PDM reactive torque is 40; lead angle is 8 left. Desired hole direction is N38W.Required tool face setting is N2E. 8. Turn the drill string by the angular amount necessary to set the tool face in the right direction. In above case, turn the pipe 130 to the right. Erase original mark on drillpipe. Replace with a new mark in line with the fixed reference. 9. Work the drillstring using the locked elevators. 10. Take a check orientation survey (check shot) . 11. Read the survey. The tool face should be close to the desired setting. 12. Make up kelly. Transfer mark from drillpipe up to kelly bushing. Put in kellybushing. Lock rotary table, ensuring that the fixed and movable chalk marks are aligned. 13. Drill the single down. Observe normal precautions when using a PDM. Try to keeponbottom pump pressure constant, in order to keep reactive torque steady. 14. Make the connection carefully. Try not to rotate the pipe. Transfer the movable mark carefully on to the new joint of drillpipe. The bent sub should align itself in the hole close to the position it had while the last single was being drilled. 15. Take a survey. Read inclination, direction and tool face. 16. Reset the tool face if required. The reactive torque achieved may be different than that expected. 17. If only a small angular change in tool face was made, it should not be necessary to take a check shot. Work the torque down to the bit and drill another joint (rotary table locked). 18. Repeat steps13-17. No more than two singles should be drilled between surveys. 19. When about 5 inclination is reached, use Gravity Tool Face. Be careful when reading the survey disc. Eastman and Sperry Sun instruments are in direct reading(East and West are reversed on the survey disc). The Humphrey single- shot instrument is direct-reading. Note Its very important to remember that the single-shot surveys are taken approximately45-50 back from the bit. We must allow for the effect of the tool face setting in this rat-hole" which is not yet surveyed. 20.When about 15 inclination has been reached in soft formation (8 in hard formation)with the desired hole direction, the BHA can be POOH. Note Because single-shot surveys are taken about 50 back from the bit, the only way to be sure that the hole direction at the bit is the same as what we read on the survey disc is to drill the last two singles with the tool face along High Side. If the tool face is not close to high side when drilling the last 2 singles, there may be a significant difference between the hole direction on our last survey before POOH and that of the first survey taken with the rotary BHA which follows the PDM. In addition, the bit may follow the trend left by the bent sub (either left or right).This could lead to a correction run later.

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Thus, every effort must be made by the DD to ensure that the hole direction is linedup"properly before he ends the kickoff. Even if it means drilling to 20 or more with the PDM, it may be worth it (provided it's done in a reasonable time-scale). 21. Follow up with a rotary build-up BHA. Build inclination to maximum angle. Note If no gyro single-shot instrument is available, it is feasible to use a known direction (rig heading) to help in the initial orientation. After the kickoff BHA has been made up, the bent sub scribe line is marked and aligned in the known direction. As the driller runs slowly to bottom, the mark is very carefully transferred from stand to stand. This technique is known as stoking". At shallow kickoff points, the cumulative error should be <20. The tool face mark (which has been carried up from the bent sub scribe line) isthen turned to the desired setting. After a few singles have been drilled, it should be possible to use magnetic surveys for orientation (MWD).

5.7 Toolface: Magnetic Tool Face (MTF) , Gravity Tool Face (GTF) , Tool Face Orientation
The sensors used in steering tools and MWD/LWD tools are solid-state electronic devices known as magnetometers and accelerometers which respond to the earth'smagnetic field and gravitationalfield respectively. Since the magnetometers may be affected by the steel collars and drill pipe, the probe must be seated within non-magnetic collars. The probe slots into the muleshoe key, which is aligned with the scribe line of the bent sub. The probe therefore measures the direction in which the scribe line of bent sub is pointing. The orientation of the bent sub can be measured relative to Magnetic North (magnetic toolface) or with respect to the High Side of the hole (gravity toolface). If we place a plumb bob at the centre of any section of wellbore, the plumb bob orients itself in the direction of "g", vertically downwards. The direction opposite to the orientation of plumb bob is the high side of the wellbore.

At low inclinations (0-5) magnetic toolface is used, since the High Side is not well-defined at that stage. Once the angle increases, however, and the hole direction becomes established, the gravity toolface is used (i.e. toolface is reported as a number of degrees to the left or right of High Side).

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The High Side of the hole can be defined by the accelerometers. The High Side is directly opposite to the gravity vector, which is the sum of the three gravitational components measured by the accelerometers. Now, before taking this discussion ahead, you should know what scribe line and the tool face alignment and orientation means. Look at the figure below. It shows an adjustable bent sub which gives us an option to adjust the amount of bent we wish to provide to the motor. It generally ranges between 0 to 3 degrees.

Now to provide a desired bent, we hold the upper and lower ABH (Adjustable Bent Housing) using the tong and by using chain tong on orientation sleeve we coincide the upper and lower angular marking to the desired value.

Suppose we desire to provide 2.89 degree initial bent. So after coinciding the two angular marking, what the bent sub looks is like in the figure below :

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The line passing through the two coincident angular markings give us bent sub tool face, i.e. the orientation of our bent sub. See figure below :

This is how the accelerometer and the magnetometer is arranged in the MWD unit aligned in same axis (z axis).

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Typically, three magnetometers and three accelerometers are used to measure the three components of the gravity vector and the Earth magnetic field vector in the sensor frame. The voltage outputs from the accelerometers are denoted by Gx, Gy and Gz, corresponding to the three orthogonal axes. Similarly the magnetometer outputs are Hx, Hy and Hz. z axis points down the axis of the tool and the y axis is defined as being in line with the toolface. Now in order to accomplish the directional drilling task, the operator needs to know the orientation of the bent sub. The relationship between the directional sensor and the bent sub is fixed for each bottom hole assembly. From the directional sensor measurement, the directional sensor tool face is known. If the angular difference between the directional sensor reference point and the bent sub is measured on the surface, then the operator can use this measurement and the directional sensor tool face reading to determine the orientation of the bent sub, namely, the bent sub tool face. Such angular difference is sometimes called tool face offset.

In the prior art, the angular difference is determined by the use of a scribe line on the exterior of the instrument housing. Now our next job is orient our MWD/LWD tool in the direction of bent. Below is a typical BHA arrangement for a 8 1/2" Hole Section :

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After we are done with adjusting the bent sub to a desired angle, we make up the string stabilizer, the float sub, the UBHO sub and 1 (one in number) NMDC (also called Monel). To know more about Stabilizer, Float Sub and UBHO sub refer my blog post : Stabilizer, Float Sub , UBHO Sub. Now out job is to lower the MWD tool assembly into the NMDC. The MWD tool is run inside the NMDC (Monel). It gets seated in the mule shoe sub (UBHO Sub) which is at the bottom of NMDC. The tool face of MWD usually doesnot remain aligned with the toolface of downhole motor. So as to align the MWD toolface with the toolface of downhole mud motor we practise any one of the following procedure : 1 In this procedure, we get back to the time when we have made up the UBHO sub and the MWD tool has not yet been lowered. The mule shoe sub has an adjustable key. The sleeve with the key can be rotated. The set screw is loosened and the key is alligned with the bent of the downhole mud motor. Once the key is aligned with the bent of the motor, the set screw is tightened. This keeps the key always aligned with the bend provided to the motor. Now the orientation of mule shoe is same as that of the motor bend.

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The MWD tool is run into the NMDC. The tool has a mule shoe stinger on it. The stinger has a slot and the mule shoe sleeve has a key. When the mule shoe stinger enters the mule shoe sub, it is rotated until it gets lined up with the orientation of the mule shoe sub and the motor. This happens when the slot of the stinger gets seated in key of the UBHO sub. Note : The survey tool can easily be manually rotated until the tool is aligned with the key. Thus now the tool face shown by the MWD tool is also the tool face of the bend of the down hole motor. UBHO Sub

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In this procedure, we are at the situation when we have lowered the MWD tool in the NMDC and the stinger's slot has got seated in the UBHO sleeve's key. The scribe line at the mule shoe key indicates the tool face of the MWD tool. The scribe line at bend of the downhole motor indicates the toolface of the bent of the motor. Now we check that the two scribe lines (one of the motor and other of the surveying tool i.e. MWD here) are aligned or not. At present condition, we have the following arrangement hanging fron the elevator from top to bottom: NMDC - UBHO Sub - String Stab - Mud Motor - Bit. We lower the present made assembly until UBHO Sub is on man height. At the key of the UBHO sub (i.e. on the scribe line), we make any marking like placing a chalk piece or any pointed visible object which shows us the position of the scribe line/ the UBHO key. Some people tape a laser pointing downwards. Now we lift the made assembly upwards using elevator until we have our bent sub at the man height. We apply slip to make the assembly stationary. Now we look up at our placed marking on the UBHO sub and find its position relative to the bend sub scribe line. (For this, the operator stands closer to the bent sub, looks upward to the made marking and tries to make an imaginary line from the marking to the bent. If the two scribe lines are aligned, then no issues. We are done with our job. But, if the two scribe lines are not alligned, then we measure the offset tool face (OTF) between the two scribe lines using the protector, which gives and angular value of the offset. This offset tool face (OTF) is a correction factor. Now, the operator must decide whether to add or subtract this angular difference to the

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directional sensor tool face for purposes of determining the orientation of the bent sub. Obviously, the decision as to whether to add or subtract the angular difference is critical. Operators are trained to follow a procedure to correctly determine whether the angular difference should be input into the surface computer as a positive or negative number to be added to the tool face reading to obtain the bent sub orientation. Figure in left side, clearly describes the above procedure : Geometrically, we can explain the offset angle as shown in figure below :

CORRECTIONS Offset Correction aligns accelerometer toolface with toolface of bent sub. Magnetic Declination correction corrects the magnetometer error. In the picture below, I have tried to explain how the axis of the accelerometer actually behaves and helps determining the inclination, using the help of a hand made rough model.

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INCLINATION The inclination is the angle measured from vertical to the axis of the Z accelerometer. The inclination can be determined from the above model and comes out to be : tan = ( Gx2 + Gy2 )1/2 / Gz . TOOLFACE Magnetic Tool Face It is the direction, in the horizontal plane, the bent sub scribe line is pointing with regard to the north reference (Grid, Mag, or True).

Magnetic orientation is used when the inclination of the well bore is less than 5. When the inclination is below this amount, the survey instrument cannot accurately determine the highside of the instrument for orientation purposes. The toolface will be presented in azimuth or quadrant form, referenced to magnetic north. The magnetic toolface reading is whatever magnetic direction the toolface is pointed. Gravity Tool Face It is the angular distance that a bent sub scribe line is turned, about the tool axis, relative to the high side of the hole.

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If the inclination of the well bore is above 5 to 8, then the gravity toolface can be used. The toolface will be referenced to the highside of the survey instrument, no matter what the hole direction of the survey instrument is at the time. The toolface will be presented in a number of degrees either right or left of the highside.

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CASE STUDY - KDS WELL

Well Specification of Well # KDS Classification Rig Name KB Field Well Co-ordinates Horizontal Well John-28 27m Ahmadabad 220 48 33.64688 (Latitude) 720 33 17.92063 (Longitude) Reference Well NG-142 NG-4 Profile Distance 220 280 Bearing 18000 3700

L with Drain Hole of 250 m in K-X

GEO-TECHNICAL ORDER Objectives Target Depth

Stratigraphy S. No . DEPTH INTERVALS (M ) FORMATIONS 1 2 3 4 5 0 410 410 850 850 1075 1075 1252 1252- 1400 POST KAND KAND BABAGURU TARAPUR KALOL AGE MD MIO TO RECENT LOWER MIO TO MD MIO LR MIO MD EOC TO OLIGO MD EOC

Exploitation of HC from K-X (OP in UP) 1363 TVD

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GENERAL WELL DATA

SL. NO. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

PARTICULARS WELL NO. RIG DEPLOYED OBJECTIVES LATITUDE LONGITUDE ELEVATION PROFILE PEL/ML

DETAILS KDS JOHN - 28 Exploitation of HC from K-X (OP in UP) 220 48 33.64688 720 33 17.92063 KB : 27 L with Drain Hole of 250 m in K-X NAWAGAM ML 490.90m in 29800733 from KDS (Subsurface

8.

CP Position

shifted position). KDS (Subsurface shifted position) is 500 m in 2600 0000 from KDS (released)

9. 10. 11.

PROJECTED DEPTH DRILLED DEPTH SPUDDED ON 13 3/8

1871m 1928 m 19-04-12 799.00 m 1316.00 m 1621.00 m

12.

CASING DETAILS

9 5/8 7 Liner

13.

TESTING DETAILS STATUS OF WELL MAX. MW USED

OBJECT I : 1928-1621 (6 DRAIN HOLE) OIL WELL 1.14

14. 15.

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WELL COURSE: To be drilled from the stacjed CP with HD = 490.90m in 11800733 as a horizontal well toreach the target zone at 1340m (sand top K-X, TVD)

DEVIATION DATA
TARGET DEPTH KOP MAX. ANGLE PROFILE LANDING POINT DRAIN HOLE : : : : : : 1928 m (MD) 845 m (MD) 91 0 L 1597 m 307 m

NGGS DAY VS DEPTH ACTUAL

2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 NGGS DAY VS DEPTH ACTUAL

Planned MD Inclination TVD

Actual MD( cum Comments mtrs)

0 100 200 300

0 0 0 0

0 100 200 300

Directional Plan Hz Well#KDS KB=27m 100 200 300

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400 500 600 700 776 800 800 867.9 1221.7 1321.7

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 44.88 55

400 500 600 700 776 800 800 867.9 13-3/8 shoe 17.5hole KOP

400 500 600 700 776 799 800 845 1218 1316 1597 Float color Casing shoe 17.5 hole KOP Liner hanger top 9-5/8 casing shoe Landing color 7 liner Shoe 3.5Tubing collar 6 drain hole TD

1189.6 Line hanger top 1255.2 Casing shoe 7 Liner Shoe

1628.6

88.19

1342

1621 1564

1878.6

88.19

1349.9 6Drain hole PILOT HOLE

1928

1655

75

1363.0 Pilot hole TD

1651

Pilot hole TD

PHASE WISE SUMMARY

17 Hole (1) (2) (3) Drilled Depth: 800 m 13 3/8 casing shoe: 799 m, F/C: 776 m. Mud Parameters: Sp.Gr. 1.07-1.10 , Vis 37-42

12 Hole (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Drilled Depth: 799 - 1324 m (525 m). Change over to polymer mud at 808m. KOP: 845 m. 9 5/8 casing shoe: 1316 m, F/C: 1289 m. Mud Parameters: Sp.Gr. 1.34, Vis 52

8 HOLE (1) (2) (3) (4) Drilled Depth: 1324 1651 m(Pilot), 1324 1621 m Drill down pilot hole to 1651 m by LWD. Isolated pilot hole by cement plug Side tracked and drilled down to 1621 m.

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(5)

7 Liner casing shoe: 1621 m, F/C: 1597.43 m, Liner Hanger Top: 1218 m.

6 DRAIN HOLE (1622-1928m.) (1) (2) (3) Drilled Depth: 1622 - 1928 m (306 m). Change over to NDDF mud at 1622 m. Drill down to 1928 m by RSS + LWD. Angle 90.1o, Azimuth 118.88

PRODUCTION TESTING Drilled 6 Drain hole from 1622 m to 1928 m. Lowered 3 perforated tubing with D/P up to 1928 m. Tubing Mule shoe 1928 m and Tubing setting Collar 1564 m. Washed Drain Hole with brine of 1.14 Sp.Gr. Cleaned mud cake by chemical formulation by CTU, Washed with Hot Oil using CTU Air Compressor and Nitrogen - used for activation.

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FIG. : Casing Policy # KDS

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WELL RESUME
A . PHASE I : 17 HOLE ( 0 845 m.) The well was spudded at 23:45 hrs on 19-04-12 with 17 Bit using MW =1.07/37.Drilled upto 400 mtrs, pulled out prior to wiper trip, then drilling was continued till 761mtrs during drilling mud pump failed, therefore the string was pulled out, then drilled upto 800mtrs after that a short trip of 100mtrs POOH was carried out, then arrangements for lowering casing were made. On 25th april 2012 a 13-3/8 casing was lowered, the casing shoe was kept at 799mtrs and float color at 776mtrs, cementation was carried out.WOC started at 21.00 hrs. Mud weight was 45/1.10. On next day, BOP was installed and tested. B . PHASE II : 12 HOLE ( 799 1324 m.)

After W.O.C, Well Head Fitting, installation and testing of BOP, drilling was resumed with 12 bit. Float collar was tagged at 776.00 m. Drilled float collar, cement and casing shoe and cleared the well up to 808 m. Drilled 8 m of formation to 808 m. At this depth changed the conventional Bentonite mud system to KCl XC Polymer PHPA Glycol Mud System. Drill down to 845 m. Made a wiper trip up to casing shoe. Lowered mud motor with MWD tool for kick off. D/D upto 951 m,1055m, surveys were taken followed by a wiper trip, D/D continued upto 1112 (short trip was made at 1200m.). Continued Drilling with to 1240,1258 m, at 1258 mtrs it was found that MWD assembly is not working, so string was POOH and SDMM & MWD assembly was changed. D/D upto 1269mtrs and survey was taken, then drilled upto 1324 mtrs, short trip(8 strands) and wiper trip, then logging ws continued and taken survey at 1306 mtrs.(logging completed) String was POOH and casing of 9-5/8 was lowered, mud weight 1.35/50.Float shoe was at 1316mtrs and float color was at 1289mtrs.cementing was done and WOC was 15.75 hrs, well head was installed and tested at 5000 psi, BOP was installed and it was pressure tested for low and high C. .PHASE III : 8 HOLE ( 1324 - 1651, 1472 - 1621 m )

After W.O.C, Well Head Fitting, installation and testing of BOP, drilling was resumed with 8 bit. Tested casing at 1500 psi. Found O.K. Drilled F/C, Cement, Casing shoe, Cement and 1 m of fresh formation up to 1326 m. Conditioned the well and P/O for change of assembly. Made up directional assembly with LWD tool. Tested LWD tool and found OK. Drilling carried out to 1382,1441(short trip), 1479, 1504(wiper trip),1651and surveyed, pulled out for cement plugging, hole was reamed upto 1385mtrs with diverter tool, cement plug job was carried out and WOC was 36 hrs R/I upto 1318 with LWD tool, further drilling/ sliding was carried and surveys were taken at 1383,1421(short trip),1450,1621mtrs(wiper trip). MWD tool was pulled out and reamed with

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8.5 PDC bit with stablilzer upto 1621 mtrs, followed by wiper trip and string was then pulled out. Liner casing was lowered mud weight was 1.42/52, the shoe of 7 liner casing is at 1621 mtrs, float color at 1597.43 mtrs casing top is at 1215 mtrs, cementation was carried out.WOC was 24 hrs. D. PHASE IV : 6 HOLE ( 1622 1928 m)

Mean while POOH with liner hanger running tool. Reamed to 1007mtrs using 8.5 bit casing line was cut and slipped. The damper of MP 2 was changed (MW 1.42/54) . WOC continued, then reaming in upto cement top. The hanger top was at 1218mtrs. Mud was circulated and 100 mtr column of water was placed, then the 9-5/8 casing and hanger was tested at 100KSC Reaming in with 8.5 bit and 9-5/8 scrapper upto 1218mtrs. Mud circulation prior to pullout is in progress (MW 1.4/50). POOH and 9-5/8 scrapper was broken off. Made up 6 bit reaming in upto D P (1222m). Drilled D P and reaming in upto landing color which is at 1597mtrs, changed over to water, carried out hermectical test at 250 KSC. Changed over to mud drilled landing color, cement and shoe upto 1622mtrs.M/C and changed over to NDDF, M/C for mud shearing .POOH for lowering RSS and LWD (MW 1.12/48) R/I with 6 bit and RSS + LWD upto 1622mtrs D/D to 1609mtrs , angle 90.1azimuth was 118.88 on 22/5/2012. Further drilling to 1728mtrs made wiper trip, rotary chain was broken so pulled out upto shoe and repaired. Then reaming in to the hole and resumed drilling upto 1822mtrs.(MW was 1.13/54, survey depth was 1801.59mtrs angle was 89.1 azimuth was 117.97 horizontal drilling to 1928mtrs made wiper trip M/C is in progress prior to pullout for lowering 3.5 perforated tubing (MW1.13/53) pullout. PRODUCTION TESTING DETAILS Drain Hole Interval: 1928.0 1621.0 m Formation: KALOL (K X) Mode of Testing: Conventional Reaming in 3.5 perforated tubing with mule shoe upto 1928 mtrs now set color at 1564mtrs then mud was displaced with brine of 1.14 SG. R/I 1 Coil tubing by CTU up to 1928 m with circulation of brine followed by gel brine at pressure of 4500psi , no obstruction was observed cleared drain hole. WUO observed brine + mud + contaminated brine. Pullout coil tubing again WUO. Chemical is used to wash drain hole. Again, hole is cleaned by hot oil circulation. Now, compressed air is used to activate the well. But due to insufficient pressure, well is not activated so nitrogen is used to activate the well.

115

DIRECTIONAL PLAN # KDS

MD 0 100 200 300 400 500 700 800 867.9 897.9 927.9 957.9 987.9 1017.9 1047.9 1077.9 1107.9 1137.9 1167.9 1197.9 1221.7 1227.9 1257.9 1287.9 1317.9 1321.7 1347.9 1377.9 1407.9 1437.9 1467.9 1497.9 1527.9 1557.9 1585.7 1604.8 1628.6 1678.6 1728.6 1778.6 1828.6 1878.6 Inc. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.64 7.27 10.91 14.54 18.18 21.82 25.45 29.09 32.72 36.36 39.99 42.88 43.63 47.27 50.9 54.54 55 58.17 61.81 65.45 69.08 72.72 76.35 79.99 83.63 87 87 88.19 88.19 88.19 88.19 88.19 88.19 Azi. 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 TVD 0 100 200 300 400 500 700 800 867.9 897.9 927.7 957.4 986.6 1015.4 1043.6 1071.1 1097.7 1123.5 1148.2 1171.7 1189.6 1194.1 1215.1 1234.8 1253 1255.2 1269.6 1284.6 1297.9 1309.5 1319.3 1327.3 1333.5 1337.7 1340 1341 1342 1343.6 1345.2 1346.7 1348.3 1349.9 (+N/-S) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.4 -1.8 -4 -7.1 -11.1 -16 -21.6 -28.1 -35.4 -43.4 -52.1 -59.6 -61.6 -71.6 -82.3 -93.6 -95 -105.4 -117.6 -130.3 -143.3 -156.7 -170.3 -184.1 -198.1 -211.2 -220.2 -231.4 -255 -278.5 -302.1 -325.7 -349.2 (+E/-W) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 3.4 7.5 13.4 20.8 29.9 40.5 52.6 66.2 81.2 97.5 111.4 115.2 134 154 175 177.8 197.1 220 243.7 268.1 293.1 318.6 344.4 370.6 395.1 411.9 432.8 476.9 521 565.1 609.1 653.2 VS 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0.8 -3.3 -7.4 -13.1 -20.4 -29.3 -39.7 -51.6 -64.9 -79.6 -95.6 -109.3 -112.9 -131.4 -151 -171.7 -174.4 -193.3 -215.7 -239 -262.9 -287.4 -312.4 -337.8 -363.5 -387.4 -403.9 -424.5 -467.7 -511 -554.2 -597.4 -640.6 C. Dist. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 3.8 8.5 15.1 23.6 33.9 45.9 59.6 75 92 110.6 126.3 130.6 151.9 174.6 198.5 201.6 223.5 249.4 276.3 304 332.3 361.2 390.6 420.3 448 467 490.8 540.8 590.8 640.7 690.7 740.7 C. Dir. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 118.13 DLs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.63 3.64 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.64 3.64 0 1.5 0 0 0 0 0 Build R. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.63 3.64 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.63 3.64 3.64 3.64 0 1.5 0 0 0 0 0

116

KDS WELL ACTUAL

MD 0 829.9 838.5 867.4 895.9 924 952.7 981.5 1009.8 1038.5 1067.1 1095.6 1124.3 1153 1181.4 1210.2 1239 1268 1296.7 1336.2 1360.7 1388.6 1418 1446.3 1474.2 1504.1 1532.9 1561.6 1590.2 1630.3 1658.2 1687.9 1705.9 1716.4 1745 1773.8 1801.6 1830.6 1858.9 1887.9 1916.4 1928 Inc. 0 0 0.8 2.4 4.4 6.2 8.6 12 16.3 19.4 23.3 26.9 31 34.5 38.3 43.2 46 48.8 52.6 52.82 55.39 59.38 65.14 70.01 73.75 76.28 80.7 84.66 84.86 89.62 90.1 91 90.38 89.72 89.79 89.17 89.1 88.49 88.62 88.52 89.07 89.15 Azi. 0 0 127.5 116.2 119.4 122.2 120.6 118.8 117.5 118.3 119.3 119.4 116.3 117.5 119.7 120 120.4 119.3 118.8 121.05 120.9 120.66 119.61 119.2 118.79 118.92 117.95 118.47 118.37 118.65 118.88 118.54 117.63 118.03 116.05 115.93 117.97 118.26 117.91 117.7 118.09 118.2 TVD 0 829.9 838.5 867.4 895.8 923.8 952.3 980.6 1008 1035.4 1062 1087.8 1112.9 1137 1159.9 1181.7 1202.2 1221.8 1240 1263.9 1278.3 1293.3 1307 1317.8 1326.5 1334.2 1340 1343.6 1346.2 1348.2 1348.2 1347.9 1347.7 1347.7 1347.8 1348.1 1348.5 1349.1 1349.8 1350.6 1351.2 1351.4 (+N/-S) 0 0 0 -0.4 -1.2 -2.6 -4.5 -7 -10.3 -14.4 -19.4 -25.3 -31.8 -38.8 -46.9 -56.3 -66.4 -77.1 -87.8 -103.5 -113.7 -125.8 -138.8 -151.6 -164.5 -178.4 -191.9 -205.3 -218.9 -238 -251.4 -265.7 -274.2 -279.1 -292.1 -304.7 -317.3 -330.9 -344.3 -357.8 -371.1 -376.6 (+E/-W) 0 0 0 0.8 2.2 4.5 7.6 12.1 18.2 26 35.1 45.6 57.9 71.8 86.5 102.8 120.3 138.8 158.2 185.5 202.5 222.7 245.2 268 291.1 316.4 341.3 366.3 391.4 426.6 451 477.1 492.9 502.2 527.7 553.6 578.4 603.9 628.9 654.5 679.7 690 VS 0 0 0 -0.7 -2.2 -4.4 -7.5 -11.8 -17.8 -25.5 -34.4 -44.7 -56.8 -70.4 -84.9 -100.8 -117.9 -136.1 -155.1 -181.7 -198.4 -218.2 -240.2 -262.5 -285.2 -310 -334.3 -358.9 -383.5 -418 -442 -467.5 -483.1 -492.2 -517.2 -542.6 -566.9 -592 -616.5 -641.7 -666.4 -676.4 C. Dist. 0 0 0.1 0.9 2.6 5.1 8.8 14 20.9 29.7 40.1 52.2 66.1 81.6 98.4 117.2 137.4 158.8 181 212.4 232.2 255.7 281.7 307.9 334.4 363.3 391.5 419.9 448.4 488.5 516.4 546.1 564.1 574.6 603.1 631.9 659.7 688.7 717 745.9 774.4 786 C. Dir. 0 0 127.5 119.61 118.72 119.89 120.47 120.13 119.44 119 118.96 119.05 118.78 118.42 118.46 118.69 118.91 119.03 119.04 119.17 119.32 119.46 119.52 119.51 119.47 119.42 119.35 119.27 119.22 119.16 119.14 119.11 119.08 119.06 118.96 118.83 118.75 118.72 118.7 118.66 118.63 118.63 DLs 0 0 2.79 1.68 2.11 1.94 2.52 3.56 4.57 3.25 4.11 3.79 4.56 3.72 4.24 5.11 2.93 3.02 3.99 1.37 3.15 4.3 5.95 5.18 4.04 2.54 4.71 4.17 0.23 3.57 0.57 0.97 1.84 2.21 2.08 0.66 2.2 0.7 0.4 0.24 0.71 0.35 Build R. 0 0 2.79 1.66 2.11 1.92 2.51 3.54 4.56 3.24 4.09 3.79 4.29 3.66 4.01 5.1 2.92 2.9 3.97 0.17 3.15 4.29 5.88 5.16 4.02 2.54 4.6 4.14 0.21 3.56 0.52 0.91 -1.03 -1.89 0.07 -0.65 -0.08 -0.63 0.14 -0.1 0.58 0.21

117

KDS Plan vs Actual

-100 0 200 400 600 TVD 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 KDS ACTUAL KDS PLAN 0 100 200 Central Distance 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

6" Drain Hole Plan vs Actual KDS

300 1330 1340 1350 1360 TVD 400 500 Central Distance 600 700 800 900 KDS Plan KDS Actual

118

PILOT PLAN # KDS

MD 0 829.9 838.5 848 856.7 867.4 876.8 886.3 895.9 905.8 914.6 924 933.5 943.1 952.7 962.4 971.9 981.5 991 1000.2 1009.8 1019.3 1028.9 1038.5 1048.1 1057.6 1067.1 1076.7 1086.2 1095.6 1105.2 1114.7 1124.3 1133.9 1143.5 1153 1162.7 1171.8 1181.4 1191.1 1200.6 1210.2 1219.8 1229.3 1239 1248.7 1258.2 1268 1277 1287.1 Inc. 0 0 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.4 3 3.7 4.4 5.2 5.8 6.2 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.4 10.7 12 13.6 15 16.3 17.4 18.6 19.4 20.6 22 23.3 24.4 25.5 26.9 28.4 29.7 31 32.2 33.3 34.5 36 37 38.3 40 41.7 43.2 44.2 45 46 46.8 47.8 48.8 49.9 51.2 Azi. 0 118.23 127.5 119.4 117.5 116.2 116.5 119.2 119.4 119.9 122 122.2 122.6 122 120.6 120.5 119.9 118.8 118.3 117.8 117.5 117.5 117.7 118.3 119 119.1 119.3 119.2 119.7 119.4 118.3 117.1 116.3 115.9 116.5 117.5 118.3 119.3 119.7 119.6 119.7 120 120.3 120.2 120.4 119.8 119.7 119.3 119.5 119.2 TVD 0 829.9 838.5 848 856.7 867.4 876.8 886.3 895.8 905.7 914.5 923.8 933.2 942.8 952.3 961.8 971.2 980.6 989.9 998.8 1008 1017.1 1026.3 1035.3 1044.4 1053.2 1062 1070.8 1079.4 1087.8 1096.3 1104.6 1112.9 1121.1 1129.1 1137 1145 1152.3 1159.9 1167.4 1174.6 1181.7 1188.6 1195.4 1202.2 1208.9 1215.3 1221.8 1227.7 1234.1 N/-S 0 0 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.9 -1.2 -1.6 -2.1 -2.6 -3.2 -3.8 -4.5 -5.3 -6.1 -7.1 -8.1 -9.1 -10.3 -11.6 -13 -14.4 -16 -17.7 -19.5 -21.4 -23.4 -25.4 -27.5 -29.7 -31.9 -34.1 -36.4 -38.8 -41.4 -44 -46.9 -49.9 -53 -56.2 -59.6 -62.9 -66.4 -69.9 -73.4 -77 -80.3 -84.2 E/-W 0 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.6 2.2 2.9 3.7 4.5 5.4 6.5 7.6 8.9 10.4 12 13.9 15.9 18.2 20.6 23.2 26 28.9 31.9 35.1 38.5 42 45.6 49.5 53.6 57.9 62.4 67.1 71.8 76.8 81.5 86.6 91.9 97.3 102.9 108.7 114.4 120.4 126.5 132.5 138.9 144.9 151.7 C. Dist. 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.9 2.5 3.4 4.2 5.2 6.3 7.5 8.9 10.4 12.1 13.9 16.1 18.3 20.9 23.7 26.6 29.8 33 36.5 40.1 44 48 52.2 56.6 61.2 66.1 71.1 76.3 81.6 87.2 92.6 98.5 104.6 110.8 117.3 123.9 130.6 137.5 144.5 151.5 158.8 165.7 173.5 C. Dir. 0 0 127.5 123.77 121.02 119.08 118.16 118.11 118.43 118.73 119.19 119.74 120.2 120.54 120.66 120.64 120.58 120.41 120.16 119.9 119.62 119.37 119.18 119.05 119.01 119.02 119.03 119.05 119.09 119.12 119.1 118.99 118.83 118.63 118.47 118.37 118.34 118.37 118.44 118.51 118.57 118.64 118.72 118.8 118.88 118.94 118.97 119 119.01 119.03 DLs 0 0 2.79 1.64 1.73 1.69 1.92 2.27 2.19 2.43 2.16 1.28 2.21 3.13 2.28 2.47 4.12 4.12 5.06 4.58 4.07 3.47 3.75 2.57 3.82 4.42 4.11 3.44 3.54 4.49 4.95 4.5 4.25 3.81 3.58 4.18 4.85 3.84 4.13 5.26 5.37 4.73 3.19 2.54 3.12 2.82 3.17 3.19 3.7 3.92

119

1296.7 1325.3 1351.8 1380.5 1408.4 1438.3 1466.6 1494.7 1522.3 1552 1580 1608.7 1629 1651

52.6 56.49 60.09 64.83 68.75 71.98 73.6 75.24 75.63 75.1 75.5 75.96 75.8 75.6

118.8 118.78 117.75 116.15 115.85 116.22 116.69 116.72 118.18 118.58 118.3 118.4 118.17 118

1240 1256.6 1270.5 1283.8 1294.8 1304.8 1313.2 1320.8 1327.7 1335.2 1342.3 1349.4 1354.3 1359.8

-87.8 -99.1 -109.7 -121.2 -132.5 -144.8 -156.9 -169 -181.4 -195 -207.9 -221.1 -230.5 -240.5

158.3 178.7 198.5 221.2 244.3 269.6 293.8 317.9 341.6 366.9 390.7 415.2 432.6 451.4

181 204.3 226.8 252.3 277.9 306 333 360.1 386.8 415.5 442.6 470.4 490.1 511.4

119.03 119 118.93 118.73 118.47 118.25 118.1 118 117.96 117.99 118.02 118.04 118.05 118.05

4.48 4.08 4.19 5.17 4.23 3.26 1.78 1.75 1.59 0.66 0.52 0.49 0.41 0.35

KDS PILOT ACTUAL

MD
0 829.9 838.5 848 856.7 867.4 876.8 886.3 895.9 905.8 914.6 924 933.5 943.1 952.7 962.4 971.9 981.5 991 1000.2 1009.8 1019.3 1028.9 1038.5 1048.1

Inc.
0 0 0.8 1.3 1.8 2.4 3 3.7 4.4 5.2 5.8 6.2 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.4 10.7 12 13.6 15 16.3 17.4 18.6 19.4 20.6

Azi.
0 118.23 127.5 119.4 117.5 116.2 116.5 119.2 119.4 119.9 122 122.2 122.6 122 120.6 120.5 119.9 118.8 118.3 117.8 117.5 117.5 117.7 118.3 119

TVD
0 829.9 838.5 848 856.7 867.4 876.8 886.3 895.8 905.7 914.5 923.8 933.2 942.8 952.3 961.8 971.2 980.6 989.9 998.8 1008 1017.1 1026.3 1035.3 1044.4

N/-S
0 0 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.9 -1.2 -1.6 -2.1 -2.6 -3.2 -3.8 -4.5 -5.3 -6.1 -7.1 -8.1 -9.1 -10.3 -11.6 -13 -14.4 -16

E/-W
0 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.1 1.6 2.2 2.9 3.7 4.5 5.4 6.5 7.6 8.9 10.4 12 13.9 15.9 18.2 20.6 23.2 26 28.9

C. Dist.
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.3 1.9 2.5 3.4 4.2 5.2 6.3 7.5 8.9 10.4 12.1 13.9 16.1 18.3 20.9 23.7 26.6 29.8 33

C. Dir. DLs
0 0 127.5 123.77 121.02 119.08 118.16 118.11 118.43 118.73 119.19 119.74 120.2 120.54 120.66 120.64 120.58 120.41 120.16 119.9 119.62 119.37 119.18 119.05 119.01 0 0 2.79 1.64 1.73 1.69 1.92 2.27 2.19 2.43 2.16 1.28 2.21 3.13 2.28 2.47 4.12 4.12 5.06 4.58 4.07 3.47 3.75 2.57 3.82

120

1057.6 1067.1 1076.7 1086.2 1095.6 1105.2 1114.7 1124.3 1133.9 1143.5 1153 1162.7 1171.8 1181.4 1191.1 1200.6 1210.2 1219.8 1229.3 1239 1248.7 1258.2 1268 1277 1287.1 1296.7 1325.3 1351.8 1380.5 1408.4 1438.3 1466.6 1494.7 1522.3 1552 1580 1608.7 1629 1651

22 23.3 24.4 25.5 26.9 28.4 29.7 31 32.2 33.3 34.5 36 37 38.3 40 41.7 43.2 44.2 45 46 46.8 47.8 48.8 49.9 51.2 52.6 56.49 60.09 64.83 68.75 71.98 73.6 75.24 75.63 75.1 75.5 75.96 75.8 75.6

119.1 119.3 119.2 119.7 119.4 118.3 117.1 116.3 115.9 116.5 117.5 118.3 119.3 119.7 119.6 119.7 120 120.3 120.2 120.4 119.8 119.7 119.3 119.5 119.2 118.8 118.78 117.75 116.15 115.85 116.22 116.69 116.72 118.18 118.58 118.3 118.4 118.17 118

1053.2 1062 1070.8 1079.4 1087.8 1096.3 1104.6 1112.9 1121.1 1129.1 1137 1145 1152.3 1159.9 1167.4 1174.6 1181.7 1188.6 1195.4 1202.2 1208.9 1215.3 1221.8 1227.7 1234.1 1240 1256.6 1270.5 1283.8 1294.8 1304.8 1313.2 1320.8 1327.7 1335.2 1342.3 1349.4 1354.3 1359.8

-17.7 -19.5 -21.4 -23.4 -25.4 -27.5 -29.7 -31.9 -34.1 -36.4 -38.8 -41.4 -44 -46.9 -49.9 -53 -56.2 -59.6 -62.9 -66.4 -69.9 -73.4 -77 -80.3 -84.2 -87.8 -99.1 -109.7 -121.2 -132.5 -144.8 -156.9 -169 -181.4 -195 -207.9 -221.1 -230.5 -240.5

31.9 35.1 38.5 42 45.6 49.5 53.6 57.9 62.4 67.1 71.8 76.8 81.5 86.6 91.9 97.3 102.9 108.7 114.4 120.4 126.5 132.5 138.9 144.9 151.7 158.3 178.7 198.5 221.2 244.3 269.6 293.8 317.9 341.6 366.9 390.7 415.2 432.6 451.4

36.5 40.1 44 48 52.2 56.6 61.2 66.1 71.1 76.3 81.6 87.2 92.6 98.5 104.6 110.8 117.3 123.9 130.6 137.5 144.5 151.5 158.8 165.7 173.5 181 204.3 226.8 252.3 277.9 306 333 360.1 386.8 415.5 442.6 470.4 490.1 511.4

119.02 119.03 119.05 119.09 119.12 119.1 118.99 118.83 118.63 118.47 118.37 118.34 118.37 118.44 118.51 118.57 118.64 118.72 118.8 118.88 118.94 118.97 119 119.01 119.03 119.03 119 118.93 118.73 118.47 118.25 118.1 118 117.96 117.99 118.02 118.04 118.05 118.05

4.42 4.11 3.44 3.54 4.49 4.95 4.5 4.25 3.81 3.58 4.18 4.85 3.84 4.13 5.26 5.37 4.73 3.19 2.54 3.12 2.82 3.17 3.19 3.7 3.92 4.48 4.08 4.19 5.17 4.23 3.26 1.78 1.75 1.59 0.66 0.52 0.49 0.41 0.35

121

KDS LANDING PLAN

MD 0 829.9 838.5 867.4 895.9 924 952.7 981.5 1009.8 1038.5 1067.1 1095.6 1124.3 1153 1181.4 1210.2 1239 1268 1296.7 1320 1326 1336 1350 1380 1395 1410 1440 1470 1500 1530 1553 1560 1590 1599.9

Inc. 0 0 0.8 2.4 4.4 6.2 8.6 12 16.3 19.4 23.3 26.9 31 34.5 38.3 43.2 46 48.8 52.6 55.7 56.5 54.9 56.58 60.19 62 63.88 67.64 71.4 75.16 78.92 81.8 82.73 86.7 88

Azi. 0 0 127.5 116.2 119.4 122.2 120.6 118.8 117.5 118.3 119.3 119.4 116.3 117.5 119.7 120 120.4 119.3 118.8 118.78 118.78 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8 118.8

TVD 0 829.9 838.5 867.4 895.8 923.8 952.3 980.6 1008 1035.4 1062 1087.8 1112.9 1137 1159.9 1181.7 1202.2 1221.8 1240 1253.7 1257 1262.6 1270.5 1286.2 1293.5 1300.3 1312.6 1323.1 1331.8 1338.5 1342.3 1343.3 1346 1346.5

(+N/-S) 0 0 0 -0.4 -1.2 -2.6 -4.5 -7 -10.3 -14.4 -19.4 -25.3 -31.8 -38.8 -46.9 -56.3 -66.4 -77.1 -87.8 -96.9 -99.3 -103.3 -108.9 -121.2 -127.5 -134 -147.1 -160.7 -174.5 -188.6 -199.5 -202.9 -217.2 -222

(+E/-W) 0 0 0 0.8 2.2 4.5 7.6 12.1 18.2 26 35.1 45.6 57.9 71.8 86.5 102.8 120.3 138.8 158.2 174.8 179.2 186.4 196.5 218.9 230.4 242.1 266.1 290.7 315.9 341.5 361.4 367.5 393.6 402.3

VS 0 0 0 -0.7 -2.2 -4.4 -7.5 -11.8 -17.8 -25.5 -34.4 -44.7 -56.8 -70.4 -84.9 -100.8 -117.9 -136.1 -155.1 -171.3 -175.6 -182.7 -192.6 -214.6 -225.8 -237.3 -260.8 -284.9 -309.6 -334.7 -354.2 -360.2 -385.8 -394.3

C. Dist. 0 0 0.1 0.9 2.6 5.1 8.8 14 20.9 29.7 40.1 52.2 66.1 81.6 98.4 117.2 137.4 158.8 181 199.9 204.9 213.1 224.7 250.2 263.4 276.7 304.1 332.2 360.9 390.1 412.8 419.7 449.6 459.5

C. Dir. 0 0 127.5 119.61 118.72 119.89 120.47 120.13 119.44 119 118.96 119.05 118.78 118.42 118.46 118.69 118.91 119.03 119.04 119.01 119.01 119 118.99 118.97 118.96 118.95 118.94 118.93 118.92 118.91 118.9 118.9 118.89 118.89

DLs 0 0 2.79 1.68 2.11 1.94 2.52 3.56 4.57 3.25 4.11 3.79 4.56 3.72 4.24 5.11 2.93 3.02 3.99 3.99 4 4.8 3.6 3.61 3.62 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.99 3.97 3.94

Build R. 0 0 2.79 1.66 2.11 1.92 2.51 3.54 4.56 3.24 4.09 3.79 4.29 3.66 4.01 5.1 2.92 2.9 3.97 3.99 4 -4.8 3.6 3.61 3.62 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.76 3.99 3.97 3.94

122

KDS LANDING ACTUAL

MD 0 829.9 838.5 867.4 895.9 924 952.7 981.5 1009.8 1038.5 1067.1 1095.6 1124.3 1153 1181.4 1210.2 1239 1268 1296.7 1336.2 1360.7 1388.6 1418 1446.3 1474.2 1504.1 1532.9 1561.6 1590.2 1621

Inc. 0 0 0.8 2.4 4.4 6.2 8.6 12 16.3 19.4 23.3 26.9 31 34.5 38.3 43.2 46 48.8 52.6 52.82 55.39 59.38 65.14 70.01 73.75 76.28 80.7 84.66 84.86 88.5

Azi. 0 0 127.5 116.2 119.4 122.2 120.6 118.8 117.5 118.3 119.3 119.4 116.3 117.5 119.7 120 120.4 119.3 118.8 121.05 120.9 120.66 119.61 119.2 118.79 118.92 117.95 118.47 118.37 118.4

TVD 0 829.9 838.5 867.4 895.8 923.8 952.3 980.6 1008 1035.4 1062 1087.8 1112.9 1137 1159.9 1181.7 1202.2 1221.8 1240 1263.9 1278.3 1293.3 1307 1317.8 1326.5 1334.2 1340 1343.6 1346.2 1348

N/-S 0 0 0 -0.4 -1.2 -2.6 -4.5 -7 -10.3 -14.4 -19.4 -25.3 -31.8 -38.8 -46.9 -56.3 -66.4 -77.1 -87.8 -103.5 -113.7 -125.8 -138.8 -151.6 -164.5 -178.4 -191.9 -205.3 -218.9 -233.5

E/-W 0 0 0 0.8 2.2 4.5 7.6 12.1 18.2 26 35.1 45.6 57.9 71.8 86.5 102.8 120.3 138.8 158.2 185.5 202.5 222.7 245.2 268 291.1 316.4 341.3 366.3 391.4 418.4

C. Dist. C. Dir. DLs Build R. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 127.5 2.79 2.79 0.9 119.61 1.68 1.66 2.6 118.72 2.11 2.11 5.1 119.89 1.94 1.92 8.8 120.47 2.52 2.51 14 120.13 3.56 3.54 20.9 119.44 4.57 4.56 29.7 119 3.25 3.24 40.1 118.96 4.11 4.09 52.2 119.05 3.79 3.79 66.1 118.78 4.56 4.29 81.6 118.42 3.72 3.66 98.4 118.46 4.24 4.01 117.2 118.69 5.11 5.1 137.4 118.91 2.93 2.92 158.8 119.03 3.02 2.9 181 119.04 3.99 3.97 212.4 119.17 1.37 0.17 232.2 119.32 3.15 3.15 255.7 119.46 4.3 4.29 281.7 119.52 5.95 5.88 307.9 119.51 5.18 5.16 334.4 119.47 4.04 4.02 363.3 119.42 2.54 2.54 391.5 119.35 4.71 4.6 419.9 119.27 4.17 4.14 448.4 119.22 0.23 0.21 479.2 119.16 3.55 3.55

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KDS PILOT AND LANDING PROFILES

-200 0 0 Central Distance (m) 200 400 600

200

400

KDS LANDING TVD VS HD KDS PILOT PLAN KDS PILOT ACTUAL KDS LANDING PLAN

600 TVD (m)

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

KDS LANDING AND PILOT AZIMUTH

50 0 -100 -50 -100 -150 -200 -250 -300 KDS Pilot Plan KDS Plan Actual KDS Landing Actual KDS Landing Plan 0 100 200 300 400 500

+N/-S

+E/-W

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125

126

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GALLERY: VISIT TO RIG-SITES (CW-4, NGGS)

Drilling Rig

Elevator

Sucker Rod Pump

Stabilizers

Gas Lift Tubes

X-Mas Tree Installation

Kelly Spinner

Kelly

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REFERENCES

Well Construction and Engineering, Rabia Hussain Drilling Technology, Heriott-Watt University Directional Drilling Handbook, Prof AK Pathak, HOD, PE, ISM, Dhanbad Baker Hughes INTEQ - Technical Facts Cementing Manual, ONGC IDT Well Control manual