Unit 1 Intro to Memory and Historical Overview

Metaphors for Memory

- The main/ central issue with memory is defining the construct there are 3 views of memory: 1) Struturalist View dominant view of memory memory is the place information is stored uses metaphors representing newest technologies, ie: memory is like a computer storing info on hard drive etc. 2) Proceduralist View emphasis on the PROCESS of creating memory instead of the location of the memory doesnt deny the structuralist view, but suggests there is not ONE place where memory is stored, cause is there way the daily loss of neural cells from aging along would cause MUCH more memory loss than what we actually experience 3) Functionalist View it doesnt matter HOW or WHERE memory is stored best way to learn about memory is through scientific memory principles Ex) Cue overload principle more memories associated with a given cue the weaker that cue becomes at eliciting ONE specific memory Simply knowing this principle reduces explanations for a given phenomena AND reduces ability to apply the principles of memory in general

Memory the ability to revive/ use previously encoded or processed information

*REMEMBER: Memory cant be observed directlywe mu st INFER it from behavior/ changes in performance

Reliance on Experimentation with Memory

when conducting an experiment on memory, 2 ASPECTS of the experiment MUST be maximized: (1) Ecological Validity the extent a controlled experiment reflects what ACTUALLY happens in the real world (its hard to achieve because experiments = strict controlled environmental factors, and hence behavior) (2) Generalizability degree to which results apply to many real situations

History of Memory Research

Part A : Antiquity and the Middle Ages a) Plato all truths are stored in memory. Learning = the process of recollecting these truths Compared mem. To 3 things: - impressions formed on a wax tablet - birds in a aviary (each bird = representing different piece of knowledge) - recording of experience by a scribe and therefore subject to whims of a scribe? b) Aristotle Memory is the power of retention, Recollection is the power of recall - humans have memory & recollection

animals- lack retention (they cant associate 2 events) Aristotles 3 LAWS OF ASSOCIATION 1. Law of Contiguity: events tend to be associated when they co-occur in time and space 2. Law of Similarity: events are associated when they are similar 3. Law of Contrast: events are associated when they contrast each other

c) Augustine memory is not a passive, simple process it is a complex series of actions, and these actions can have an effect on the accuracy and nature of memories - SENSE memory : preserves and reproduces images, sounds, odors, touch - INTELLECTUAL memory : knowledge (ex of philosophy and science) - Memory = a cave where images of events occurred are stored - Discovered a major memory paradox we have not entirely forgotten anything if w e remember that we have forgotten it d) Thomas Aquinas brought Aristotles work to more people to see (didnt contribute anything himself) Part B: The Beginning of Modern Psychology a) Juan Luis Vives (memory - use it or lose it) a humanist and great empiricist in renaissance period - focus: uses of knowledge through observation and experimentation - 3 causes of FORGETTING: - 1) Picture in memory is erased or destroyed directly - 2) Picture of memory is smeared or broken - 3) Picture of memory escapes our search - suggested writing things down to remember (this was against Platos idea that this causes forgetfulness) b) Francis Bacon imperial discoveries rather than introspection(observing your own mental functioning) study before sleep to decrease interference 4 IDOLS 1. Idols of the tribe agreed upon ways of thinking 2. Idols of the den biases created by a persons environment or education 3. Idols of the marketplace misconceptions based on loose use of vocab 4. Idols of the theater blind acceptance of old ideas from tradition or authority

Part C: British Empiricism and Continental Nativism a) Thomas Hobbes - one of first British empiricists. Bacons secretary - memories and imagination are decaying sensations all cognition = based on sensation.all knowledge is accumulated through sensations and experience. Qualities are not properties of the object, but of the perceiver. b) Rene Descartes - first great psychologist and nativist - separated MIND from BODY (Cartesian dualism) --- they interact, BUT the mind can act independently - most ideas are innate -

c) d) e) f) -

John Locke empiricist mind = tabula rasa (blank slate) experience > innate factors sensations -> ideas (when there is no sensation, the idea is gone/not physically stored) Leibniz his biggest critic Immanuel Kant nativist 3 methods of memorizing (1) Mechanical (literal repetition) (2) Clever devices (associations & rhymes) (3) Refection (classifying info into categories) we are born with certain innate properties Debiran conformed to both empiricism AND nativism 3 types of memory (1) Mechanical mem motor tasks and is unconscious (2) Sensory mem feelings (or affect) and sensations (3) Representative mem conscious recollection of ideas and events The Mills: James(father) + John(son) both empiricists James memory is an infinite compound of associations 2 components of memory John (disagreed with dad) believed in mental cheminstry.. this lead to Gestalt Psychology Advocated the study of ideas empirically instead of relying on observing simple elements individually

g) Alexander Bain - connected psychology and physiology - Procedularist view of memory h) Henri Bergson 2 Memory systems: 1.) Closed system automatic movements ie walking 2.) Pure memory records events in our daily lives our brains inhibit the majority of unimportant memories

Part D: Scientific Psychology a) Gustav Fechner FIRST scientific psychologist; initiated field of psychophysics opposed Cartesian dualism, beielived mind and body were the SAME Fechners Law sensation is directly proportional to the logarithm of the magnitude of the physical stimulus multiplied by a constant he inspired Ebbinghaus

b) Hermann Ebbinghaus - first researcher of mem // experimental phychologistapplied Fechners techniques - used concepts of measurement error, distributions of observations around a mean, importance of evaluating the differences b/t 2 conditions in light of error associated with the respective means - association

Ebbinghaus EXPERIMENTS: On the connection b/t direct and remote associations * learned nonsense syllables until he could repeat the list without error * delay * measured retention of those lists with the METHOD OF SAVINGS so, a previously learned list is RE-learned. Time difference b/t time needed to learn the 2nd time and time to initially learn the list = SAVINGS time due to remembering based on DIRECT associations * THEN: he re-derived his list so that r^2?? Of the original list was displaces 1,2,3,or 7 positions so then, even though there were no direct associations b/t the items on the list (they were no longer next to each other) he could still demonstrate that the method of savings STILL occurred in this new re-derived list because of some small remote association Forgetting Function measured time took to learn list of non-sense syllables. After delay period, he measured time taken to re-learn the list. Tested re-learning after various delay periods Largest drop in performance = occurred immediately after learning the list!! NO DELAY PERIOD (why cramming doesnt work) Essentially, once a delay period passes there is no significant difference in ability to remember the list Experiment criticized.. only used himself as subject. Only used non-sense syllables

Part E: Research AFTER Ebbinghaus Before the Cognitive Revolution in the 50s and after the work of Ebbinghaus, 2 approaches dominated mem research: a) Behaviorism A methodological movement. rejected introspection emphasized conditioned reflex as the foundation of behavior unobservable constructs like memory couldnt be studied objectively, and therefore were not appropriate constructs for scientific inquiry within behaviorism

b) Gestalt Psychology - emphasized examining the WHOLE rather than the sum of its parts - the human eye sees objects in their entirety before perceiving their individual parts, suggesting the whole is GREATER than the sum of its parts - opposite of structuralist view

Part F: Current thoughts in COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Information = considered the basic unit of cognitive processing. Its considered to flow through the cognitive system in a way similar to information flow through a computer system an idea that fuels current memory research.

Current Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Overview: Overview of Research Empirical Research Process Ethical Problems in Research Research in Industry

1) Overview of Research The generalizability of Research Findings Refers to the degree research findings, based on a research sample are applicable to another sample/population of people Three Goals of Science 1. Describe understand phenomena before the study 2. Predict (inferring using correlational data) info from research is used to make predications regarding relationships b/t or among variables 3. Explain reason WHY events occur

2) Empirical Research Process What is Empirical Research? Way of gaining knowledge by DIRECT or EXPERIENCE

Step 1: Statement of the Problem - This is the fundamental component of good science/research. - Problem can be INDUCTIVE (data theory) or DEDUCTIVE (theory data). Figure 2.1 on page 23. - Theory =statement derived to explain the relationships among phenomena. \ - Why are theories important? They integrate/summarize large amounts of data AND provide a framework for research. - Some suggest to many are driven to prove their theories, Some suggest, however, that too many are driven to prove their theories. - Others - feel that productive research doesnt require theory (inductive - this is the extremely empiricist view, where individual differences make it so that no one framework fits. Therefore, collect data and build a theory on an individual basis). ? WUT? CONFUSEd

Step 2: Design of the Research Study The plan for conducting research! Naturalness: It is desirable to study in environments where the event of interest actually occurs in real life Control: These are measures that you want to put in place to reduce the number of confounds that affect the results of a study. There is a tradeoff between naturalness and control. Internal Validity: The degree to which the results of a study can be attributed to the INTENDED controls and manipulations of the study. External Validity: The generalizability of the results to the environment in which the event/behavior of interest actually occurs. Primary Research Methods The Experimental Method

- The most scientifically rigorous research design -Allows researchers to control variables and situations, apply systematic techniques, duplicate a study (you may not get the same results, but you can follow the method), and allows you to make a cause and effect claim. - Involves manipulating one or more independent variables to see if there is a change in one or more dependent variables while controlling for any known extraneous variables. - This procedure allows us to precisely determine a behaviours causes. - PROCESS: Begin with random sampling (so that a subset of a population represents the overall population of interest.) The sample is random of everyone had an equal chance of being selected to answer the questions. Participants are then randomly assigned to levels of the independent variables (the CAUSE) to see the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable (the eEFFECT). Levels of the independent variable include an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group will be the one that is exposed to treatment. The control group will not receive any treatment. We measure differences between the two groups on some dependent variable. This will tell us if the treatment was effective and that the manipulation of the independent variable caused the effect on the dependent variable. Limitations of the experimental method: One limit is that ethical issues determine which variables can be manipulated. For example, we cannot expose people to harmful chemicals to see if it has an affect on them. A second limit is that being observed often changes behavior. The fact that you are in a study may artificially change your behavior. Therefore, changes to the dependent variable would be due to the artificial change in your behavior rather than the manipulation of the independent variable. A third problem is that the results of an experiment do not necessarily generalize to the real world because of the non-naturalness of an experiment due to the control procedures that take place.

 The Quasi-experimental Method This is the same as an experiment except that variables cannot be manipulated. You can assign people to a different level of a drug but you cannot assign them to pre-existing conditions such as gender or ethnicity. There is less control because you cannot manipulate the groups but it is more generalizable because of the naturally-occurring groups.

The Correlational Method

- It was through correlational designs that the quantitative approach to I/O psychology evolved. - Sometimes we are not able to create an experiment to test our hypotheses. Lets say that you suspect that children who are verbally abused on a daily basis will have lower self-esteems than children who are not verbally abused. Sometimes things occur in nature that we just cannot replicate in a lab, either for practical or ethical considerations. No research review board is going to let you assign a child to an experimental group where they will be abused, but in real life, unfortunately, abuse does occur and can be studied. - The goal of the correlation design is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. - NO attempt is made to structure or manipulate the participant's environment. - Instead, you take information as it is and try to determine whether variations in people's life experiences are associated with differences in their behaviours or patterns of development. -You see if changes in one variable are accompanied with changes in another. - Sometimes we go beyond generating a correlation and instead are interested in determining if one of the variables PREDICTS the other variable. In this case the former is called the predictor (similar to the IV in an experiment) and the latter is called the criterion (similar to the DV in an experiment). - Questionnaires: This is one method of data collection. However, there tend to be response rate problems and truthfulness of responses may be in question. - Observations: This is another method of data collection. Data is collected in environment where behavior being studied occurs. It is useful for generating ideas for further testing. - Limitations of correlational methods: You cannot determine causation using a correlational method. This means you cannot establish cause and effect. For example, there is a greater incidence of child abuse in infants who cry more. However, we cannot say that crying causes child abuse. It

could be that children who are abused and hurt cry more. There could be an altogether different factor operating, such as living in stressful conditions.

Secondary Research Methods: Refers to Research Methods that use Primary Data Meta-analysis Method - A statistical study of studies - Aggregates results of multiple studies - Because all studies have a certain level of error, this procedure accounts for this error across studies and tries to generate estimates of true relationships between/ among variables of interest - Limitations of Meta-analysis: Subjective decisions are made with the data during the process. There is the problem of the file drawer effect of non- published studies. There are differences in the level of analysis conducted by the individual researchers in the original studies.

Qualitative Research Method (Ethnography) Ethnography = observational data (except the researcher actually becomes a member of the group being observed) This requires DECEPTION , where the members of the group being observed dont know that there is a researcher in the group analyzing their behavior

STEP 3: DATA ANALYSIS

Measures of Central Tendency Mean: Mean = X/n. Mean refers to the average and is the best guess when given no other information. It is best used with the normal distribution. It is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. Median: This is the middle score in a distribution. 50% of the scores are above the median and 50% are below. The median is best used for skewed distributions because it is less sensitive to extreme scores. Mode: It refers to the most common score. This is the least common measure of central tendency.

Measures of Variability Range: This refers to the distance between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. This makes this measure of variability very sensitive to extreme scores. The average of two distributions can be the same even if the variability of the two distributions are completely different. For example, the average of 4, 5, and 6 is 5 and so is the average of 2, 5, and 8. However, the range of the first set of score is 2 but it is 6 for the second set. Standard Deviation: This refers to the average distance that all of the data points are from the mean. The smaller the SD, the closer each individual score is to the mean of the distribution. The larger the SD, the further each individual score is from the mean of the distribution.

Correlation

The degree of relationship that exists between two variables (x and y) such as job satisfaction and performance can be measured statistically. To measure the relationship, a correlation coefficient, which ranges from -1.00 to +1.00, is calculated. The symbol for correlation coefficient is r. A perfect positive correlation (+1.00) indicates that both variables (x and y) are changing in the same direction, and the magnitude of change is equal (as x decreases by 1 unit, y decreases by 1 unit). A perfect negative correlation (-1.00) indicates that the variables (x and y) are changing in opposite directions, and the magnitude of the change is equal (as x increases 1 unit, y decreases 1 unit). A coefficient equal to 0 means that no systematic pattern exists between the variables (as x increases or decreases, y may increase, decrease, or stay the same, depending on the case).

STEP 4 CONCLUSIONS FROM RESEARCH VALUE OF SINGLE STUDY The Value of a Single Study: Change initiatives should never be implemented on the basis of a single study. Generalizability - Do the results generated generalize back to the population of interest? How do we determine this? 1. The participants used 2. The degree of fit between the participants used and the task required to be completed 3. The research method used (e.g., observation is high in naturalness but low in control, whereas experiments have high levels of control but lack naturalness). Research as a Cumulative Process One study can result in multiple new questions to be studied, which is the essence of the cyclical nature of the research process

3) Ethical Problems in Research Physical Treatment of Subjects: No undue physical or psychological harm can occur during a study. If this is required, there must be some type of compensation method in place (e.g., insurance) or some method of resolving the matter such that the harmed individual is given restitution. Confidentiality of Information Written permission must be obtained from the participant and no one other than those permitted by the participant may see the participants individual results. Voluntary Consent The participant must be told about the process they will undergo, any harm that might be incurred, that they may withdraw at any time, and how the results will be used. They must then provide written consent of their willingness to participate in the study. APA Code of Ethics Five rights of participants: informed consent, privacy, confidentiality, protection from deception, and debriefing. Researchers who violate the code of ethics can be subject to sanctions and litigation. The code was created to protect the rights of subjects and to keep unqualified people from practicing in the field. The complexity of real-life versus science ethical dilemmas make it difficult to study certain issues. There are cases in which deception can be implemented: using deception has to be completely justified because of the substantive importance of the research; there has to be no way to obtain the data other than to use deception; and there has to be safeguards in place in response to any potential harm that may be incurred as a result of the deception.

4) Research in Industry Organizational Problems Studies in universities arise from interest or wanting to contribute to the body of knowledge. Alternately, studies in organizations primarily arise from organizational effectiveness issues and or trying to avoid future problems. Outside researchers would fair much better if they were problemfocused rather than theory-focused. Shifting their emphasis would result in better partnerships between industry and research. Academic research findings are often descriptive in nature, but practitioners often prefer prescriptive findings

Sellthe Findings Even when results are positive, they still must be sold throughout the organization in order to get buy-in when it comes to making changes. In science, it is not usually necessary to sell your results, although you must be able to defend your work.

Actionable Knowledge This refers to the knowledge we need to have in order to be able to conduct research and implement change within an organization. There are two methods of fostering this: study variables relevant to the organization and be problem-focused but also try to forecast potential future problems and offer methods for actively eliminating them.