50751354756500

Chapter 8 Gas Power Cycles
Homework
Actual and Ideal Cycles, Carnot Cycle, AirStandard Assumptions, Reciprocating Engines: 8-1 8-3 Diesel cycle: 8-8 Brayton) cycles with intercooling, reheating and regeneration: 8-17
Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach
Beijing Jiaotong University
Outline
Power cycles (Chap.8 and Chap.9) Refrigeration cycles (Chap. 10) Gas cycles
Thermodynamic cycles
Vapor cycles Closed cycles
Open cycles
Outline
8-1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles 8-2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering 8-3 Air-Standard Assumptions 8-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines 8-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines 8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 8-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 8-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration 8-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 8-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles
Chapter Objectives
Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle. Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles. Review the operation of reciprocating engines. Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles. Solve problems based on the Otto, Diesel, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles. Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and regeneration. Analyze jet-propulsion cycles. Identify simplifying assumptions for second-law analysis of gas power cycles. Perform second-law analysis of gas power cycles.
8-1 Basic Consideration in the Analysis of Power Cycles 1.Ideal cycle The cycle which is stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities. Thermal efficiency th net net = or th = in in
Notice: the ideal cycle is not the Carnot cycle

8-1 Basic Consideration in the Analysis of Power Cycles 1.Ideal cycle The idealizations and simplifications commonly employed in the analysis of power cycles. (1) The cycle does not involve any friction. (2) All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasiequilibrium manner.
(3) The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and heat transfer through them is negligible.
Notice: the changes in kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid can also be neglected.
8-1 Basic Consideration in the Analysis of Power Cycles 2.P-v and T-s diagram
Any modification that increases the ratio of these two areas will also increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
8-2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering 1.The Carnot cycle Four totally reversible processes Isothermal heat addition Isentropic expansion Isothermal heat rejection Isentropic compression th,Carnot =1
8-2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering 1.The Carnot cycle
8-2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering 2.Its value in engineering The real value of the Carnot cycle comes from its being a standard against which the actual or the ideal cycles can be compared.
Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease in the average temperature at which heat is rejected from the system.
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8-3 Air-Standard Assumptions
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves as an ideal gas. 2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible. 3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source. 4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid to its initial state. 5. Air has constant specific heats whose values are determined at room temperature (25, or 77). Cold-air-standard assumptions
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8-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 1.The basic components
TDC top dead center BDC bottom dead center
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8-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 2.Mean effective pressure (MEP)
net = MEP Piston area Stroke = MEP Displacement volume
net net MEP = = max min max min

Compare the performances of reciprocating engines of equal size.
The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work per cycle and thus performs better.
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8-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 2.Mean effective pressure (MEP)
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8-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines 3.Classification of reciprocating engines Spark-ignition (SI) engines Otto cycle
The combustion of the airfuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug.
Compression-ignition (CI) engines
Diesel cycle
The airfuel mixture is self-ignited as a result of compressing the mixture above its self-ignition temperature.
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8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines 1.Four-stroke internal combustion engines
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8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines 2.Two-stroke internal combustion engines The power stroke
The compression stroke
High power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios
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8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines 3.Ideal Otto cycle Air-standard assumptions are utilized.
It consists of four internally reversible processes: 1-2 Isentropic compression 2-3 Constant-volume heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion 4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
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8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines 3.Ideal Otto cycle The thermal efficiency 1 1
(Compression ratio)
Under the cold-air-standard assumption
th,Otto = 1
max min 2 1
2 1
(Specific heat ratio)
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8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a function of compression ratio (k =1.4).
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8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle increases with the specific heat ratio k of the working fluid.
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8-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines Example 8-1
An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression process, air is at 100 kPa and 17, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat addition process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature, determine (a) the maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the cycle, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d ) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
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Solution An ideal Otto cycle is considered. The maximum temperature and pressure, the net work output, the thermal efficiency, and the mean effective pressure are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 3 The variation of specific heats with temperature is to be accounted for. Analysis The P-v diagram of the ideal Otto cycle described is shown in the Fig. We note that the air contained in the cylinder forms a closed system.
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(a) The maximum temperature and pressure in an Otto cycle occur at the end of the constant-volume heat-addition process (state 3). But first we need to determine the temperature and pressure of air at the end of the isentropic compression process (state 2), using data from Table A17:
1 = 290 K 1 = 206.91 kJ/kg 1 = 676.1 Process 1-2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas):
2 2 1 1 676.1 = = 2 = = = 84.51 2 = 652.4 K 1 1 8 2 = 475.11 kJ/kg
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2 2 1 1 2 = 2 = 1 2 1 1 1 = 100 kPa 2 652.4 K 290 K 8 = 1799.7 kPa
Process 2-3 (constant-volume heat addition): in = 3 2 800 kJ/kg = 3 475.11 kJ/kg 3 = 1275.11kJ/kg 3 = 1575.1 K 3 = 6.108
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3 3 2 2 3 = 3 = 2 3 2 2 2 = 1.7997 MPa 3 1575.1 K 652.4 K 1 = 4.345 MPa
(b) The net work output for the cycle is determined either by finding the boundary (P dV) work involved in each process by integration and adding them or by finding the net heat transfer that is equivalent to the net work done during the cycle. We take the latter approach. However, first we need to find the internal energy of the air at state 4: Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas): 4 4 = = 4 = 3 = 8 6.108 = 48.864 4 = 795.6 K 3 3
4 = 588.74 kJ/kg
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Process 4-1 (constant-volume heat rejection): out = 1 4 out = 4 1 out = 588.74 206.91 = 381.83 kJ/kg Thus, net = net = in out = 800 381.83 = 418.17 kJ/kg
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(c) The thermal efficiency of the cycle is determined from its definition: th net 418.17 kJ/kg = = = 0.523 or 52.3% in 800 kJ/kg
Under the cold-air-standard assumptions (constant specific heat values at room temperature), the thermal efficiency would be th,Otto = 1 1 1 = 1 1 = 1 8
11.4
= 0.565 or 56.5%
which is considerably different from the value obtained above. Therefore, care should be exercised in utilizing the cold-air-standard assumptions.
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(d) The mean effective pressure is determined from its definition: net net net MEP = = = 1 2 1 1 / 1 (1 1/) where 1 (0.287 kPa m3 /(kg K))(290 K) 1 = = = 0.832 m3 /kg 1 100 kPa Thus, 1 kPa m3 MEP = = 574 kPa 1 1 kJ (0.832 m3 /kg)(1 ) 8 418.17 kJ/kg
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8-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines 1.The diesel cycle
Higher compression ratios Otto:7~10; Diesel: 12~23
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8-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines 1.The diesel cycle 1-2 Isentropic compression 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion 4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
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8-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines 1.The diesel cycle Under the cold-air-standard assumptions th,Diesel = 1 1 1 1 ( 1)
is the compression ratio =

3 2
3 2
is the cutoff ratio()
Notice: when the is the same th,Otto > th,Diesel

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8-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines
As the cutoff ratio decreases, the efficiency of the Diesel cycle increases.
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8-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines 2.The dual cycle
Try to calculate the efficiency of the dual cycle.
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8-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines Example 8-2
An ideal Diesel cycle with air as the working fluid has a compression ratio of 18 and a cutoff ratio of 2. At the beginning of the compression process, the working fluid is at 14.7 psia, 80, and 117 in . Utilizing the cold-air-standard assumptions, determine (a) the temperature and pressure of air at the end of each process, (b) the net work output and the thermal efficiency, and (c) the mean effective pressure.
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Solution An ideal Diesel cycle is considered. The temperature and pressure at the end of each process, the net work output, the thermal efficiency, and the mean effective pressure are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The cold-air-standard assumptions are applicable and thus air can be assumed to have constant specific heats at room temperature. 2 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. Properties The gas constant of air is = 0.3704 psia ft 3 /(lbm R) and its other properties at room temperature are = 0.240 Btu/(lbm R), = 0.171Btu/ (lbm R), and = 1.4 (Table A2Ea). Analysis The P-V diagram of the ideal Diesel cycle described is shown in the Fig. We note that the air contained in the cylinder forms a closed system.
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(a) The temperature and pressure values at the end of each process can be determined by utilizing the ideal-gas isentropic relations for processes 1-2 and 3-4. But first we determine the volumes at the end of each process from the definitions of the compression ratio and the cutoff ratio:
1 117 in3 2 = = = 6.5 in3 18 3 = 2 = 2 6.5 in3 = 13 in3 4 = 1 = 117 in3
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Process 1-2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas, constant specific heats):
2 = 1 2 = 1 1 2 1 2
1
= 540 R 18
1.41
= 1716 R
= 1.4 psia 18
1.4
= 841 psia
Process 2-3 (constant-pressure heat addition to an ideal gas): 3 = 2 = 841 psia 2 2 3 3 3 = 3 = 2 = 1716 R 2 = 3432 R 2 3 2
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Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas, constant specific heats):
4 = 3 3 4
1
= 3432 R
13 in3 117 in3
1.41
= 1425 R
1.4
4 = 3
3 4
= 841 psia
13 in3 117 in3
= 841 psia
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(b) The net work for a cycle is equivalent to the net heat transfer. But first we find the mass of air:
1 1 (14.7 psia)(117 in3 ) 1 ft 3 = = = 0.00498 lbm 1 (0.3704 psia ft 3 /(lbm R))(540 R) 1728 in3 Process 2-3 is a constant-pressure heat-addition process, for which the boundary work and u terms can be combined into h. Thus, in = 3 2 = 3 2 = (0.00498 lbm)(0.240 Btu/(lbm R))[ 3432 1716 R] = 2.051 Btu
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Process 4-1 is a constant-volume heat-rejection process (it involves no work interactions), and the amount of heat rejected is
out = 4 1 = 4 1 = (0.00498 lbm)(0.171 Btu/(lbm R))[ 1425 540 R] = 0.754 Btu Thus, net = in out = 2.051 0.754 = 1.297 Btu Then the thermal efficiency becomes th = net 1.297 Btu = = 0.632 or 63.2% in 2.051 Btu
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The thermal efficiency of this Diesel cycle under the cold-air-standard assumptions could also be determined from Eq. 912.
(c) The mean effective pressure is determined from its definition, Eq. 94:
MEP = net net 1.297 Btu 778.17 lbf ft = = 1 2 117 6.5 in3 1 Btu max min 12 in = 110 psia 1 ft
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 1.Regeneration
A process during which heat is transferred to a thermal energy storage device (called a regenerator) during one part of the cycle and is transferred back to the working fluid during another part of the cycle.
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 2.Stirling cycles
It is made up of four totally reversible processes: 1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source) 2-3 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the regenerator) 3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink) 4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working fluid)
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 2.Stirling cycles
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 3.Ericsson cycles
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source) 2-3 p = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the regenerator) 3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink) 4-1 p = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working fluid)
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 3.Ericsson cycles
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles 4.Efficiency
th,Stirling = th,Ericsson = th,Carnot
=1
Stirling and Ericsson cycles are difficult to achieve Because they involve heat transfer through a differential temperature difference in all components including the regenerator.
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles Example 8-3
Using an ideal gas as the working fluid, show that the thermal efficiency of an Ericsson cycle is identical to the efficiency of a Carnot cycle operating between the same temperature limits.
Solution It is to be shown that the thermal efficiencies of Carnot and Ericsson cycles are identical. Analysis Heat is transferred to the working fluid isothermally from an external source at temperature TH during process 1-2, and it is rejected again isothermally to an external sink at temperature TL during process 3-4. For a reversible isothermal process, heat transfer is related to the entropy change by
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The entropy change of an ideal gas during an isothermal process is

= ln ln = ln The heat input and heat output can be expressed as in = 2 1 = and out = 4 3 = 4 4 ln = ln 3 3 2 2 ln = ln 1 1
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Then the thermal efficiency of the Ericsson cycle becomes

th,Ericsson = 1 out in 4 3 =1 =1 ln 1 2 ln
since P1=P4 and P2=P3. Notice that this result is independent of whether the cycle is executed in a closed or steady-flow system.
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8-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
5.Several advantages of the external combustion engines (1) A variety of fuels can be used as a source of thermal energy. (2) There is more time for combustion, and thus the combustion process is more complete, which means less air pollution and more energy extraction from the fuel. (3) These engines operate on closed cycles. Regeneration can increase efficiency.
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 1.The open-cycle gas turbine engine
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 2.The closed-cycle gas turbine engine
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 3.Brayton cycles The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in the closed loop. 1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor) 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition 3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine) 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 3.Brayton cycles Under the cold-air-standard assumptions th,Brayton = 1
2 : 1
1
(1)/
the pressure ratio
k is the specific heat ratio
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 3.Brayton cycles
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 3.Brayton cycles
For fixed values of min and max , the net work of the Brayton cycle first increases with the pressure ratio, then reaches a maximum at = ( / )/[()] , and finally decreases.
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 3.Brayton cycles The air in gas turbines performs two important functions (1) It supplies the necessary oxidant for the combustion of the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to keep the temperature of various components within safe limits. (2) The second function is accomplished by drawing in more air than is needed for the complete combustion of the fuel.
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 3.Brayton cycles The two major application areas of gas-turbine engines (1) Aircraft propulsion (2) Electric power generation Back work ratio
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 4.Development of gas turbine (1) Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures (2) Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery components (3) Adding modifications to the basic cycle
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines Example 8-4
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the airstandard assumptions, determine (a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the turbine, (b) the back work ratio, and (c) the thermal efficiency.
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Solution A power plant operating on the ideal Brayton cycle is considered. The compressor and turbine exit temperatures, back work ratio, and the thermal efficiency are to be determined. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 3 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. 4 The variation of specific heats with temperature is to be considered. Analysis The T-s diagram of the ideal Brayton cycle described is shown in the Fig. We note that the components involved in the Brayton cycle are steady-flow devices. (a) The air temperatures at the compressor and turbine exits are determined from isentropic relations:
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Process 1-2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas): 1 = 300 K 1 = 300.19 kJ/kg 1 = 1.386 2 2 = 1 = 8 1.386 = 11.09 2 = 540 K at compressor exit 1 2 = 544.35 kJ/kg
Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas): 3 = 1300 K 3 = 1395.97 kJ/kg 3 = 330.9
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4 = 4 1 3 = 3 8 330.9 = 41.36 4 = 770 K at turbine exit
4 = 789.37 kJ/kg
(b) To find the back work ratio, we need to find the work input to the compressor and the work output of the turbine: comp,in = 2 1 = 544.35 300.19 = 244.16 kJ/kg comp,out = 3 4 = 1395.97 789.37 = 606.60 kJ/kg
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Thus,
bw comp,in 244.16 kJ/kg = = = 0.403 comp,out 606.60 kJ/kg
That is, 40.3 percent of the turbine work output is used just to drive the compressor.
(c) The thermal efficiency of the cycle is the ratio of the net power output to the total heat input: in = 3 2 = 1395.97 544.35 = 851.62 kJ/kg net = out in = 606.60 244.16 = 362.4 kJ/kg
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Thus, th = net 362.4 kJ/kg = = 0.426 or 42.6% in 851.62 kJ/kg
The thermal efficiency could also be determined from th = 1 where

out =1 in
489.2 851.62
= 42.6%
out = 4 1 = 789.37 300.19 = 489.2 kJ/kg
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8-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines 5.Deviation of actual gas-turbine cycles from idealized ones Pressure drop Irreversibilities Isentropic efficiencies
2 1 = 2 1 3 4 = 3 4
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Assuming a compressor efficiency of 80 percent and a turbine efficiency of 85 percent, determine (a) the back work ratio, (b) the thermal efficiency, and (c) the turbine exit temperature of the gas-turbine cycle discussed in Example 85.
Solution The Brayton cycle discussed in Example 85 is reconsidered. For specified turbine and compressor efficiencies, the back work ratio, the thermal efficiency, and the turbine exit temperature are to be determined.
69
Analysis (a) The T-s diagram of the cycle is shown in Fig. 937. The actual compressor work and turbine work are determined by using the definitions of compressor and turbine efficiencies 244.16 kJ/kg : comp,in = = = 305.20 kJ/kg 0.80
: turb,out = = 0.85 606.60 kJ/kg = 515.61 kJ/kg bw comp,in 305.20 kJ/kg = = = 0.592 comp,out 515.61 kJ/kg
Thus,
That is, the compressor is now consuming 59.2 percent of the work produced by the turbine (up from 40.3 percent). This increase is due to the irreversibilities that occur within the compressor and the turbine.
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(b) In this case, air leaves the compressor at a higher temperature and enthalpy, which are determined to be
comp,in = 2 1 2 = 1 + comp,in = 300.19 + 305.20 = 605.39 kJ/kg (and 2 = 598 K) Thus, in = 3 2 = 1395.97 605.39 = 790.58 kJ/kg net = out in = 515.61 305.20 = 210.41 kJ/kg and th net 210.41 kJ/kg = = = 0.266 or 26.6% in 790.58 kJ/kg
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That is, the irreversibilities occurring within the turbine and compressor caused the thermal efficiency of the gas turbine cycle to drop from 42.6 to 26.6 percent. This example shows how sensitive the performance of a gas-turbine power plant is to the efficiencies of the compressor and the turbine. In fact, gas-turbine efficiencies did not reach competitive values until significant improvements were made in the design of gas turbines and compressors.
(c) The air temperature at the turbine exit is determined from an energy balance on the turbine:
turb,out = 3 4 4 = 3 turb,out = 1395.97 515.61 = 880.36 kJ/kg
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Then, from Table A17,
4 = 853 K
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8-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 1.A gas-turbine engine with regenerator
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle increases as a result of regeneration since the portion of energy of the exhaust gases that is normally rejected to the surroundings is now used to preheat the air entering the combustion chamber.
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8-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 2.Effectiveness

Assuming the regenerator to be well insulated and KE=0, PE=0 regen,act = 5 2 regen,max = 5 2 = 4 2 , = = , Under the cold-air-standard assumptions

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8-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration 3.Thermal efficiency
th,regen
1 =1 ( )(1)/ 3
Regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios and low minimum-to-maximum temperature ratios.
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8-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration Example 8-6

Determine the thermal efficiency of the gas-turbine described in Example 85 if a regenerator having an effectiveness of 80 percent is installed. Solution The gas-turbine discussed in Example 85 is equipped with a regenerator. For a specified effectiveness, the thermal efficiency is to be determined. Analysis The T-s diagram of the cycle is shown in the Fig. We first determine the enthalpy of the air at the exit of the regenerator, using the definition of effectiveness:
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5 2 = 4 2 0.80 = Thus,
5 605.39 kJ/kg 5 = 825.37 kJ/kg 880.36 605.39 kJ/kg
in = 3 5 = 1395.97 825.37 kJ/kg = 570.60 kJ/kg
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This represents a savings of 220.0 kJ/kg from the heat input requirements. The addition of a regenerator (assumed to be frictionless) does not affect the net work output. Thus, net 210.41 kJ/kg = = = 0.369 or 36.9% in 570.60 kJ/kg
th
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8-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, Regeneration Minimizing the compressor work
Multistage compression with intercooling
Maximize the turbine work

Multistage expansion with reheating
The steady-flow compression or expansion work is proportional to the specific volume of the fluid. Therefore, the specific volume of the working fluid should be as low as possible during a compression process and as high as possible during an expansion process.
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8-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, Regeneration
Best performance
=
A gas-turbine engine with two-stage compression with intercooling, two-stage expansion with reheating, and regeneration.
81
In gasturbine power plants, intercooling and reheating are always used in conjunction with regeneration.
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The Ericsson cycle
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8-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, Regeneration Example 8-7
An ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two stages of expansion has an overall pressure ratio of 8. Air enters each stage of the compressor at 300 K and each stage of the turbine at 1300 K. Determine the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency of this gasturbine cycle, assuming (a) no regenerators and (b) an ideal regenerator with 100 percent effectiveness. Compare the results with those obtained in Example 84.
84
Solution An ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two stages of expansion is considered. The back work ratio and the thermal efficiency of the cycle are to be determined for the cases of no regeneration and maximum regeneration. Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The air-standard assumptions are applicable. 3 Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible. Analysis The T-s diagram of the ideal gas-turbine cycle described is shown in the Fig. We note that the cycle involves two stages of expansion, two stages of compression, and regeneration. For two-stage compression and expansion, the work input is minimized and the work output is maximized when both stages of the compressor and the turbine have the same pressure ratio. Thus,
85
2 4 = = 8 = 2.83 1 3 and 6 8 = = 8 = 2.83 7 9
Air enters each stage of the compressor at the same temperature, and each stage has the same isentropic efficiency (100 percent in this case). Therefore, the temperature (and enthalpy) of the air at the exit of each compression stage will be the same. A similar argument can be given for the turbine. Thus, : : 1 = 3 , 1 = 3 and 6 = 8 , 6 = 8 2 = 4 , 2 = 4 and 7 = 9 , 7 = 9
Under these conditions, the work input to each stage of the compressor will be the same, and so will the work output from each stage of the turbine.
86
(a) In the absence of any regeneration, the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency are determined by using data from Table A17 as follows: 1 = 300 K 1 = 300.19 kJ/kg 1 = 1.386 2 2 = 1 = 8 1.386 = 3.92 2 = 403.3 K 1 2 = 404.31 kJ/kg
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6 = 1300 K 6 = 1395.97 kJ/kg 6 = 330.9 7 7 1 = 6 = 330.9 = 117.0 7 = 1006.4 K 6 8 2 = 1053.33 kJ/kg
Then
comp,in = 2 comp,in,1 = 2 2 1 = 2 404.31 300.19 = 208.24 kJ/kg turb,out = 2 turb,out,1 = 2 6 7 = 2 1395.97 1053.33 = 685.28 kJ/kg
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net = turb,out comp,in = 685.28 208.24 = 477.04 kJ/kg in = primary + reheat = 6 4 + 8 7 = 1395.97 404.31 + 1395.97 1053.33 = 1334.30 kJ/kg Thus, bw and th net 477.04 kJ/kg = = = 0.358 or 35.8 % in 1334.30 kJ/kg comp,in 208.24 kJ/kg = = = 0.304 or 30.4% turb,out 685.28 kJ/kg
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A comparison of these results with those obtained in Example 84 (singlestage compression and expansion) reveals that multistage compression with intercooling and multistage expansion with reheating improve the back work ratio (it drops from 40.3 to 30.4 percent) but hurt the thermal efficiency (it drops from 42.6 to 35.8 percent). Therefore, intercooling and reheating are not recommended in gasturbine power plants unless they are accompanied by regeneration. (b) The addition of an ideal regenerator (no pressure drops, 100 percent effectiveness) does not affect the compressor work and the turbine work. Therefore, the net work output and the back work ratio of an ideal gas-turbine cycle are identical whether there is a regenerator or not. A regenerator, however, reduces the heat input requirements by preheating the air leaving the compressor, using the hot exhaust gases. In an ideal regenerator, the compressed air is heated to the turbine exit temperature T9 before it enters the combustion chamber. Thus, under the airstandard assumptions, h5=h7=h9.
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The heat input and the thermal efficiency in this case are in = primary + reheat = 6 4 + 8 7 = 1395.97 1053.33 + 1395.97 1053.33 = 685.28 kJ/kg and th = net 477.04 kJ/kg = = 0.696 or 69.6 % in 685.28 kJ/kg
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8-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 1.Ideal jet-propulsion cycles
Aircraft gas turbines operate on an open cycle called a jetpropulsion cycle.
92
8-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 1.Ideal jet-propulsion cycles
The net work output of a jet-propulsion cycle is zero.
93
8-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 1.Ideal jet-propulsion cycles The net thrust developed by the engine = ()exit The propulsive power
inlet
Both relative to the aircraft
= exit inlet
(N)
= aircraft = exit inlet aircraft The propulsive efficiency Propulsive power = = Energy input rate in
(kW)
Heating value of the fuel

94
8-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles
2.Modifications to turbojet engines
A turbojet engine.
95
8-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles 2.Modifications to turbojet engines
96
A turboprop engine
97
A ramjet engine
98
8-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles Ideal Carnot, Ericsson, and Stirling cycles: totally reversible Ideal Otto, Diesel, and Brayton cycles: only internally reversible A second-law analysis: reveals where the largest irreversibilities occur, where to start improvements 1.The exergy destruction for a closed system
dest = 0 gen = 0 sys in + out
= 0
in out 2 1 sys + .in .out
()
Tb,in and Tb,out are the temperatures of the system boundary where heat is transferred into and out of the system, respectively.
99
8-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles 2.The exergy destruction for steady-flow systems, in rate form
dest = 0 gen = 0 out + in = 0
out

in
in out + .in .out
(kW)
On a unitmass basis for a one-inlet, one-exit steady-flow device

in out + ,in ,out
dest = 0 gen = 0
(kJ/kg)
Subscripts i and e denote the inlet and exit states, respectively.
100
8-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles 3.The exergy destruction of a cycle The sum of the exergy destructions of the processes that compose that cycle. se=si
dest = 0 out ,out in ,in (kJ/kg)
For a cycle that involves heat transfer only with a source at TH and a sink at TL
dest = 0 out in (kJ/kg)
101
8-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles 4.The exergies of a closed system f and a fluid stream y at any state = 0 0 0 + 0 0
2 + + 2
(kJ/kg)
2 = 0 0 0 + + (kJ/kg) 2 Subscript 0 denotes the state of the surroundings.
102
8-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power Cycles Example 8-8

Determine the exergy destruction associated with the Otto cycle (all four processes as well as the cycle) discussed in Example 81, assuming that heat is transferred to the working fluid from a source at 1700 K and heat is rejected to the surroundings at 290 K. Also, determine the exergy of the exhaust gases when they are purged.
103

An ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8. At the beginning of the compression process, air is at 100 kPa and 17, and 800 kJ/kg of heat is transferred to air during the constant-volume heat addition process. Accounting for the variation of specific heats of air with temperature, determine (a) the maximum temperature and pressure that occur during the cycle, (b) the net work output, (c) the thermal efficiency, and (d ) the mean effective pressure for the cycle.
104

Solution The Otto cycle analyzed in Example 81 is reconsidered. For specified source and sink temperatures, the exergy destruction associated with the cycle and the exergy purged with the exhaust gases are to be determined. Analysis In Example 81, various quantities of interest were given or determined to be = 8 0 = 290 K 1 = 290 K 2 = 652.4 K 3 = 1575.1 K 2 = 1.7997 MPa 3 = 4.345 MPa in = 800 kJ/kg out = 381.83 kJ/kg net = 418.17 kJ/kg
105

Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic (s1=s2, s3=s4) and therefore do not involve any internal or external irreversibilities; that is, Xdest,12=0, Xdest,12=0. Processes 2-3 and 4-1 are constant-volume heat-addition and heat-rejection processes, respectively, and are internally reversible. However, the heat transfer between the working fluid and the source or the sink takes place through a finite temperature difference, rendering both processes irreversible. The exergy destruction associated with each process is determined from Eq. 832. However, first we need to determine the entropy change of air during these processes:
0 0 3 2 = 3 2 ln
4.345 MPa = 3.5045 2.4975 kJ/(kg K) 0.287 kJ/(kg K) ln 1.7997 MPa = 0.7540 kJ/(kg K)
3 2
See Eq.7-39
106

Also, in = 800 kJ/kg Thus, dest,23 = 0 3 2
sys
and
source = 1700 K in source 800 kJ/kg 1700 K
= (290 K) 0.7540 kJ/(kg K) = 82.2 kJ/kg
107

For process 4-1, 1 4 = 2 3 = 0.7540 kJ/(kg K) , ,41 = out = 381.83 kJ/kg, and sink = 290 K. Thus, dest,41 = 0 1 4
sys +
out sink
kJ 381.83 kJ/kg = (290 K) 0.7540 + kg K 290 K = 163.2 kJ/kg
108

Therefore, the irreversibility of the cycle is dest,cycle = dest,12 + dest,23 + dest,34 + dest,41 = 0 + 82.2 kJ/kg + 0 + 163.2 kJ/kg = 245.4 kJ/kg The exergy destruction of the cycle could also be determined from Eq. 834. Notice that the largest exergy destruction in the cycle occurs during the heatrejection process. Therefore, any attempt to reduce the exergy destruction should start with this process.
109

Disregarding any kinetic and potential energies, the exergy (work potential) of the working fluid before it is purged (state 4) is determined from Eq. 835: 4 = 4 0 0 4 0 + 0 (4 0 ) where 4 0 = 4 1 = 0.7540 kJ/(kg K) 4 0 = 4 1 = out = 381.83 kJ/kg 4 0 = 4 1 = 0 Thus,
4 = 381.83 kJ/kg (290 K)(0.7540 kJ/(kg K)) + 0 = 163.2 kJ/kg

which is equivalent to the exergy destruction for process 4-1. (Why?)
110

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Chapter 8 Gas Power Cycles

Chapter 8 Gas Power Cycles

Thermodynamics, An Engineering Approach

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