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The International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 21, No.

8, June 2010, 13371350

Job stress, coping strategies, and burnout among hotel industry supervisors in Taiwan
Hsin-Hui Sunny Hua and Chien-Wei Chengb*
a

Department of Hospitality Management, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan County, Taiwan; b Department of Biotechnology, Ming Chuan University, Taoyuan County, Taiwan The complex and changing environment of the hospitality industry presents a never ending array of stimuli, pressures and demands which can become sources of stress for hotel supervisors. A focus on the identication of current and potential stressors in organizations, and the development of strategies which individuals and management may use to manage and reduce stress effectively, is imperative. This study is to investigate the perceived level of stress of hotel supervisors, to establish frequency of the use of various coping strategies, and to determine the burnout rate. This study also empirically examines the relationships among stress, coping strategies, and job burnout. A convenient sample of hotel supervisors of large hotels in Taiwan was selected. The return of 298 questionnaires represented 74.5% of the total supervisors surveyed. The study ndings suggest that the major job stress of hotel supervisors originates from task characteristic and workload. Moreover, a direct action coping strategy may allow one to perceive the situations as opportunities and may, in turn, contribute to reduce job stress. Furthermore, hotel supervisors experience a lower level of burnout if they apply more direct action strategies in coping with the pressures of their job. The results of this study can be used as part of guidelines including what should be considered to reduce job stress and burnout in the work environment. Keywords: burnout; coping strategies; hotel industry; job stress; supervisors; Taiwan

A challenge for the service industry has always been to provide quality service that satises consumers. Most rms start to realize that the front-line employees who deliver the competence, convenience, respect, care, and integrity create true value for the customer (Berry 1995). J. Willard Marriott, founder of Marriott Corporation, stated that In the service business you cant make happy guests with unhappy employees (Hostage 1975). The hotel industry is a people industry. Hotel jobs require customer contact roundthe-clock. The constant contact with customers, as well as the nature of these interpersonal encounters, comprises a major cause of service provider stress and burnout. Studies of human service practitioners, people in daily contact with others, have shown a high incidence of job burnout (Stevens and Higgins 2002). According to estimations, 28% of 2001). European workers suffer from stress and 23% have burnout (Paoli and Merllie The complex and changing environment of the hospitality industry presents a never ending array of stimuli, pressures and demands which can become sources of stress for front-line personnel. Specically, among hotel industry employees stress accumulates as work pressure increases. Hotel supervision is a service-oriented profession, which means coping with the needs and demands of guests and employees. Individuals in these positions

*Corresponding author. Email: ochien@gmail.com


ISSN 0958-5192 print/ISSN 1466-4399 online q 2010 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09585192.2010.483867 http://www.informaworld.com

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will endeavor to master and overcome any stress they encounter with whatever unique, diverse methods they can employ. Clearly, some individuals cope more effectively than others. The failure of those who do not cope effectively will be revealed in the form of absenteeism, decreased productivity and performance, strained interpersonal relationships, and illness. The potential loss of revenue due to work related stress is of growing concern for researchers and management alike. A focus on the identication of current and potential stressors in organizations, and the development of strategies which individuals and management may use to manage and reduce stress effectively, is imperative. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the perceived level of stress of hotel supervisors, to establish the frequency of use of various coping strategies, and to determine the burnout rate of supervisors. This study will also identify coping strategies used to reduce the effects of job stress and then to empirically examine the relationships among stress, coping strategies, and job burnout. Job stress Job stress is dened as a particular relationship between the employee and his or her work environment (Kahn and Boysiere 1994). Stress can also be viewed as an individuals reaction to the characteristics of the work environment that appear threatening (Jamal 1984). Beehr and Newman (1978) reviewed numerous denitions of job stress. They conclude that job stress is the interaction of work conditions with worker traits that changes normal psychological functions. Their denition also allows for stress that improves performance. This is important for both industry and employees. One denition suggests that job stress is the harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker (Sauter and Murphy 1999). In summary, job stress can be dened as work demands that exceed the workers coping ability (Karasek and Theorell 1992). Numerous researches suggests that work-related stress should be conceptualized and studied as a multifaceted problem involving personal characteristics of the individual, situational factors, and the organizational and cultural context in which such stress occurs (Farber 1983). Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) suggest four clusters of work stressors: physical environment; individual level (a mixture of role and career development variables); group level (primarily relationship-based); and organization level (a mixture of climate, structure, job design, and task characteristics). Schuler (1982) proposed seven categories of work stressors in organizations: job quality, relationships, organizational structure, physical quality, career development, change and role in the organization. Law, Pearce and Woods (1995) identied job stresses for front-line tourism attraction personnel, including organization, role characteristics, and work demand. Ramirez, Graham, Richards, Cull and Gregory (1996) found the most important sources of stress were work overload, feeling badly managed and resourced, managerial responsibilities and dealing with customers. In summary, stressful factors at work vary with the type of job, and that particular stressors, and to some extent relationships between stress and strain, varied from occupation to occupation. Although some stressors may be common to all jobs, stressors could differ as a function of job level or job type. Coping strategies Coping has been dened as efforts to reduce stress and strain (Shinn, Rosario, Morch and Chestnut 1984). According to Lazarus (1991), coping strategies are secondary appraisals and represent action tendencies to alter the person environment relationship. In other

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words, coping strategies represent cognitive and behavioral efforts so that the person can cope with the demands of the environment (Sideridis 2006). Coping behaviors are dened conceptually as an individuals overt attempts to alleviate or respond to stressful conditions at work. Comprehensively, coping seems to be an analysis and evaluation process used to determine methods of enabling one to produce afrmative results rather than negative results and those adverse effects caused by stressors (Lee and Lee 2001). Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed two types of coping: problem-focused coping (taking constructive and direct approaches to solving problems, such as dening the problem); and emotion-focused coping (taking steps to mitigate the emotional response to problems, such as avoidance, seeking emotional support). However, these two types of strategies are not independent, and there are weaknesses inherent in such simple dichotomies (Rice 1999). Latack (1984) further categorized a coping strategy as having four dimensions (direct action strategy, externalizing strategy, internalizing strategy, and avoidance strategy), and dened it as the cognitive selection process of proper response to adapt to the particular stressors experienced from stressful events. First, there is the direct action strategy. According to the stressful situation, individuals can cope with stress by attempting to directly alter the stressful situation, or by attempting to alter their relationship to the situation. Second, externalizing strategy is a conscious restriction of expectations for job satisfaction and a focus on the monetary rewards from employment. Thus, the individual shifts the criterion of job satisfaction from intrinsic to extrinsic rewards. Such transition of the job satisfaction criterion makes one inevitably accept the unsatisfying occupational conditions. Third, internalizing strategy is the optimistic comparisons of events relative to the past and relative to events occurring to peers in order to enhance ones views of the present situation. Thus, current problems are seen as temporary because, in the future, conditions are going to be better. Fourth, avoidance strategy is the selective inattention to the unpleasant aspects of events and the heightened attention to pleasant features so much that the problem recedes from awareness. Also, the individual downplays the importance of work problems relative to other life events (Latack 1984; Menaghan and Merves 1984). Job burnout Maslach, Jackson and Leiter (1996) dened burnout as a syndrome of physical, emotional, and cognitive exhaustion that develops from sustained interaction in situations that are emotionally demanding. Burnout is viewed as a process that occurs when workers perceive a discrepancy between their work input and the output they had expected from work. Burnout is a form of reaction to job stress and is most likely to occur among service workers unable to deal with excessive demands placed on them (Lee and Ashforth 1993). Maslach et al. (2001) dene burnout as a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job. Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998) consider it as special type of prolonged occupational stress that results, particularly, from interpersonal demands at work. Some psychologists consider job burnout as a type of stress, which is one-dimensional (Cordes and Dougherty 1993). Others view it as multi-dimensional (Maslach 1998). The current consensus is that job burnout is composed of three subconstructs: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion refers to a lack of energy and a feeling that ones emotional resources are used up because of excessive psychological demands. Depersonalization denotes a negative, callous, or excessively detached response to other people who are usually the recipients of ones services

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or care. Reduced personal accomplishment refers to a decline in ones feelings of competence and successful achievement in ones work. Each subdimension of job burnout captures its unique aspect (Maslach 1993). In summary, the principal dimensions of job burnout are stress (emotional exhaustion), interpersonal relations (depersonalization), and self-evaluation (personal accomplishment). Relationships among job stress, coping strategies, and burnout Numerous studies of how individuals cope with stress have generally agreed that stress and coping can be viewed as a dynamic process formed as part of the personal environmental transaction that occurs when an individual perceives a situation as stressful (Parasuraman and Cleek 1984; ODriscoll and Cooper 1994). King, Stanley and Burrow (1987) emphasized the importance of stress in terms of coping perception because they believe stress occurs when the coping is uncertain. That is, when able to cope with stress, individuals can overcome stress, which results in the increase of job performance under stress. On the other hand, when coping is in doubt, individuals see the stressor as a threat. In Aiken and Wests study (1992), they found that coping strategy is predicted to be positively related to stress. Lee and Lee (2001) also reported that direct action coping strategy contributes to reduce job stress and increase job performance. Others who take internalizing, externalizing, and avoidance coping strategies appear to see the situations as a threat, so that job stressors increase the negative pressures on job performance. Stress has been identied as a major psychological strain that produces burnout (Cooper and Argyris 1997). Hobfoll and Shirom (2000) view burnout as a consequence of ones exposure to chronic job stress. Maslach et al. (2001) dene burnout as a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job. Most researchers agree that burnout is best understood in terms of situational stressors. Job stress serves to increase burnout. Two workplace stressors, workload and role stress have been consistently linked to burnout. In Miller, Zook and Elliss study (1989), they concluded that, in terms of workplace stressors, both workload and role stress are consistently correlated with emotional exhaustion. Hendrix, Summers, Leap and Steel (1995) found increased job stress to be related to decreased job satisfaction and increased job burnout. Another factor that inuences the onset and progression of burnout is the response of the individual to these demands. Generally referred to as coping strategies, they may be understood as personal resources and are key elements in the amelioration or prevention of burnout. Brown and OBrien (1998) found that active coping, positive reinterpretation and growth, and planning were related to low levels of burnout. Similarly, Anderson (2000) found that active coping strategies were positively related to low levels of depersonalization and high levels of personal accomplishment. The workers who used avoidant coping strategies were emotionally exhausted and distanced from their clients and also did not feel positive about their work accomplishments. In Jenaro, Flores and Ariass study (2007), they suggested three important inuences of personal resources (coping skills) on the work satisfaction of human service practitioners. First, workers with a higher sense of personal accomplishment tended to use problem-focused coping strategies and refrained from using emotion-focused coping strategies. Second, workers with high levels of emotional exhaustion are more likely to use emotion-focused strategies with some problem-focused strategies. Third, workers with a high sense of depersonalization refrain from initiating either problem-focused or emotion-focused strategies. Therefore, the following three hypotheses are proposed regarding the relationships among job stress, coping strategies, and burnout.

The International Journal of Human Resource Management Hypothesis 1: Hypothesis 2: Hypothesis 3: Job stress has a signicant inuence on coping strategy. Job stress increases the incidence of burnout. Coping strategy has a signicant inuence on burnout.

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Theoretical model The relationships between job stress, coping strategy, and burnout are presented in Figure 1. Methodology In order to examine the relationships between stress, coping strategies, and job burnout among hotel supervisors, a convenience sample of supervisors of large hotels in Taipei, Taiwan was selected. A total of 20 lodging properties participated in this 2007 study. Of the participating properties 14 can be characterized as upscale, and six are mid-scales hotels. Mail and telephone contact with human resource managers of different hotels was established rst. Based on the size of the hotel, the number of questionnaires sent to each human resource manager varied from 10 to 80. A total of 400 questionnaires were sent, and the 298 returned questionnaires represented 74.5% of the total supervisors surveyed. Measurement of variables The survey instrument consisted of four sections: general demographic information, job stress, coping strategy, and burnout (see Appendix). General demographic information The survey included six questions covering demographics. Personal information was requested regarding gender, age, marital status, education, annual gross income, and length of employment.

Job stress Workload Task characteristics Career development Relationships with others

H1

H3

Coping strategy Direct action strategy Externalizing strategy Internalizing strategy Avoidance strategy H2

Burnout Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Personal accomplishment

Figure 1. Theoretical model.

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Job stress Parker and DeCotiiss (1983) well developed scale and the Scale of Occupational Stress (Smith, Johal, Wadsworth, Smith and Peters 2000) were chosen to assess job stress in the sample. Respondents were asked to express the degree to which 16 statements induced stress. The stress measure included statements concerning the workload, task characteristics, career development, and relationships with others. The stress rating was scored from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Coping strategy A measure for coping strategy was generated from the works of Latack (1984) and Menaghan and Merves (1984). Four dimensions of coping strategy were applied: direct action strategy, externalizing strategy, internalizing strategy, and avoidance strategy. The measure is composed of 16 items collapsed into 4 subscales. A 5-point Likert-type response format was applied to express the frequency of use for each of the behaviors. Burnout The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) (Maslach and Jackson 1986) was used to assess burnout. The measure is composed of three dimensions: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. The measure is composed of 20 items rated on a 5-point scale (1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree). A reliability test was performed to ascertain the accuracy or precision of measuring instruments used in this study. Internal consistency coefcient (Cronbachs alpha) for the scales was acceptable, ranging from 0.68 to 0.89. Descriptive statistics including mean and standard deviation of each variable used in the proposed model were presented. The test of the hypothesized relationships presented in the conceptual model was undertaken with the use of multiple regression analysis. Empirical ndings The survey participants were comprised of 298 supervisors from different hotels. Table 1 presents the results of demographic analysis. Of the total sample, 80 (26.8%) were male and 218 (73.2%) were female. Seventy-six (25.5%) of the subjects were aged under 25, 115 (38.6%) were 26 30 years old, 51 (17.1%) were between age 31 and 35 years old, 26 (8.7%) were 36 40 years old, and another 30 (10.1%) were above 41 years old. Marital status varied 56 (18.8%) were single 231 (77.5%) were married, and 11 (3.7%) were divorced. The majority of subjects were colleges graduates (130, 43.6%) or with a bachelor degree (80, 26.8%). The average length in their current position was between 1 3 years for 34.2% of participants (102), followed by 24.2% (72) who had been working from 4 to 6 years. Rate of job stress Part one of the study asked for the rate of stress levels of the respondents. Table 2 shows means and standard deviations for the major stressors and responses. From the table it can be seen that task characteristic (M 3.66) emerged as the major job stressor, followed by workload (M 3.52) and career development (M 3.06). Relationships with others (M 2.74) was rated as the least stressful job characteristic.

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Table 1. Description of the respondents (n 298). Variables Gender Male Female Age Under 25 26 30 31 35 36 40 Above 41 Marital status Single Married Divorced Education High school graduates College graduates Bachelors degree Graduate degree Length of employment Under 1 year 1 3 years 4 6 years 7 9 years 10 12 years Above 12 years Number 80 218 76 115 51 26 30 56 231 11 81 130 80 7 62 102 72 21 15 26

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% 26.8 73.2 25.5 38.6 17.1 8.7 10.1 18.8 77.5 3.7 27.2 43.6 26.8 2.3 20.8 34.2 24.2 7.0 5.0 8.7

Coping strategies Another purpose of the study was to determine the most frequently used coping strategies. Thus, ranking by mean scores, the more prevalent strategies are direct action strategy (M 3.84) and externalizing strategy (M 3.81). The least used strategies related to avoidance strategy (M 2.83).
Table 2. Summary of rate of job stress, use of coping strategies, and burnout rates. M Job stress Workload Task characteristic Career development Relationships with others Coping strategies Direct action strategy Internalizing strategy Externalizing strategy Avoidance strategy Burnout Emotional exhaustion Depersonalization Personal accomplishment 3.52 3.66 3.06 2.74 3.84 3.81 3.43 2.83 3.06 2.47 2.86 SD .74 .60 .76 .76 .48 .42 .56 .74 .89 .67 .82

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Burnout rates Among the categories, participants experience burnout most from emotional exhaustion (M 3.06), followed by feelings of reduced personal accomplishment (M 2.86). Depersonalization (M 2.47) was experienced least. The variance was fairly small between all three components. Relationships between job stress and coping strategies Table 3 presents the results of the regression analyses conducted to examine the effect of job stress on coping strategies. Overall, all of the coping strategies were signicant (direct action strategy: F 9.59, p , 0.01; internalizing strategy: F 4.42, p , 0.01; externalizing strategy: F 2.52, p , 0.05; avoidance strategy: F 11.77, p , 0.01) with an adjusted R-square of 13%, 5%, 2% and 16%, respectively. Among four job stress variables: workload, task characteristics, career development, and relationships with others, only relationships with others (b 2 0.31, p , 0.01) was negatively correlated with direct action strategy. Also, task characteristics (b 0.20, p , 0.01) and relationships with others (b 2 0.21, p , 0.01) were signicant determinants of the use of internalizing strategy; whereas relationships with others (b 0.35, p , 0.01) was positively related to avoidance strategy. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is partially supported. Accordingly, when a hotel supervisor experiences high pressure from personal relationships, avoidance is the most common strategy applied the higher the pressures, the greater the avoidance. The supervisors, therefore, tend to conceal the pressure when they are facing a personal relationship problem with customers, colleagues, or seniors. A passive attitude is a common way to temporarily avoid the pressure particularly when the pressure comes from unreasonable customer requests. Customer service is paramount, the pressure remains and the emotional response is suppressed. Relationship between job stress and burnout Table 4 displays the results of further regression analyses. The model for emotional exhaustion was signicant. This model explains 43% of the total variance of the outcome variable. Except task characteristic, all the job stressors are found to exert signicant positive effects on emotional exhaustion. Specically, workload (b 0.35, p , 0.01) has stronger effects than career development (b 0.29, p , 0.01), and relationships with others (b 0.30, p , 0.01). Next, the depersonalization dependant variable was examined
Table 3. Multiple regression analysis of job stress on coping strategy. Dependent variable Direct action strategy b .10 .03 2 .07 2 .31** 9.59** .13 Internalizing strategy b 2 .11 .20** .03 2 .21** 4.42** .05 Externalizing strategy b .05 .05 .06 .01 2.52* .02 Avoidance strategy b .12 .02 .05 .35** 11.77** .16

Independent variable Job stress Workload Task characteristic Career development Relationships with others F Adjusted R2

Notes: b, standardized beta weight; *p , .05. **p , .01.

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Table 4. Multiple regression analysis of job stress on burnout. Dependent variable Emotional exhaustion b .35** .03 .29** .30** 46.53** .43 Depersonalization b .09 .02 .17** .47** 30.87** .34

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Independent variable Job stress Workload Task characteristic Career development Relationships with others F Adjusted R2

Personal accomplishment b .08 .02 .49** .26** 54.43** .47

Notes: b, standardized beta weight; *p , .05. **p , .01.

in a similar manner. Overall, the regression model for depersonalization was signicant. The model itself has good explanatory power as indicated by an adjusted R-square of 0.34. Among the job stress, career development (b 0.17, p , 0.01), and relationships with others (b 0.47, p , 0.01) have signicant effects on depersonalization, but not workload and task characteristic. In addition, the model for personal accomplishment was signicant with an adjusted R-square of .47. Career development (b 0.49, p , 0.01), and relationships with others (b 0.26, p , 0.01) are found to have signicant positive effects on personal accomplishment. Between them, career development has the strongest effect. In view of these results Hypothesis 2 is partially supported. Interestingly, a positive relationship was found between career development and personal accomplishment. When the supervisors were disappointed about their career development, salary, position promotion and continuing education opportunity, they easily felt a lack of personal accomplishment which could result in burnout. Also, the problem from a personal relationship or simply a miscommunication may result in emotional exhaustion. Relationship between coping strategies and burnout Table 5 presents the ndings on the predictors of burnout. Overall, the model for burnout was signicant (emotional exhaustion: F 17.18, p , 0.01, explaining a total of 18% of the variance; depersonalization: F 31.44, p , 0.01, explaining a total of 29% of the variance; personal accomplishment: F 18.39, p , 0.01, explaining a total of 19% of the variance). As with burnout, the models for emotional exhaustion and depersonalization indicated direct action strategy was negatively related to emotional exhaustion (b 2 0.15, p , 0.05) and depersonalization (b 2 0.32, p , 0.01). Moreover, avoidance strategy was positively related to emotional exhaustion (b 0.39, p , 0.01), depersonalization (b 0.44, p , 0.01), and personal accomplishment (b 0.36, p , 0.01). Last, externalizing strategy (b 0.14, p , 0.05) was positively related to personal accomplishment as was avoidance strategy. In view of the above ndings, Hypothesis 3 is partially supported. The direct action strategy of the coping strategy dimension is negatively related to burnout. Hotel supervisors tend to experience a lower level of burnout if they apply more direct action strategies when coping with their job pressures. On the other hand, the avoidance strategy of the coping dimension is positively related with emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment in the burnout dimension.

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Table 5. Multiple regression analysis of coping strategy on burnout. Dependent variable Emotional exhaustion b 2 .15* .03 .01 .39** 17.18** .18 Depersonalization b 2 .32** .11 2 .03 .44** 31.44** .29 Personal accomplishment b 2 .11 2 .04 .14* .36** 18.39** .19

Independent variable Coping strategy Direct action strategy Internalizing strategy Externalizing strategy Avoidance strategy F Adjusted R2

Notes: b, standardized beta weight; *p , .05. **p , .01.

Conclusions Three goals were established in this study: (a) to investigate the perceived level of stress of hotel supervisors, (b) to establish frequency of the use of various coping strategies, and (c) to determine the relationship among job stress, coping strategies, and burnout. First, from the results of the study, it is possible to identify that the major job stress of hotel supervisors originate from task characteristics and workload. It is suggested that training programs designed to train supervisors to handle difcult clients and to manage customersrelated stress be implemented. In addition, it must be ensured that supervisors are provided with adequate breaks in direct relation to their workload. Second, direct action strategy is the most prominent coping strategy used by respondents in this study. Direct action may allow one to perceive the situations as an opportunity and may, in turn, reduce job stress. Others who use internalizing, externalizing, and avoidance coping strategies appear to see the situations as a threat, so that job stress has a negative affect on performance. The correlation of coping strategy with job stress shows the extent to which use of that strategy is associated with a particular stress. The higher the pressure hotel supervisors feel in personal relationships, the more likely they are to apply avoidance strategy to cope and try to abandon the current problem. However, the avoidance strategy was not able to reduce stress. A sense of burnout may result. Alternatively, direct action coping strategies may provide individuals with more chances to ameliorate the affects of job stress; thus, supervisors should minimize the use of externalizing, internalizing, and avoidance coping strategies to reduce job stress in the work environment. As suggested by Parasuraman and Cleek (1984), the affects of direct action strategy might be the best among coping strategies and that individuals would experience lower levels of stress if they learned how to engage it in their efforts to cope with job stress. Training programs might be especially useful in helping individuals to reduce the incidence of dysfunctional coping behaviors. Finally, when supervisors try to manage the pressure with passive attitudes, the sense of burnout increased. Conversely, the hotel supervisors experienced a lower level of burnout if they applied more direct action coping strategies. The supervisors who were disappointed about their career development, salary, position promotion, and continuing education opportunity, are easily susceptible to emotional exhaustion. Burnout, however, may nally result in their resignation. Hence, intervention techniques should focus on increasing the use of direct action coping skills. Such skills as problem-solving training or

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techniques of behavioral or cognitive rehearsal might help increase the use of direct action coping strategies (focus efforts on resolving the situation). More frequent use of may decrease the numbers of supervisors suffering from burnout. In summary, the results of this study can be used as a guideline to reduce job stress in the service industry environment. Intervention procedures to alleviate stressful events should be implemented, and/or the existing and proposed stress prevention programs should be evaluated. For the staff members to give their best performance, their individual needs and their work environment should be given a high priority (Fuller 1994). The key element for achieving this is to cater to the different needs and demands of hotel supervisors in order to help eliminate stress in the workplace. Therefore, hotel CEOs should make efforts to maintain a good working environment, such as providing more promotion opportunities, better training and recreation programs, and more claried job denitions and position autonomy. Burnout may result from stress. However, excellent management policies can reduce the chance of burnout and the related detrimental effects. A happy working group can produce remarkable revenue for the hotel. For hotel supervisors, it is important for them to maintain a positive attitude toward their personal life and job. Good interpersonal relationships, regular recreational activities and sharing working experiences with colleagues may be applied to ease pressures, and reduce the chances of burnout. Some potential limitations of this study should be noted. The data were collected from convenient samples of hotel supervisors in Taiwan. Due to the limited sample frame and sample size, the ndings of the study should be considered tentative. Future study should employ larger samples from more geographically diverse areas. Also, the study had a limited focus. Future research may further investigate the relationships for front-line employees and other industries. References
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Appendix
Items included in the research measures Box A1. Job stress.

Workload
I feel that I have too heavy a workload I have long working hours, one that cant possibly handling during an ordinary day There is no time for relaxation, coffee breaks, or lunch breaks on the job I need to get the work done by my subordinates

Task characteristics
My work rotates work shifts with some unscheduled overtime My work requires a high level of skill or knowledge My work requires interacting with peers, with all levels of line supervision and staff process controllers My work requires trouble-shoots all problems within scope of job

Career development
I receive inappropriate recognition or rewards for my performance I have low opportunity for advancement at work I feel that I have few possibility of learning new things through my work I am unable to pursue further education at this job

Relationships with others


I feel upset about lack of support from superiors I feel strenuous to maintain positive relationships with my colleagues I feel strenuous to maintain positive relationships with subordinates I feel strenuous to handle different types of customers Coping strategy

Direct action strategy


Take action to try to make the situation better Dene and analyze the problem Set the priorities based on what I like to do. Devote more time and energy to doing my job

Internalizing strategy
Anticipate the negative consequences so that Im prepared for it Consider different solutions to the problem Tell myself that I can probably work things out to my advantage Try to see this situation as an opportunity to learn and develop new skills

Externalizing strategy
Seek professional help or counseling Discuss and get advice from colleagues

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Box A1. continued

H.-H. Sunny Hu and C.-W. Cheng

Seek emotional support from family or friends Turn to prayer or spiritual thoughts

Avoidance strategy
Delegate work to others Try not to get concerned about it Treat it as if nothing had happened and do nothing about it Complain to others Burnout

Emotional exhaustion
I feel emotionally drained from my work I feel used up at the end of a workday I feel fatigued when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job Working with people all day is really a strain for me I feel burned out from my work I feel frustrated by my job I feel I am working too hard on my job I feel like I am at the end of my rope

Depersonalization
I feel I treat some residents as if they were impersonal objects Ive become more callous toward people since I took this job I worry that this job is hardening me emotionally I dont really care what happens to some recipients I feel recipients blame me for some of their problems

Personal accomplishment
I deal very effectively with the problems of my recipients I feel I am positively inuencing other peoples lives through my work I feel very energetic I can easily create a relaxed atmosphere with my recipients I feel exhilarated after working closely with my recipients I have accomplished many worthwhile things in my job In my work, Ideal with emotional problems very calmly

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