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97
5.
APPLIED PROPORTION
by Pichard lranklin Sammons
1he usetulness ot proportion in architectural
design is tounded upon the premise that objects are
beautitul due to certain physical properties that are
measurable and theretore able to be reproduced. 1his
Aristotelian approach to beauty is the basis ot the
classical understanding ot aesthetics, and stands in
contrast to the modern notion ot a subjective beauty
based on association, tamiliarity, or acculturation
unique to each individual or culture.
In Book I, Chapter II, Section 1 ot De
Architectura, Vitruvius states Architecture depends
on Order..., Arrangement..., Lurhythmy, Symmetry,
Propriety, and Lconomy...
1
It the presence ot Or-
der (or orderliness, is accepted as a tundamental
component ot architecture, then orderliness must
be considered here. A distinction must be made be-
tveen visual order (easily and intuitively perceived,
and mathematical order (vhich may or not be visu-
ally perceptible or related to the three-dimensional
experience ot architecture,. Visual order is theretore
phenomenological, rather than mathematical, in na-
ture.
A phenomenological understanding ot visual
order must begin vith an inquiry into the limits ot
perception. In 1he 1heory ot Proportion in Archi-
tecture P.H. Scholtield explains:
In the tirst place [the eye| possesses a re-
markable pover ot recognizing the
relationship betveen objects having the
same shape. It can exercise this pover
vhatever the distance ot the objects, and
to a large extent it can overcome the dis-
tortion caused by vieving the objects trom
ditterent angles. 1he pover ot recogniz-
ing similar shapes is acquired very early
in lite, and is one on vhich ve largely
depend in tinding our vay about. 1he sec-
ond relationship [easily recognized by the
eye| is that ot objects having the same size
as vell as the same shape, but the recog-
nition ot this demands comparatively
tavourable conditions. We can see at a
glance that the sun and moon are ot the
same shape, but trom the evidence ot our
eyes alone ve might be tempted to think
that they vere ot the same size as vell, in
looking at buildings, hovever, the eye can
recognize this relationship tairly easily
(Scholtield, 3,.
1hese tvo dittering conditions: ditterent size
same shape as opposed to same sizesame shape are
the touchstones ot composition that guide an ettec-
tive use ot proportion.
1he use ot objects having the same size and
shape results in symmetry. Although symmetry is
tound throughout art and architecture, it must be
treated caretully to avoid unsettling dualities that de-
teat the goal ot unity. Artistic unity demands a
hierarchical relationship ot elements. Nevertheless,
symmetry is essential to design because it provides a
tramevork upon vhich the architect can build. In
one sense, the conditions ot equality (or duality, cre-
ated by symmetry are analogous to the meter ot a
musical composition: static and even boring vhen
taken alone, but creating a neccessary toundation
tor the composition.
In contrast to objects having the same size and
shape, Scholtield describes objects ot ditterent size
and same shape (termed similar, in the tolloving
manner:
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1HL ICA8CA HANDBOOK
In a building vhere all the parts are ot
ditterent shapes, the visual ettect is one ot
the greatest possible disorder, indeed chaos.
Order can be introduced by the repeti-
tion ot similar shapes, and the highest
degree ot order results vhen compara-
tively tev shapes are used, repeated as otten
as possible. 1his sort ot order is clearly one
vhich the eye can recognize. It is not a
purely mathematical order vhich has to
be consciously understood betore it can
be appreciated. We can theretore reason-
ably detine the object ot architectural
proportion as the creation ot visible order
by the repetition ot similar shapes
(Scholtield, 6,.
It symmetry involves the static, equal division
ot a given object, eurythmy is characterized by asym-
metrical divisions resulting in the movement and
sense ot action tound in the best vorks ot art and
architecture. Within the musical analogy, eurythmy
is the rhythm that is layered over the meter (sym-
metry, in order to bring music to lite. 1he popular
usage ot the term proportion usually reters to
eurythmy rather than symmetry.
It is important to understand that proportion
alone vill not produce better, more beautitul, or
more unitied buildings. Hovever, vhen utilized as a
harmonizing agent tor disparate elements, propor-
tion dramatically increases the chances ot a designer
creating an excellent building.
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1he tundamentals ot proportion are most eas-
ily grasped by tirst approaching them in one
dimension betore considering them in tvo or three
dimensions. 1heretore, it vill be helptul to discuss
the use ot proportion in architectural design in terms
ot ditterent vays to divide a line.
1o demonstrate three ditterent vays ot divid-
ing lines, several graphic symbols vill be used in
relation to specitic architectural analyses.
1he symmetrical division ot a line results trom
cutting the line in halt vhich creates a condition ot
duality that is detined by tvo equal-sized portions
ot line. 1he condition ot equalityduality vill be
represented by the symbol in ligure 3.1.
1he second vay ot dividing a line is to create
an edge-condition, or punctuation. Nothing in na-
ture ends abruptly, there is alvays some modulation
that signals that the edge ot the object is near. Ob-
jects vhose boundaries are not punctuated appear
incomplete or like tragments trom a missing vhole.
1he symbol in ligure 3.2 vill be used to represent
punctuation. Although the ratio ot the greater to
the smaller segment ot the line is in this case arbi-
trary, it cannot be so small that the lesser segment
becomes invisible nor so large that the dominance
ot the greater segment is challenged by the lesser.
Iike punctuation (and in contrast to equality
duality,, the third vay ot dividing a line creates a
condition ot asymmetry and vill be reterred to as
ditterentiation as represented in ligure 3.3. Ditter-
entiation gives the designer the ability to mediate
the severity and psychological discomtort inherent
in conditions ot duality. Considered one-dimension-
ally, it implies dividing a line such that one piece has
clear dominance over the other but does not over-
vhelm it, thus establishing a relationship ot harmony
betveen the tvo.
Nov that the three ditterent vays ot dividing
lines have been introduced, it remains to be decided
exactly vhere along the length ot these lines the
divisions are to be placed. Pepeated ratios vithin
an architectural composition is the essence ot any
proportional system. 1he choice ot a particular pro-
portional system vill set the ratio ot one segment ot
the line to the other tor both punctuation and dit-
terentiation. It is selt-evident that the ratio ot
symmetry is 1:1. A ratio ot punctuation might be
3:1. Iikevise, a ratio ot ditterentiation could be 3:3
(ligure 3.4,.
Many ditterent proportional systems have been
employed throughout the vorld at various times and
vith varying degrees ot success. 1he success ot a
proportional system has much to vith its ability to
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APPIILD PPOPOP1ION
lIGLPL 3.3 Proportional dividers
lIGLPL 3.4 A proportional system
lIGLPL 3.3 Ditterentiation lIGLPL 3.2 Punctuation lIGLPL 3.1 LqualityDuality
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1HL ICA8CA HANDBOOK
relate the ratios ot equalityduality, punctuation, and
ditterentiation to each other, as vell as its capacity
tor aggregating into larger and larger compositions.
1he tool shovn in ligure 3.3, a proportional
divider, is extremely usetul tor both the analysis
shovn in the tolloving case studies as vell as tor
designing. 1he position ot the central pivot point
can be set to give varying ratios ot measurement
betveen the dual points on either side ot the de-
vice. It can also be set to divide lines and circles into
segments or arcs.
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1he tolloving examples shov the presence ot
repeated ratios in the vork ot noted architects.
lirst, Bernard Maybeck`s Palace ot line Arts in
San lrancisco is an appealing case study because it
is considered by most historians to be the vork ot a
so-called modern architect in so-called modern ma-
terials (reintorced concrete,. lor historians vho viev
this as a modern building, the demonstrable pres-
ence ot classical proportioning is unexpected.
In the design ot the Palace ot line Arts (see
ligure 3.6,, the primary ditterentiating move sepa-
rates the partially-hidden dome (a halt-circle, trom
the supporting lover structure. 1hen vithin the
dome, the hidden area is ditterentiated trom the ex-
posed area. Iikevise, the height ot the tall order is
ditterentiated trom the height ot the lover order.
Second, analysis ot Michelangelo`s buildings at
lIGLPL 3.6 Bernard Maybeck: Palace ot line Arts, San lrancisco (1913, 1967,
101
APPIILD PPOPOP1ION
the Piazza del Campidoglio in Pome reveals re-
peated ratios ot punctuation, despite his reputation
as an intuitive genius summarized by his beliet that
the artist must carry his compasses in his eyes rather
than in his hands.
1he columns ot both the major and minor or-
ders are punctuated by entablatures ot related ratios.
In the major order, this punctuation includes the
pedestal, and an additional punctuation separates the
column trom the pedestal.
Analyzing tvo-dimensional representations ot
architecture vith this linear, one-dimensional tech-
nique is usetul tor recognizing the presence ot
repeated ratios vithin buildings. Hovever, it talls
short as a design tool because it tails to control the
necessary interdependency ot vertical and horizon-
tal ratios vithin composition. lor this reason a
tvo-dimensional technique is needed tor imple-
menting ratios ot equalityduality, punctuation, and
ditterentiation in design.
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Geometry...is ot much assistance in architec-
ture, and in particular it teaches us the use ot the
rule and compasses, by vhich ve acquire readiness
in making plans tor buildings in their grounds, and
rightly apply the square, the level, and the
plummet...It is true that it is by arithmetic that the
total cost ot buildings is calculated and measure-
ments are computed, but ditticult questions involving
lIGLPL 3.7 Michelangelo: Capitoline Palace, Pome (designed 1338,
102
1HL ICA8CA HANDBOOK
symmetry are solved by means ot geometrical theo-
ries and methods. (Vitruvius, I.I.4,.
At this point a distinction must be made be-
tveen arithmetic proportioning and geometrical
proportioning. 1he sample ratios given in ligure 3.4
(1:1, 3:1, 3:3, are arithmetically-based proportions
as they are tormed by ratios ot vhole, rational inte-
gers that can be measured in a linear tashion.
Geometrically-based proportions are created
graphically and their particular numerical dimen-
sions are unimportant. lor this reason, proportions
created geometrically are more likely to be incom-
mensurable than commensurable. Arithmetic
proportions are by nature commensurable (measur-
able by a common standard, because they are
expressed through vhole numbers. Because they are
created graphically, geometrical proportioning is ot
practical relevance to the tvo-dimensional draving
methods used by architects.
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Pectangles ot dittering dimensions can be con-
sidered as participants in an intinite spectrum ot
rectangles (ligure 3.8,. 1his spectrum ot rectangles
can be expanded intinitely to the right ot the square
at the center line until the rectangles are perceived
as long horizontal bars rather than rectangles. Iike-
vise, the rectangles to the lett ot the square can
intinitely decrease in vidth until they appear to be
thin lines. 1he range ot rectangles along this spec-
trum is reminiscent ot the visible range ot light vaves
in the electromagnetic spectrum, or the audible range
ot sound vaves.
Choosing rectangles trom the spectrum vith
vhich to design is like choosing musical notes vith
vhich to compose a song: just as only certain notes
vill sound pleasing together in a particular key, only
certain rectangles vill harmonize together visually.
In order to understand the reasons tor this phenom-
enon, it is necessary to examine the tundamental
properties ot rectangles and introduce a vocabulary
tor their discussion.
Lsing ratios to describe the height and vidth
ot rectangles is analogous to the rise-over-run used
to represent slope. 1his highlights the ability ot any
diagonal line to describe a rectangle. 1heretore, both
the slope ot the diagonal and its angle trom the ho-
rizon can be used to express a particular rectangle
(ligure 3.9,.
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A key manipulation tacilitated by the use ot
diagonals occurs vhen a line is dravn perpendicu-
lar to the existing diagonal. 1he nev line becomes
the diagonal that describes another rectangle ot the
same proportion (yet ot the opposite orientation.,
It this nev diagonal is placed so that it intersects the
corner ot the original rectangle, the nev rectangle
that nov exists vithin the old is called the recipro-
cal ot the original rectangle (ligure 3.10A,. 1he
larger portion ot the original rectangle is reterred to
as its gnomon, meaning that vhich makes knovn
(ligure 3.10B,. It is important to note that any given
rectangle represents the sum ot its gnomon and its
reciprocal.
Discovering the reciprocal and the gnomon ot
any given rectangle allovs three related rectangles
to be identitied along the spectrum, producing a
rudimentary scale ot rectangles not unlike the keys
ot a piano (ligure 3.11,.
lIGLPL 3.8 Spectrum ot rectangles
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APPIILD PPOPOP1ION
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Because this text reters to irrational numbers
and relates them to particular rectangles, it vill be
helptul to identity a simple nomenclature in order
to clarity the distinctions betveen ditterent tigures.
lor example, the Golden Section vill be reterred to
as the (phi, rectangle vhen presented horizon-
tally. Iikevise, the rectangle reterred to as 1 is the
reciprocal ot the rectangle (vhose orientation is
vertical rather than horizontal,. It should also be
noted that the ratio ot 1: is an example ot a ratio ot
ditterentiation.
Consider any number ot rectangles and their
gnomons. 1he unique status ot the square as the
static, central member ot the rectangle spectrum (like
a piano`s middle C, means that vhichever rectangle
that can claim the square as its gnomon vill have its
static characteristic as a design tool. Only the Golden
Section has a square gnomon (ligure 3.12,.
lurthermore, the tact that all rectangles are
composed ot reciprocals and gnomons means that
they can be aggregated into additive progressions.
Lach rectangle can be either divided into a gnomon
and a reciprocal, or vieved as a gnomon or recipro-
cal ot the adjacent rectangle in the progression.
lIGLPL 3.9 Diagonal ot a rectangle
lIGLPL 3.10A Peciprocal ot a rectangle lIGLPL 3.10B Gnomon ot a rectangle
lIGLPL 3.11 Spectrum ot rectangles vith reciprocal and gnomon ot a particular rectangle identitied
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1HL ICA8CA HANDBOOK
Although an additive progression can be created trom
any rectangle, some rectangles are better than others
because the additive progression is created by the
repetition ot a limited set ot ratios. An additive pro-
gression that demonstrates this property can be
developed trom the rectangle (ligure 3.13,.
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In addition to the reciprocal (1) and gno-
mon ot the rectangle, another important rectangle
related to the rectangle is the (mu, rectangle.
1he rectangle can be created either by doubling
tvo 1 rectangles or cutting a rectangle in halt (
meaning midpoint, and is representative ot the con-
cept ot equalityduality (ligure 3.14,.
Peturning to the notion ot identitying a scale
ot related rectangles to vork vith, the addition ot
the rectangle to the repertoire ot allovs tor the
creation ot a (or Golden Section, series ot rect-
angles. Note that every other rectangle in the series
participates in the additive progression (ligure
3.13,.
A scale ot rectangles has nov been created that
is based upon the Golden Section and can accom-
modate both the static tocus ot equalityduality as
vell as the dynamic movement ot ditterentiation.
Punctuation vill be called (tau, meaning termi-
nation and can be introduced to the series by
subtracting a rectangle trom a double-square, sub-
tracting a square trom a rectangle, subtracting a 1
rectangle trom a square, or subtracting the recip-
lIGLPL 3.12 Golden section vith square gnomon
lIGLPL 3.13 Golden section additive progression
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APPIILD PPOPOP1ION
lIGLPL 3.14 Creating the rectangle
lIGLPL 3.16 Creating 1au
lIGLPL 3.13 Golden section series ot rectangles
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1HL ICA8CA HANDBOOK
rocal ot a double-square trom a 1 rectangle (lig-
ure 3.16,.
Once these three ratios have been identitied
tor the t series, the rectangles ot this scale begin to
tunction in a manner not unlike the black and vhite
keys on a piano (ligure 3.17,.
1hus provided vith a basic battery ot compat-
ible rectangles constructed geometrically (rather than
arithmetically,, the contemporary designer can be-
gin to apply the tundamentals ot proportion to the
practice ot architecture. ust as the exploration ot
one-dimensional linear proportion led to an under-
standing ot tvo-dimensional geometric proportion,
so the consistent application ot geometric propor-
tion to plan, section, and elevation projections can
result in harmonious and indeed beautitul three-
dimensional objects and spaces.
lIGLPL 3.17 Golden section additive progression
BIBIIOGPAPHY BIBIIOGPAPHY BIBIIOGPAPHY BIBIIOGPAPHY BIBIIOGPAPHY
L. B. Ldvards, Dynamarhythmic Design (1he Century Company,
1932,.
1. Ldvards, Architectural Style (laber and Gvyer, 1926,.
P.H. Scholtield, 1he 1heory ot Proportion in Architecture
(Cambridge Lniversity Press, 1938,.
Vitruvius, de Architectura, trans. M.H. Morgan (Harvard
Lniversity Press, 1914,.
107
APPIILD PPOPOP1ION
lIGLPL 3.18-19 1he principle ot ditterentiation applied to an entablature (above, and bedmold (belov,.