Title

Early Jaw i m aterials and the creation of a netw ork of M alay

Islam ic centres <M uslim netw orks and m ovem ents in A sia.
Part1:"Jaw i" and ideas of com m unity in Southeast A sia>
A uthor(s) H ashim bin H aji, M usa
Journal , (27)
Issue D ate 2009-12-27
Type /D epartm ental B ulletin Paper
Text V ersion /Publisher
U R L
http://repository.cc.sophia.ac.jp/dspace/handle/123456789/157
88
R ights
The Journal of Sophia Asian Studies No.27 (2009)
Early materials written in Malay in the Jawi script were found in various parts of
the Malay Archipelago beginning from the early 14th century onwards, indicating the
widespread usage of the Malay language in the Jawi scripts and the establishment
of a network of Malay Islamic centres or principalities in the region. This paper will
trace and analyze the various Malay Jawi texts written or associated with various
regions in Southeast Asia, and the significance of those texts in creating a network of
communication and relationship between those regions.
. The Transition from Kawi to Jawi Script
The Jawi script is a system of writing employed by the Malay language based on
the Arabic script, which came to the Malay world together with the coming of Islam
into the region. Before the creation and usage of the Jawi script, the Malay language
had already used several writing systems, notably the Pallava, the Kawi and the
Rencong writing systems (Hashim Musa 2006).
The coming of Islam to Southeast Asia, according to Othman Mohd. Yatim and
Abdul Halim Nasir, can be traced back to the early findings of Islamic epigraphical
Professor, Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Early Jawi Materials and the Creation of a Network
of Malay Islamic Centres
(1)
Hashim bin Haji Musa

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evidence in various parts of the region, chronologically as follows (Othman Yatim and
Abdul Halim 1990: 12-16):
1. The Permatang Pasir Pahang gravestone written entirely in Arabic and
dated 419H(Hijrah) (1028M (Masihi)).
2. The Champa gravestone found in South Vietnam written entirely in Arabic
using the beautiful Kufic style script or khat, dated 431H (1039M).
3. The Bandar Sri Bagawan Brunei gravestone also in Arabic dated 440H
(1048M).
4. The Leran Surabaya East Java gravestone also in Arabic using the beautiful
Kufic style script, dated 495H (1082M).
5. The Malik al-Salleh gravestone found in Pasai North Sumatra dated 696H
(1297M).
6. The Terengganu stone inscription in the east coast of Malaysia, which is the
first Malay text dated 702H (1303M).
7. The Pengakalan Kempas Negeri Sembilan gravestone having both Jawi and
Kawi scripts on different faces, dated 1463M and 872H (1467-68M).
Before the adoption of the Arabic script by the Malays to document the Islamic
teaching upon conversion to Islam, they most probably tried to use the Indian-
derived scripts, namely the Kawi scripts. However on finding it difficult to represent
the exact sound of the Arabic phonemes and phonological system, they created the
Jawi writing system based on the Arabic script to represent the Malay language,
which was then borrowing heavily from the Arabic language in terms of phonology,
morphology, and terminology, particularly in matters pertaining to the Al-Quran and
the al-Hadith. There were two palaeographical evidences representing this transition
period when the Kawi script was still in use, but the script Kawi was slowly being
replaced by the Jawi.
The Minye Tujuh North Sumatra gravestone dated 1380 CE was written in Kawi
script, depicting some Islamic content (Hooykaas, 1953:74).
Another inscription that represents this period of transition is the Pengakalan
Kempas gravestone in Negeri Sembilan close to Malacca (and most probably a
territory of the Malacca Sultanate), which has both the Kawi script on two apposite
faces and the Jawi script on two other faces. The Kawi script was written in 1463
CE, while the Jawi written four years later, that is, in 1467 CE (Casparis 1980).
. The Jawi Script
The Jawi script was anonymously invented by the Malays based on the Arabic
scripts, incorporating all the 30 Arabic alphabets (including ta marbutah) plus six
newly created forms; five alphabets created since the time of the
Terengganu inscription dated 1303 CE, while one more which was created in 1986
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by the Jawi Committee of the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, who were entrusted with
the task of modernizing the script.
The alphabets, their names and Romanised equivalents, are as follows:
Jawi Name Rumi
alif a
ba b
ta t
ta marbutah t/h
sa [tha] s, (th)
jim j
ca* c
ha [a] h, ()
kha [khO] kh
dal d
zal [dhal] z, (dh)
ra [rO] r
zai z
sin s
syin sy, (sh)
sad [Od] s, ()
dad [Od] d, ()
ta [O] t, ()
za [O] z, ()
ain [ain] awal: a, i, u ; akhir: k, ()
ghain gh
nga* ng
fa f
pa* p
qaf k, q, (q)
kaf k
ga* g
lam l
mim m
nun n
wau w, u, o
va* v
ha h
hamzah awal: gugur ; akhir: k, ()
ya y, i, e taling
ye [ye] alif maqsurah e pepet akhir
nya* ny
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The six alphabets with the star sign
*
were created based on Arabic alphabets, with
added features to symbolize Malay native and borrowed sounds not found in Arabic.
With regard to the term Jawi it is not clear who invented the name, but the origin
most probably was from the Arabic term jaw the adjective of al-Jawah, which is
used to refer to the island of Sumatra and sometimes to the region of Southeast Asia,
and which was used by Arab writers before the 14th century, for example by Yaqut in
the Mujan al-Buldan, and by Abu al-Fida in Tqwin al-Buldan (Omar Awang 1985:
190). Ibn Batutah in his Rihlat Ibn Batutah also referred to Sumatra as al-Jawah (Ibn
Batutah 2006: 273). The adjective al-Jawah is jaw and refers to or pertains to the
island of Sumatra or the region of Southeast Asia, and hence the jaw script is the
writing that was connected to al-Jawah the island of Sumatra, and also the whole
Malay Archipelago.
. The Influence of the Malay Jawi Texts in the Creation of a
Network of Malay Islamic Centres
Islam came to Southeast Asia through the Malay speaking regions of the eastern
Malay peninsula (Terengganu) and the strait of Malacca (Aceh, Pasai, and Malacca),
which originally formed part of the old empire of Srivijaya whose lingua franca
was the Malay language. Thus the language of propagation and teaching of Islam in
Southeast Asia started with the Malay language, and it was in this language that Islam
spread throughout the region of Southeast Asia, forming Malay-Islamic centres such
as Old Terengganu, Kedah, Perak, Patani, Malacca, Johor-Riau, Pasai, Aceh, Banten,
Demak, Champa, Brunei, Sulu, Magindanao, Tidore, and Maluku.
With the use of the Malay language as the medium of propagation, instruction
and dissemination of Islam throughout the region of Southeast Asia, very soon Malay
became more entrenched as the language of wider communication or the lingua
franca among the hundreds of ethnic and racial groups found in various centres of
the archipelago, giving rise to the name of the whole region as the Malay Archipelago
or the Kepulauan Melayu. However the more popular name by which the people of
the whole region called themselves collectively was Bangsa Jawi (the nation of Jawi
or the Malays), they referred to their homeland as Tanah Jawi (the Jawi or Malay
land), to their language as Bahasa Jawi (the Jawi or Malay language) and to the
script was Tulisan Jawi (the Jawi or Malay script). In the Kitab Seribu Masalah,
the following wording was used to describe the writing of the work:
The original text in Malay:
(Kitab ini)yang daripada bahasa Parsidipindahkan kepada bahasa
Jawi yang menyurat iniMuhammad Mizan bin Haji Khatib Taha
bangsnya al-Jawi, Palembang negerinya pada tahun 1273 H (1856 M).
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The English translation:
(This book) from Persian translated into the Jawi language
transcribed by Muhammad bin Haji Khatib Taha belonging to the
Jawi nation, in the state of Palembang in the year of 1273 H (1856 M).
Thus the term Jawi was already in use by the 14th century C.E. to refer to the
islands of the Malay Archipelago and its inhabitants.
The well-known 18th century scholar-writer Abdul Samad al-Falembani (1116 H
/ 1704 M 1203 H / 1789 M) also claimed to belong to the Jawi nation, and called
himself Abdul Samad al-Jawi (Hidayat al-Salikin, 1192 H / 1778 M, p. 3). Baba
Daud al-Rumi al-Jawi, a student of Sheikh Abdul Rauf al-Singkili, whose parentage
was a mixture of Turkish/Roman and Aceh Malay called himself al-Rumi al-Jawi, and
his grandson born to a Patani Malay mother was known as Sheikh Daud Ismail al-
Jawi al-Fatani. In Haramayn (Mecca and Madinah) they were known as the Ashab al-
Jawiyyin (our Jawi brothers) (Azyumardi 1999: 17). Consequently Malay written in
the Jawi script was used in all formal communications, transactions and especially in
literary works, and also in the writing of formal letters among sultans of principalities
in every part of the Malay Archipelago.
One such example is a letter from the Sultan of Ternate addressed to the King of
Portugal and dated 1522. It illustrates the extensiveness of the usage of the Malay
language and the Jawi script in the region. Copies of letters from sultans and chiefs
of various nation states in the Malay Archipelago such as Aceh, Ambon, Tidore,
Ternate, Bali, Pontianak, Banjarmasin, Johor-Riau, Lingga, Madura, Palembang, etc.
published in the Golden Letters: Writing Traditions of Indonesia (Gallop and
Arps 1991: 33-58) also distinctly substantiate the well-established position of the
Malay language in the Jawi script, in creating a network of Malay principalities in
the region. Another significant fact is the similarity in the heading and the opening
paragraph of those letters, pointing to the existence of an agreed tradition of letter
writing which could be achieved only through a close network of relationship and
learning among those centres of Malay states. Gallop and Arps mention a guide
book of letter writing in Malay which lists eighteen most common headings, and
among them were Qaul al-haq (truthful saying), ya Ghafuru al-Rahim (Oh the
Forgiving and Merciful), Qaulu al-haq wa kalimatu al-sidiq (truthful saying and
expression), Ya wali al-ihsan (Oh sincere friend), ya Aziz ya Ghaffar (Oh the
Powerful and Forgiving), etc. (Gallop and Arps 1991: 33, 58).
There were also similarities in the types of greetings in the opening paragraph
found in those letters, and the most common one was Bahawa ini warkah tulus
ikhlas serta suci putih hati yang tiada berhingga dan berkesudahan selagi ada
peredaran cakarwala matahari dan bulan (Verily this is a sincere letter coming
from the heart of a lasting purity so long as there still exists the orbiting of the moon
and the sun).
There may be several factors to the establishment of a strong network among
the Malay Islamic centres or principalities in the Malay Archipelago, using the Malay
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language and Jawi script. Perhaps among the major factors were:
1. The centres of Islamic learning were initially within the courtyards of the
sultans palace as in Aceh, Malacca, Johor-Riau, Brunei, etc., where well-
known scholars from overseas were invited to conduct classes with some
courtiers as students, as well as those coming from many parts of the Malay
Archipelago, and invariably some of the religious texts were kept there and
added on by other literary genres, and soon they developed into a kind of a
court library as in Malacca and Riau kingdoms.
2. The extensive use of the so called Kitab Kuning or printed Islamic Jawi
texts beginning in the later part of the 19th century in traditional Islamic
studies centres, known as pesantren, pondok, surau, dayah, etc.,
which are found in every nook and corner of the archipelago, from Aceh
to Minangkabau and Palembang in Sumatra, to the Islands of Riau, Java,
Madura, to Sulawesi, Kalimantan, and the Malay Peninsula in Pahang,
Terengganu, Kelantan, Patani, Kedah, etc..
3. Another key reason is the widespread practice of several tarikat or
Islamic mystical orders (e.g. Naqsyabandiah, Qadiriyah, Syattariah,
Balawiyah, Khalwatiyah, etc.) throughout the Malay Archipelago and
especially among the rulers and courtiers, and the close contact and
influence of the exponents/scholars (murshid) of the tarikat orders with
their transmitters (naqib/khalifah) and disciples or followers (murid/
salik) throughout the region
(2)
.
. The Networking of Malay-Islamic Centres through the Use
of the Kitab Kuning
The establishment of pondok, pesantren, madrasah, surau, dayah, menasah,
etc. besides the mosques, as places of Islamic study throughout the Malay world,
was to impart and disseminate traditional Islamic knowledge. The study comprised
mainly:
1. theology/doctrine (kalam or aqidah) based on the Asha`riyyah school,
2. Islamic law (fiqh) based on the Shafi`iyyah school,
3. morals and mysticism (tasawuf) based on the al-Ghazali school,
4. the exegeses of the Quran (tafsir),
5. the tradition of the Prophet (hadith),
6. formal rituals (ibadah),
7. Arabic grammar (nahu wa qawa`id),
8. prayers, liturgy (doa, wirid, mujarabat),
9. stories and genealogy of the Prophet (kisah ambia, maulid, munaqib).
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During study sessions, works pertaining to those subjects either in the original Arabic
or Malay translations/adaptations/elaborations were read and discussed by teachers
conversant in Arabic, with students who were attending in circles, listening, and
taking notes.
Prior to the advent of printing technology, those works were in the form of
handwritten manuscripts copied from the original and carried by scholars/teachers or
students to their destinations. Many of those works originated or were written in the
Middle-East or other Islamic centres either by the original Arabic speaking scholars
or translated/adapted/elaborated into Malay by Jawi scholars, who were studying
and living there. However, in the 19th century printing technology penetrated the
production of Jawi materials on Islamic studies, for distribution and use in Islamic
study circles throughout the Malay world. These printed Jawi materials on Islamic
studies were called Kitab Kuning probably due to the yellow colour of the printed
paper, and they became widely used throughout the Malay world towards the end of
the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century onwards. A government printer
in Mecca besides printing Arabic texts, started the printing of Malay Jawi works in
1884 under the editorship of a Malay Islamic scholar, Ahmad Muhammad Zain al-
Fatani, (Hurgronje 1889: 386-7). Other publishers in Cairo and Bombay had earlier
started printing Malay Jawi Islamic materials. Toward the end of the 19th century
several printing houses were established in the Malay world initiated by the colonial
governments as well as by Christian missionaries, followed by several Muslim printers
in Riau, Singapore, Palembang, and Surabaya (Bruinessen 1995: 135-137).
With the establishment of these printing presses, many major works on Islamic
teaching written in Jawi were printed, and many of these printed materials became
sources of reference as well as principal texts for Islamic studies in various pondok,
pesantren, madrasah, mosques, surau, and menasah throughout the Malay
world. Mohd. Nor Ngah and Wan Mohammad Saghir Abdullah mentioned several
works by writers from various parts of the region that became very popular texts
studied throughout the Malay world, thus establishing strong networks of bonds in
knowledge, cooperation, relationship, religious affiliation and inclination (Mohd. Nor
Ngah 1980: 9; Wan Mohd Shaghir 1995). The works are listed as below:
1. Bidayat al-Hidayat, doctrine by Muhammad Zain Jalaluddin Achen, 1757.
2. Siraj al-Huda, doctrine by Muhammad Zainuddin al-Sambawi, 1886.
3. Aqidat al-najin, doctrine by Zainal `Abidin al-Fatani, 1890. (These three
works were translated/adopted from Umm al-Barahin by al-Sanusi).
4. Sirat al-Mustaqim, fiqh by Nuruddin al-Raniri, 1634.
5. Sabil al-Muhtadin, fiqh by Muhammad Arshad al-Bajari, 1780.
6. Hidayat al-Salikin, mysticism by Abdul Samad al-Falimbani, 1778.
7. Syar al-Salikin, mysticism by Abdul Samad al-Falimbani.
8. Al-Durr al-Thamin, doctrine by Daud al-Fatani, 1816.
9. Jama` al-Fawaid, al-Hadith by Daud al-Fatani, 1823.
10. Furu al-Masail, fiqh by Daud al-Fatani, 1838.
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11. Muniyyat al-Musalli, prayers by Daud al-Fatani.
12. Hikam, mystcism, translator anonymous.
13. Taj al-`Arus, tanslated by Uthman Shihabuddin al-Funtiyani, 1886.
14. Fath al-`Arifin, mysticism by Ahmad Khatib al-Sambawi, 1878.
15. Matla` al-Badrain, doctrine and fiqh, by Muhammad bin Ismail Daud al-
Fatani, 1885.
16. Tanbih al-Ghafilin, al-Hadith by `Abdullah `Abdul Mubin al-Fatani, 1770.
17. Jawhar al-Mauhub, by `Ali bin `Abdul RAhman al-Kelanani, 1888.
18. Kitab Sifat dua Puluh, doctrine by `Uthman bin Abdullah al-Betawi, 1886.
19. Kasf al-Ghaibiyah, by Zainal `Abdin bin Muhammad al-Fatani, 1883.
20. Turjuman al-Mustafid/Tafsir al-Baidhawi, Quran translation by Abdul
Rauf al-Singkili and Baba Daud bin Ismail al-Jawi.
21. Munabbih al-Gahafilin, by Abdul Samad Muhammad Salleh/Tuan Tabal,
1868.
22. Jala al-Qulub, by Abdul Samad Muhammad Salleh/Tuan Tabal, 1870.
It was through these types of works in Islamic knowledge that three fundamental
themes in Islamic teaching were established throughout the region of Southeast Asia,
namely the school of thought in doctrine (kalam or aqidah) based on Asha`riyyah
or the Sunni school, Islamic law (fiqh) based on Shafi`iyyah school or Shafi`i
Mazhab, and morals and mysticism (tasawuf) based on the al-Ghazali school.
Muhammad Uthman el-Muhammady asserts that the region of Southeast Asia or
the Malay World is united as a fortress of practice (benteng amalan) in the Sunni
school or Ahli Sunnah wa al-Jamaah which was established from the beginning
of Islam, due mainly to the usage of those common Islamic texts discussed above, in
the propagation, teaching and practice of Islam throughout the region (Muhammad
Uthman el-Muhammady 2005: 24). For example if one was to participate in the ritual
of the five daily obligatory prayers and the proceeding invocations (wirid, zikir)
and supplications (doa) in mosques throughout the region, most likely one would
be struck by their similarities, because the text of reference and guidance would
be Daud al-Fatanis Muniyyat al-Musalli, the most popular and widely read Kitab
Kuning text on prayers among the Malays (Mohd. Nor 1980: 12).
. Conclusion
From the discussion above, it is clear that the role played by Jawi materials
on Islamic knowledge, initially in manuscript form and later by the end of 19th
century onwards in printed form and distributed throughout the region of the
Malay Archipelago, was indeed very powerful in establishing a strong network of
relationship, affiliation and cooperation among the people of the region. The network
among the Islamic scholars and students especially in the pesantren, pondok,
madrasah, menasah, etc. became so intimate and strong that a kind of community
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affiliation was felt among them, so much so they called themselves or were known to
others especially in the Haramain, collectively as the Jawi Community or the Ashab
al-Jawiyyin, or the Bangsa Jawi. Thus in their writings many of them added to the
end of their name al-Jawi, that is, belonging to the nation of Jawi, from the land of
Jawi or Tanah Jawi, the language used was bahasa Jawi or the Malay language.
Wal-Lahu `alamu s-sowab wal-hamdulillahi r-Rabbi l-`alamin. (Verily Allah
knows best and praised be to Him who is Lord of the Universe).
Notes
(1) This paper was read in IAS-AEI international conference New horizons in
Islamic area studies: Islamic scholarship across cultures and continents,
on November 23, 2008 held at Kuala Lumpur.
(2) For discussions on tarikat orders in the Malay world, see among others, Hawash:
1980, Al-Attas: 1966 and 1970, Mahayudin:1994, and Bruinessen: 1995.
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