Boiler Design Fundamentals

PRABHAT KR. GUPTA

MECHANICAL ENGG. SACHDEVA INST. MATHURA

UPTU LUCKNOW

STEAM-GENERATOR FUNCTIONS
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Evaporating water to steam at high pressure Produce steam at exceptionally high purity Superheat the steam in the unit to a specified

temperature, and maintain that temperature Reheat the steam which is returned to the boiler and maintain that reheat temperature constant Reduce the gas temperature to a level that satisfies the requirement for high thermal efficiency and at the same time is suitable for processing in the emission-control equipment downstream of the boiler

Understanding Combustion
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Understanding of Coal Coal Petrography Steps in Combustion of coal Char Burning Volatile matter content

What is Coal?
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The macromolecular network consists of aromatic clusters that are linked and cross linked by brides. Most bridges are aliphatic in nature, but may also include other atoms such as oxygen and sulfur. Bridges that contain oxygen as ethers are relatively weak in nature. A mobile phase also exists. The mobile phase consist of smaller molecular group that are not strongly bonded to the macromolecule. The percentage of aromatic carbon usually increases with coal rank. Other important elements, a small fraction, in coal are sulfur and nitrogen. They account for almost all the pollutants formed during coal combustion.

Steps of Coal Combustion

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Coal is ground to size of

between about 5 and 400 m in diameter, and carried by the combustion air to the furnace burners. Combustion takes place at temperatures from 1300C to 1700C, depending largely on the rank of the coal. The steps are:

Drying Devolatalization Volatile Combustion Char Burning

Combustion of pulverized coal particles

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The drying Process

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Evaporation of surface moisture and, subsequently, the

loss of inherent moisture, starts at temp of 100110C, complete dehydration at about 350C. Heat is driven from the furnace environment to the particle surface by radiation and convection. Heat transfer in the process is influenced by the furnace temperature, coal-particle size, particle moisture content and particle porosity

Volatile Matter
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Volatile matter is an important parameter, providing a

rough indication of the reactivity or combustibility of a coal, the ease of ignition, and hence the flame stability. However, while char reactivity is one of the main factors determining combustion efficiency, there is no standard test for its determination; Standard Methods do not take into account the actual firing conditions. Volatile matter contains both combustible and noncombustible (for example, carbon dioxide and water). So the calorific value of volatiles can be significantly different for coals with the same proximate volatilematter yield.

Devolatilisation
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Generally, devolatilisation starts at the particle surface and

then proceeds toward the centre. The devolatilisation initiation temperature varies with the type of fuel, and typically ranges from 450C to 500C for coal particles. Heating rate also has a significant influence. Generally, the weaker carboxyl, hydroxyl and aliphatic bonds break up at lower temperatures, while the stronger heterocyclic components decompose at higher temperatures . After the weak bonds break up, the functional groups decompose to release gases, mainly CO2, light aliphatic gases and some CH4 and H2O. Devolatilisation is affected by coal rank, macerals presents, Coal density, heating rate and the gas environment.

Devolatilisation Products
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Bituminous coals yield comparatively larger amounts of tar than

other coals, whilst lower- rank coals release less tar but larger amounts of light gases. The light volatile gases may include species such as CH4, C2H4, C2H6, CO, CO2, H2 and H2O. Typically, bituminous coals pyrolysed at 1300 K produce 50% CH4, 13% H2 and 27% CO and CO2 when pyrolised in a vacuum, against 8% CH4, 59% H2 and 27% CO and CO2 when pyrolysis occurs in air. The tar produced is a heavy hydrocarbon-like substance with an atomic H/C ratio >1.0, consisting of hundreds to thousands of organic species . Devolatilisation of a coal includes a rapid initial release of about 8090% of the volatiles followed by the slow release of the remaining 1020%.

Devolatilisation Model
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TANGENTIALLY FIRED SYSTEMS

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Based on the concept of a single flame envelope Fuel and combustion air are projected from the corners of

the furnace along a line tangent to a small circle, lying in a horizontal plane, at the center of the furnace. Turbulence and mixing that take place along its path are low compared to horizontally fired systems Significance of this factor on the production of oxides of nitrogen Possible to vary the velocities of the air streams and change the mixing rate of fuel and air, and control the distance from the nozzle at which the coal ignites

Tangentially Firing System

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multiple-fuel firing Fuel and air nozzles tilt in unison to raise and lower the flame to control furnace heat absorption and S/H & R/H Temp

Provides great flexibility for

Tangentially-Fired Furnaces
Advantages: The efficient mixing, due to vortex, rapid contact between fuel and air, and flames interaction, that would ensure a reliable combustion with uniform temperature distribution. Uniform heat flux to the furnace walls; consequently failures due to high thermal stresses have been avoided. The air and fuel streams can be admitted inclined either upward or downward from the horizontal, a feature that is used to vary the amount of heat absorbed by the furnace walls and to control the superheater temperature. Vortex motion at the furnace center prevents or minimizes slugging of the furnace walls, erosion due to impingement and local overheating. NO, in tangentially fired unit is lower than other firing types. NO, emissions from TF boilers are about half the values from wall firing systems. Tangential-fring technique is characterized by lower carbon losses (do not exceed 1%), and greater adaptability for the combustion of "difficult" fuels (e.g. fuels with low calorific value, high melting-point ash, or low volatile content)
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VERTICALLY FIRED SYSTEMS

Used principally to fire coals with moisture and-ash-free volatile
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matter between 9 and 13 percent Require less stabilizing fuel than horizontal or tangential systems Have more complex firing equipment and more complex operating characteristics. Portion of the heated combustion air is introduced around the fuel nozzles and through adjacent auxiliary ports High pressure jets are used to avoid, short-circuiting the fuel/air streams to the furnace discharge Tertiary air ports are located in a row along the front and rear walls of the lower furnace Firing system produces a long, looping flame in the lower furnace, with the hot gases discharging up the center

Flow pattern of vertical firing

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LIMITS OF STEAM TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

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Materials of superheater govern the practical limits

of steam temperature and pressure. The large majority is in the 400 to 565C temperature range Problems do arise during sustained elevated temperature operation because of the adverse effects of certain fuel constituent on unit availability.

Principles of design
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Components arranged to efficiently absorb heat and provide

steam at the rated parameters . Components : boiler surface, superheater, reheater, economizer, and air heater. Supplemented by steam-water separation and the control of steam outlet temperature. The steam generator : furnace and the convection pass. The furnace : water-cooled enclosure walls inside of which combustion takes place, combustion products are cooled to an appropriate (FEGT). The convection pass contains tube bundles, which compose the superheater, reheater, boiler bank, and economizer. The air heater usually follows the convection pass.

Boiler configurations
19 characteristics, operating pressure, and total capacity largely determine the boiler configuration. All utility boilers feature gastight, fully watercooled furnace enclosure walls and floors made of all welded membrane panel construction. Each design normally includes a single reheat section, although the supercritical once-through boiler has also been supplied as a double reheat unit.

Combustion system, fuel, ash

Boiler design
Boiler design driven by four key factors: 1. efficiency (boiler and cycle), 20 2. reliability, 3. capital and operating cost, and 4. environmental protection. Temperature- enthalpy diagram provides

important design information about the unit configuration. At subcritical pressures, constant temperature boiling water cools the furnace enclosure, and the flow circuits must be designed to accommodate the two-phase steam-water flow and boiling phenomena. At supercritical pressures, the water acts as a single-phase fluid with a continuous increase in temperature as it passes through the boiler. Fluid circulation systems: natural circulation and once-through

Design criteria
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
21 Define the energy input Evaluate the energy absorption in the boiler and other heat transfer components. Perform combustion calculations Determine the size and shape of the furnace, Determine the placement and configuration of surfaces. Place superheater and reheater, where the gas temperature is high enough, avoid excessive tube metal temperatures or ash fouling. Minimize the impact of slag Design pressure parts in accordance with applicable codes using approved materials. Provide a gas-tight boiler setting or enclosure around the furnace, boiler, superheater, reheater, and economizer. Design pressure part supports and the setting for expansion and local conditions, including wind and earthquake loading.

6. 7. 8.

Enclosure surface design

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Radiation controls heat transfer to the furnace

enclosure walls. These walls are cooled with boiling water The convection pass enclosure contains most of the superheater, reheater, and economizer surfaces. These enclosure surfaces can be water or steam cooled. Besides providing the volume necessary for complete combustion and a means to cool the gas to an acceptable FEGT,

Relative heat absorption

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Superheaters and reheaters

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For relatively low final outlet temperatures

superheaters solely of the convection type are generally used. For higher temperatures, surface requirements are larger: superheater elements located in very high gastemperature zones. Metallurgy: selection of materials for strength and oxidation resistance, the use of high steam pressure requires very thick walls in all tubing subject to steam pressure.

Design of superheater
A radiant superheater receives
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energy primarily by thermal radiation with little energy from convective heat transfer. Radiant absorption does not increase as rapidly as boiler output. Series combination of radiant and convection superheaters coordinates the two opposite sloping curves to give a flat superheat curve over a wide load range.

Parameters considered for Super Heater/Reheater Design

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Outlet steam temperature Range of boiler load Superheater surface required Gas temperature zone in which the surface is to be located, Type of steel, alloy or other material best suited for the

surface and supports Rate of steam flow ( control over tube metal temperatures) Arrangement of surface to meet the characteristics of the fuels, (spacing) Physical design and type of superheater as a structure or component.

Flow in Superheaters and Reheaters

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ECONOMIZERS
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Help to improve boiler efficiency by extracting heat

from flue gases. Generally, economizers are arranged for downward flow of gas and upward flow of water. Upward flow of water helps avoid water hammer, which may occur under some operating conditions Material is generally low-carbon steel

IMPACT OF FUEL ONBOILER DESIGN

Three very important parametric influences on furnace sizing are: Fuel reactivity Gaseous-emission limitations (particularly those concerning oxides of nitrogen), and Fuel-ash properties. Ash properties particularly important for designing of coal-fired furnaces: Ash fusibility temperatures Ratio of basic to acidic ash constituents Iron/Calcium ratio Fuel-ash content in terms of kg of ash/million joules Ash friability
Coal and Ash Properties
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Effect of coal rank on sizing of a pulverized-fuel furnace

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ARRANGEMENT OF UPPER-FURNACE HEATING SURFACE

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Pendent Panel

Horizontal arrangement

ADVANTAGES OF THE PENDANT PANEL DESIGN

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The support elements are out of the gas stream above the

furnace roof. Superheater and reheater are free to expand downward. and have only simple alignment devices in the gas stream No relative motion between the furnace tubing and the superheater or reheater tubes The above support and sealing arrangement favors shop modularization of tubes, headers, attachments and supports Field erection, major pressure-part construction can be carried out in several areas simultaneously. Widely spaced panels along with steam cooled wall sections in the upper furnace. Have high radiant-heat absorption. resulting improved steam-temperature control range.

ADVANTAGES OF THE HORIZONTALSURFACE DESIGN

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Vertical gas flow through the superheater and reheater surface

minimizes the potential for localized tube erosion in a 90 turn into the rear gas pass. Horizontal tubing facilitates designing for drainability, which simplifies freeze-protection procedures, boilout, and hydrostatic testing Large fused ash deposits that are removed by sootblowers will usually drop through wider spaced tube sections below, directly to the furnace bottom. Horizontal arrangement requires that in start-up there is adequate cooling flow through the vertical hanger tubes that support and align the horizontal tube bundles. Thermocouples should be used to monitor hanger-tube temperatures on startup, especially in tubes with downward flow.

CONVECTION-PASS DESIGN
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For designing a proper balance is required to maintain a

thermal head with which to transfer heat from gas to steam as the heating-surface use is optimized and undesirably high metal temperatures are avoided To limit pressure-part erosion from flyash, the flue-gas velocity must not exceed reasonable limits. It is impractical to propose a steam generator capable of burning any kind of coal. Certain coals need wide transverse tube spacing to reduce the fouling rate and possible bridging of ash deposits. This arrangement minimizes serious fouling problems. The transverse spacing of the convection - pass tube banks is reduced as the gas temperature is reduced along its flow path

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number of overlapping steps, including heating, ignition, devolatization and char burnout Flammability Index is the ignition temperature of a suspension of pulverized fuel CHAR REACTIVITY: Quantity and rate of volatiles released Swelling and agglomeration, pore structure influencing the burning characteristics of char. Char Characterization and Thermo-Gravimetric Analysis are the indicators.

BURNING CHARACTERISTICS OF COALS 36 The combustion has a

Thermo-grammatric Analysis
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PULVERIZING PROPERTIES OF COAL

38 GRINDABILlTY.-measures the ease of pulverization. It should not be confused with hardness of coal. It is affected by Moisture in the Coal. MOISTURE: comprised of equilibrium moisture and surface or free moisture. Surface moisture adversely affects both pulverizer performance and the combustion process. The surface moisture produces agglomeration of the fines in the pulverizing zone, and reduces pulverizer drying capacity because of the inability to remove the fines efficiently and as quickly as they are produced. Sufficient hot air at adequate temperature is necessary in the Milling System

COAL-ASH SLAGGING AND DEPOSITION

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Parameters for Coal ash Behaviour

ash-fusibility temperatures base/acid ratio iron/calcium ratio silica/alumina ratio iron/dolomite ratio dolomite percentage ferric percentage

ASH-FUSIBILITY
Initial Deformation Temperature (IT): The temperature at which the

tip of the ash pyramid begins to show any evidence of deformation. 40 Shrinkage of the cone is ignored if the tip remains sharp. Softening Temperature (ST), H = W: The temperature at which the ash sample has fused into a spherical shape i);l which the height is equal to the width at the base. The H = W softening temperature in a reducing atmosphere frequently is referred to as the "fusion temperature. " Hemispherical Temperature (HT), H = 1/2W: The temperature at which the ash sample has fused into a hemispherical shape where the height is equal to 1/2 the width at the base. Fluid Temperature (FT): The temperature at which the ash sample has fused down into a nearly flat layer with a maximum height of 1/16 inch.

BASE/ACID RATIO
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Base/acid ratio reflects a potential for ash-containing

metals to combine in the combustion process to produce low melting salts Extremes at either end indicate a minimum potential for forming combinations with low fusibility temperatures. Alkaline metals, sodium and potassium, are exceptions A base/acid ratio in the 0.4 to 0.7 range manifests low ash-fusibility temperatures and a higher slagging potential

SILICA/ALUMINA RATIO 42
The silica/alumina ratio

can provide additional information relating to ash fusibility For two coals having equal base/acid ratios, the one with a higher silica/alumina ratio should have lower fusibility temperatures

IRON/CALCIUM RATIO
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Fe203/CaO ratios between 10 and 0.2 have a

marked effect on lowering the fusibility temperatures

Other Parameter
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Has similar properties as Iron/Calcium ratio, use of this ratio is recommended when the MgO content of the ash is high. DOLOMITE PERCENTAGE (DP): a higher DP usually results in higher fusion temperatures and higher slag viscosities. EQUIV ALENT Fe203 AND FERRIC PERCENTAGE (FP): describe the degree of iron oxidation in coal-ash slags. SILICA PERCENTAGE (SP):As SP increases, the slag viscosity increases.

IRON/DOLOMITE RATIO :