You are on page 1of 79

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

THINK
Chapter

Prosocial Behavior: Why We Help, and Why We Dont

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Why do We Help?
Prosocial behavior positive social actions intended to help others
l Egoistic model when behaviors are done for selfish reasons l Altruistic model when behaviors are done for selfless reasons

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Models of Helping Behaviour


Evolution and socio-Biological Theory Social Learning and Normative Model Empathy and Altruism Emotional arousal and Attributional Model of Helping Decision Making and Cost Reward Analysis

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Evolutionary Factors in Helping: Kin Selection


What is important is survival of the individuals genes, not survival of the fittest individual. Kin selection is the tendency to help genetic relatives.
l Strongest when biological stakes are particularly high
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Evolutionary Factors in Helping: Reciprocal Altruism


What is the reproductive advantage of helping someone who isnt related to you? Through reciprocal altruism, helping someone else can be in your best interests.
l Increases the likelihood that you will be helped in return.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Evolutionary Factors in Helping: Group Selection


Can altruism exist beyond specific genes or specific reciprocal relationships between individuals?
l Indirect reciprocity I help you and somebody else helps me l Group selection groups that have altruistic members may be more likely to survive than groups with only selfish members

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Social Learning and Normative Model


From beginning we are exposed to helpful models and taught Prosocial Norms Approval received for following the norms and disapproved for violating Leads to internalization of societal standards

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Norms
Two social "rules" for when people behaving in prosocial ways Reciprocity norm (Gouldner, 1960) We help others who have helped us Even in babies there seems to be an instinctive drive to "repay" a favor

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Norms
Social responsibility norm ( Fisher 1981,Fellner and Marshall 1981) Prosocial behavior can be inspired by pressure from society and its members Help is given to those who are seen to be dependent or lack the capacity to help themselves e.g. children, elderly and disabled If we think a victim is to blame for their situation, however, we wont help
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Normative Model of Helping


BY Schwartz
Based on the criticism of Norms and learning of the Norms Model i) norm of social responsibility is broad; sometimes permit people to sidestep helping others ii) two conflicting norms-social responsibility and norms of non-involvement iii) people do not act consistently with the norms they hold
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Schwartzs Model
i) ACTIVATION (potential helper perceives need for help and some responsibility for his/her
behaviour)

ii)

OBLIGATION DEFENSES RESPONSE

( a personal norm calling for specific action is generated and creates a feeling of moral obligation)

iii)

(the helper assess potential responses and their implications either assuming or denying personal responsibility to act )

iv)

(action is taken if activation and obligation have occurred and defenses against acting are minimal; otherwise inaction occurs)

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Altruism or Egoism: The Great Debate


Is helping motivated by altruistic or egoistic concerns?
l Altruistic: Motivated by the desire to increase anothers welfare. l Egoistic: Motivated by the desire to increase ones own welfare.

Batson: The motivation behind some helpful actions is truly altruistic.


THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Empathy Altruism Hypothesis/Model by


Batson, Duncan,Ackerman,Buckley, and Birch 1981 Alternative Explanation: I) Negative State Relief Model II) Empathetic Joy Hypothesis

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Empathy is the capacity to be able to experience others emotional states, feeling sympathetic toward them, and taking their perspective

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Negative State Relief Model By Cialdini, Baumann and Kenrick 1981


We help because helping allows us to reduce our own negative, unpleasant emotions.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis and The Negative State Relief Model

From C.D. Batson, The Altruism Question, 1991. Reprinted with permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Empathetic Joy Hypothesis By Smith, Keating and Stotland 1989


Helping in response to empathy is motivated neither by a selfless concern for the welfare of others, nor by the reduction of personal distress, but rather by the joy one experiences when observing that another persons needs have been met.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Helper responds to the needs of a victim because they want to accomplish something and doing so is rewarding in and of itself i.e. it feels good to have a positive effect on the lives of other people.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Egoistic Models of Helping


Egoism encourages helping because of a concern about the costs to ones self if help is not provided. l Egoism seeks to reduce personal distress. l Egoism highlights the potential rewards for helping others.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Altruism vs. Egoism: Limits


Strong evidence for the empathy-altruism hypothesis. Limitations to empathy-altruism hypothesis: l Not all helping is altruistically motivated. l Motives do not guarantee behavior. l Is the assumption that there is a clear divide between the self and the other a valid one?

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Emotional Arousal and Attributional Model of Helping


By Piliavin 1981 Arousal is important in helping Flight response if arousal is to the extent of panic and perception of little chance to accomplice anything positive

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

According to Attributional model of helping, thoughts are also important Attribution i) if internal and controllable cause then negative emotion is aroused ii) if external and uncontrollable cause then positive emotion is aroused Emotion experienced determines the degree to which the help is provided
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Attributional model of helping


External External Attribution Attribution Positive Positive Emotional Emotional Response Response Helping Helping

Person Person requiring requiring help help

Physiologic Physiologic al alarousal arousal

Analysis Analysisof ofsituation situation in inorder orderto tolabel label arousal arousal

Internal Internal attribution attribution

Negative Negative emotional emotional response response

Not Not helping helping

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When do we help ?
The decision model of bystander intervention By John Darley and Bibb Latane 1968 e.g. Kitty Genovese in 1964

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Kitty Genovese and Deciding to Help


In March, 1964, a New York City woman named Catherine Kitty Genovese was raped and stabbed to death as she returned home from work late at night. 38 people had witnessed some or all of the attack, which took place in two or three distinct episodes over a period of about a half hourand yet no one did anything to stop it No one even reported it to the police until the woman was already dead.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Kitty Genovese and Deciding to Help


Although the murder itself was tragic, the nation was even more outraged that so many people who could have helped seemingly displayed callous indifference. And so the failure of bystanders to intervene became known as Kitty Genovese Syndrome Social psychologists sometimes call it the Bystander Effect.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When Do We Help?

All of these attacks had many witnesses, yet nobody intervened The five step decision model states that several criteria must be satisfied for a bystander to intervene and help

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When Do We Help?
One: Notice the emergency

Can be affected by personal life concerns and proximity to the event. If the potential helper is preoccupied by special concerns then prosocial behaviour is less likely to occur
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Two: Correctly interpreting the Event as an Emergency

Pluralistic ignorance if nobody else helps, we might believe help is not needed

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When Do We Help?
Three: Feel a sense of responsibility
The bystander effect the more people present, the more we experience a diffusion of responsibility

Four: Decide how to help


Do we know what is needed and are we capable of providing it? If we feel competent to help, we are more likely to do so e.g. good swimmers can assist a person who is drowning
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When Do We Help?
Five: Provide help

It is best to do so in a way that does not compromise your own safety (if possible)

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Moral Element in Helping


Moral cleansing engaging in actions that are meant to restore a sense of order
l Neurobiological explanation the mesolimbic reward system is activated when we give or receive rewards

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cost-Reward Model of Helping by Piliavin ( 1981)


Cost-Reward analysis
l We are more inclined to help others when it will help us as well l We weigh others needs with our own. If helping "costs" too much, we wont.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When Do We Help?
The decision model of bystander intervention
l Kitty Genovese in 1964

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Kitty Genovese and Deciding to Help


In March, 1964, a New York City woman named Catherine Kitty Genovese was raped and stabbed to death as she returned home from work late at night. 38 people had witnessed some or all of the attack, which took place in two or three distinct episodes over a period of about a half hourand yet no one did anything to stop it No one even reported it to the police until the woman was already dead.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Kitty Genovese and Deciding to Help


Although the murder itself was tragic, the nation was even more outraged that so many people who could have helped seemingly displayed callous indifference. And so the failure of bystanders to intervene became known as Kitty Genovese Syndrome Social psychologists sometimes call it the Bystander Effect.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When Do We Help?
All of these attacks had many witnesses, yet nobody intervened The five step decision model states that several criteria must be satisfied for a bystander to intervene and help

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When do We Help?
One: Notice the emergency
l Can be affected by personal life concerns and proximity to the event

Two: Interpret the need for help


l Pluralistic ignorance if nobody else helps, we might believe help is not needed

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When do We Help? (continued)


Three: Feel a sense of responsibility l The bystander effect the more people present, the more we experience a diffusion of responsibility Four: Decide how to help l Do we know what is needed and are we capable of providing it? l If we feel competent to help, we are more likely to do so
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When do We Help? (continued)


Five: Provide help
l It is best to do so in a way that does not compromise your own safety (if possible) l Do we fear risk of liability? Good Samaritan protection

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Factors Effecting Prosocial Behaviour


1. SITUATIONAL FACTORS
i) person in need of help a ) nature of the need b ) relationship with the potential helper and aspects of interpersonal attraction Ii ) Influence of other people a ) presence of others b ) action of others
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Factors affecting Prosocial Behaviour


2) PERSONAL FACTORS i) Emotional factors Ii) Background Variables Iii) Personality Traits Iv) Gender V) Time Pressures Vi) Motivational factors Vii) culture
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Person in need of help


Nature of the need
--- perceived dependency --- perceived legitimacy --- external attribution of victims responsibility

Relationship with the Helper


--- relationship between relatives and friends imply mutual dependence and a special obligation to help --- aspects of interpersonal attraction (e.g. brief acquaintance, familiarity, similiarity, etc. ) also influence prosocial beh
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Influence of other people


Presence of others ---- Bystander effect: study done by Latane and Darley (1970)
The likelihood of a prosocial behaviour in an emergency situation is affected by the number of bystanders who are present. As the number of bystanders increases, the probability that one bystander will help decreases and the amount of time that passes before help occurs increases .
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Factors Affecting the Decision to help: Pluralistic Ignorance


Pluralistic Ignorance
l The tendency not to respond to a potentially dangerous situation because of a collective uncertainty about what is happening that is reinforced by the fact that no one else seems concerned or is responding

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Factors Affecting the Decision to help: Evaluation Apprehension and Audience Inhibition Bystanders may feel evaluation apprehension, concern about what others expect of them and how others will evaluate their behavior.
l In addition, if others are present and not reacting it may seem to infer that others do not see the need to intervene. l Intervention in this case would seem foolish
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Factors Affecting the Decision to help: Diffusion of Responsibility


This process occurs when a bystander does not take action to help because other persons share the responsibility for intervening.
l This occurs at the third step in the process of deciding to help. l If others are present, personal responsibility to act is diminished the number of others present.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Action of Others
-- facial expressions, words, deeds -- reinforcement and punishment -- social learning and modeling

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2.PERSONAL FACTORS
Emotional factors Attractiveness Similarity and Mimicry Background Variables Personality Traits Gender Time Pressures Motivational factors Culture Modelling
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Emotional state
Mood l As noted, being in a good mood increases the chance of prosocial behavior - The mood can increase self-awareness - We match our actions with our actual self

Negative mood increases help only when the need for the help is clear, when little cost is involved and when the adult view the help as the negative state relief.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Attractiveness
Attractiveness sadly, we are more likely to help attractive people. Why do you think that is?

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Similarity and Mimicry


Similarity
l We are more likely to help those similar to ourselves l Similarity = attraction l Race this tendency holds for both black and white people

Mimicry acting the same way that others do


l More prosocial behavior is demonstrated toward those who mimic our actions
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Background variables
Size of the Town Study by Latane and Darley (1970) Small Town people help more as compared to large cities

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rural Versus Urban Environments


People in rural areas are more helpful. This effect holds over a wide variety of ways of helping and in many countries. One possible explanation is that people from rural settings are brought up to be more neighbourly and more likely to trust strangers. This experience enhances the altruistic personality. This seems unlikely to be true.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rural Versus Urban Environments

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Rural Versus Urban Environments

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Personality traits
Altruistic personality 5 traits that correlate with prosocial behavior
l Empathy l Internal locus of control l Belief in a just world l A sense of social responsibility l Low egocentrism

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Gender Differences in Prosocial behaviour


Gender is another personal variable that comes into play. Though one sex is not more altruistic than the other, the ways in which men and women help often differ Men are more likely to help in heroic, chivalrous ways Women are more likely to help in nurturant ways that involve a long-term commitment
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behaviour

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cultural Differences in Prosocial Behaviour


Members of collective societies where greater emphasis is placed on connectedness and needs of the ingroup, are more likely to help ingroup members, and less likely to help outgroup members than are people from individualistic societies.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Time pressures and Motivational Factors


Time constraints less Prosocial Behaviour Motivational Factors Acc to Batson and Thompson (2001) three major motives are relevant when a person is faced with a moral dillema: i) self-interest (egoism) motivation to engage in beh that provides greatest satisfaction Ii) moral integrity motivation to engage in moral beh Iii) moral hypocrisy motivation to appear moral while doing ones best to avoid the costs actually involved in being moral
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modeling
Modeling
l When we observe other people (family, peers, role models) behave prosocially, we are likely to as well l The media is a big factor in this area

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modeling Prosocial Behavior. If we are exposed to role models who exhibit prosocial behavior, we are more likely to exhibit such behaviors ourselves.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

HOW CAN WE INCREASE PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR?

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Volunteering
A special type of help is required when the person in need has a chronic, continuing problem that requires help over a prolonged time period ( Williamson and Schulz, 1995). A person who volunteers to provide assistance in this context must commit their time and effort over weeks, months or even longer. E.g. tsunami struck South Asia 2004
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Volunteering?
I---Five step Model II--6 Motives given by Clary and Snyder (1999)
i)Values: Personal values of humanitarianism ii)Understanding: The need to understand more about the issue (disease) iii)Enhancement: The desire to enhance ones own development, iv)Career: The chance to gain career-related experience, v)Social: The need to improve ones own personal relationships, vi)Protective: The desire to reduce negative feelings such Socialor Psychology Education, Inc. as THINK guilt, escape from personal problems Copyright 2012 by Pearson Kimberley Duff All rights reserved.

Volunteering ?
III Mandates, Altruism, or Generativity
Mandates- making compulsory e.g. required to do voluntary work to complete Graduation Altruism- volunteers believe in internal locus of control and empathy Generativity- is defined as an adults interest in and commitment to the well-being of future generations e.g. becoming parents, teaching young people

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Instilling Helpfulness with Rewards & Models

Prosocial behaviour occurs early in life. Even children as young as 18 months frequently help other, eg, trying to make a crying infant feel better. One powerful way to encourage prosocial behaviour is for parents and others to reward such acts with praise, smiles, and hugs, research shows.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Instilling Helpfulness with Rewards & Models We must be careful and not over emphasize the reward aspect because this can lower the intrinsic value of performing the prosocial behaviour, and decrease the probability of acting prosocially in subsequent situations, in the absence of rewards. We want children to perceive themselves as altruistic people, so that they enhance the intrinsic value of acting prosocially.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Instilling Helpfulness with Rewards & Models


Another way for parents to increase prosocial behaviour in their children is to behave prosocially themselves. Children often model behaviours they observe in others, including prosocial behaviour.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Instilling Helpfulness with Rewards & Models


Pancer and Pratt (1999) found that Canadian youth who spend time volunteering are likely to have parents who have instilled values of kindness and helping, and who model prosocial behaviour. Children also imitate adults other than their parents, eg, teachers, relatives, TV characters, sports heroes. They can be used to model prosocial behaviour.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Increasing Awareness of the Barriers to Helping


There is evidence that simply being aware of the barriers to helping can increase peoples chance of overcoming those barriers (see Beaman et al, 1978 awareness study). Research shows that teaching people about the determinants of prosocial behaviour makes them more aware of why they sometimes dont help, and leads to greater helping in the future.
THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Increasing Awareness of the Barriers to Helping


We shouldnt impose help on everyone we think needs it. Not everyone wants to be helped.

If being helped means that they appear incompetent, resulting in lowered self-esteem then some people will chose not to accept help they will often suffer in silence, even at the cost of failing at the task. We need to make help supportive and non-threatening for it to be most effective.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

How Can We Increase Prosocial Behavior?


Prosocial television programs for kids
l Increases helping behavior l Decreases aggression l Helps reduce stereotypes

Teach good "citizenship" in classrooms

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

How Can We Increase Prosocial Behavior?


Attributions
l If we feel the help is needed because of situations out of a persons control, we are more likely to act prosocially

Education
l Enlightenment effect learning about barriers to prosocial behavior helps remove them

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Enlightened About Pluralistic Ignorance. By learning about psychological theories that help you understand your own thought processes and behaviors, you can avoid falling prey to the obstacles that may prevent you from helping others in need.

THINK Social Psychology Kimberley Duff

Copyright 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

You might also like