YES to independency. Promoting Prompt Fading.

California 2012

Dorita Lizcano

Education. San Macos Califonia.

Introduction

his contains critical information for identifying prompt dependent and learned helplessness

behaviors. Furthermore, this review provides educators with a deeper insight of prompt hierarchy levels and delivery methods to build autonomy. The last section provides information about education laws, a comparison of mild-to-moderate and severe-to-profound intellectual disabilities, and current instructional practices.

Prompting
A prompt is known as a natural cue or hint that allows an individual to perform a desired or specific task. Specifically, natural cues are translated as types of prompting measuring student behaviors and demonstration of prior skills to perform targeted behaviors. From these target behaviors, baselines are determined to guide levels of prompting needed to learn and master particular tasks or behaviors. The prompting article from the Texas Statewide Leadership in Autism describes prompting as a means to induce an individual with added stimuli to perform a desired behavior [where] a prompt is an antecedent that is provided when an ordinary antecedent is ineffective (Texas Statewide Leadership on Autism, p.1). The important part of prompting is to quickly fade elements of the prompt so that the individual is able to practice and present mastery of skill or task needed to complete. Liz Cohen founder of BBB Autism Online Support Network and author of the article Prompting and Fading (Cohen, 2002) describes most-to-least or most intrusive to least intrusive prompting as the foundational structure of all prompt levels and prompt-fading behaviors. Most-to-least prompting requires more prompts at the beginning to accomplish the task and/or response then slowly fades levels and amount of prompting to accomplish the desired task or elicit the desired response independently. On the other hand, least-to-

Yes to independency. Promoting Prompt Fading 2012|Califonia

most prompting reflects the continuance of high levels of prompts throughout the teaching and learning processes where the learner becomes prompt dependent (Cohen, 2002).

Types of Prompts and Prompt Levels

Based on most-to-least or most intrusive to least intrusive prompting, multiple types of prompts make up a systematic approach of skill acquisition. The researcher has witnessed the most utilized prompts in education are direct and indirect prompts such as full and partial verbal, gestural, physical, positional and visual prompts. Each direct and indirect prompt contains most-to-least intrusive prompting that extends typical responses dependent on the individual needs. For example, a full verbal prompt differs from a partial verbal prompt where entire behavior is modeled with the verbal command or directives verses only part of a desired behavior is verbally modeled (Texas Statewide Leadership on Autism, 2010). According to MacDuff, Krantz, and McClannahan (n.d.), prompts are particularly useful when supporting students to display a new or target behavior until the skill(s) or behavior is mastered independently but only under the circumstances that prompts are removed completely.

Prompt Hierarchy
In further studies, prompt hierarchy levels were designed to emphasize the intrusiveness of specific prompts (The Bridge School, 2008). The Bridge School (2008) provides a delineated list of prompt hierarchy levels organized by stages from most-to-least intrusive prompting. These prompt hierarchy levels are Independent, Indirect, Direct Verbal, Gestural, Modeling, Partial Physical Assistance, Full Physical Assistance (The Bridge School, 2008). By practicing learned skills through various prompt stages, prompts should decrease to a level

where the individual completes the task independently (most-to-least). Not all prompts in hierarchy need to be used when teaching a skill [prompts should be] chosen based on which ones are most effective to the particular child (Texas Statewide Leadership on Autism, p.2). For example, Jonathan Tarbox, Ph.d, a Center for Autism and Related Disorders (CARD) distinguished lecturer suggests that if using a verbal prompt, gradually decrease to modeling or gestural. If using a full physical prompt, fading to a light or partial physical prompt is recommended to avoid prompt dependence (Tarbox, n.d.).

Learned Helplessness/Prompt Dependence

Prompt dependence and learned helplessness are terms used interchangeably through research studies. In the journal article, Eliminating Learned Helplessness, Dependency, Low Self Esteem and Low achievement, author 2

Yes to independency. Promoting Prompt Fading 2012|Califonia

Susan Fitznell (2001) suggests that helplessness, dependency, low-self esteem, low achievement, and most discipline problems are common results of the way support is provided to students who are perceived to have difficulty with the task at hand. Gordon and Gordon (1990) describe this support as learned helplessness, a conditioned response that causes cognitive, motivational, emotional deficits in individuals. However, students with mild-to-moderate disabilities may require adult support to be successful learners. But when this support creates an overreliance or dependence on the adult, this support inhibits independence (Hume, Loftin, and Lantz, 2009). According to Hume, et al. (2009), prompt dependence impedes potential success in the independent performance of the skills during maintenance and generalization activities. In addition, prompt dependence reduces the students level of participation increasing learned helplessness behaviors (Hume, et al., 2009). Our natural reactions or best intentions may inadvertently reinforce prompt dependent behaviors (Fitznell, 2001). In this situation, students may acquire attention seeking or task avoidant behaviors to gain a desired response especially when he or she feels a task is too challenging or time consuming. During this time, the student looks to the adult for support, without even attempting the task (Fitzell 2001). Moreover, MacDuff et al. (n.d.) found that selecting the appropriate prompt that displays a particular skill or behavior is as important as fading the prompt to eliminate prompt dependence, passivity, and the development of error patterns that can be very difficult to correct (MacDuff, Krantz, & McClannahan, p. 46). In the article, Learned Helplessness and Attribution Theory: Redefining Childrens Learning Problems, author Lynn Grimes (1981)

compares childrens diverse learning styles and cognitive processing during failure-based situations to determine if failure is related to conceptual understanding of the lesson content or related to maladaptive behaviors (i.e., noncompliant behaviors, rule violating behaviors). Grimes (1981) found that the facilitation of appropriate strategies of skill acquisition is first determining what tasks individuals are capable of completing entirely independent before providing full support leading to prompt dependence or learned helplessness. Supporting Skill Acquisition By verifying the level of support received, skill-based assessments are required. In the article, A Rapid Assessment of Skills in Young Children with Autism, Lerman, Vorndran, Addison, and Kuhn (2004) compared the importance of determining the students skills through the evaluation process. In one instance, standardized assessments were administered that presented reinforcement procedures and effective prompts connected with the students current baselines on particular skills. In another instance, the power of alternative evaluation processes beyond standardized means of assessment practices transferred to more performance-based assessments to determine appropriate interventions necessary. By this comparison, Lerman et al. (2004) found that reinforcing correct responses may lead to nearperfect performance without the need for prompts [however,] strategies designed to promote maintenance and generalization would be suitable for these skills (Lerman et al., 2004, p.12). Based on research by Lerman et al. (2004), two studies compared least-tomost and most-toleast prompting. In one study, participants were engaged in the guided practice stage of the lesson. The targeted skill taught during this

Yes to independency. Promoting Prompt Fading 2012|Califonia

stage was paired with least-to-most prompting. Once the teacher removed himself or herself from the guided practice stage, the participants stopped working, thus reflecting prompt dependent behaviors to continue and complete the task independently. In the second study, participants were given most-to-least prompting during the guided practice stage of the lesson. Once the teacher removed himself

or herself from this stage, the participants continued to work independently until assistance was required for challenging questions. These two studies demonstrated the importance of differentiating between skill deficits and behaviors, rather than concluding that the learner does not have the ability to complete a task or directive independently (Lerman et al., 2004). access the curriculum alongside his or her grade-leveled peers. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) supports such adaptations for students with mild-to-moderate disabilities who participate in the general education classroom and extended activities more than 50% of the school day benefit. These specific learners are ones who are and have participated in typical Resource Centers or Learning Center Model programs. According to the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) (2011), there are differences between mild-tomoderate and severe-to-profound intellectual disabilities. An accurate diagnosis of mild to severe intellectual disabilities requires three components: IQ score of approximately 70 or below, determination of deficits in adaptive behavior, and origins of the disability prior to age 18 (CEC, 2011, para. 2). In particular, the IQ scores for students with mild-to-moderate intellectual disabilities range from IQ of 70 to 55/50 (mild intellectual disability) and 55/50 to IQ of 40/35 (moderate intellectual disability) as compared to severe intellectual disability IQ score of 40/35 to 25/20 and profound intellectual disability IQ score below 25/20 (CEC 2011). According to these scores, students with intellectual disabilities are less effective at learning. However, students are capable of learning and achieving alongside his or her typically developing grade and age leveled

Education Law - IDEA

Provisions set in place by education laws support independence through adaptations to the curriculum and individual accommodations and/or modifications to access academic content in diverse ways and environments. Part B of The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) represents services for school aged children (3-22). Part B includes Assistance for Education of all Children with Disabilities organized into eight subparts (NICHCY, 2010). One critical factor of Part B is adaptive supports such as accommodations and/or modifications, which are written into the students Individualized Education Plan (IEP). Adaptive supports through accommodations means providing a change that helps a student overcome or work around the disability. Allowing a student who has trouble writing and gives his answers orally is an example of an accommodation (NICHCY, 2010, part 1). Adaptive supports through modifications means providing a change in what is being taught to or expected from the student. Making an assignment easier so the student is not doing the same level of work as other students is an example of a modification (NICHCY, 2010). Under these adaptations and supports, students shall be educated in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) with the needed accommodations and/or modifications to

Yes to independency. Promoting Prompt Fading 2012|Califonia

peers with appropriate accommodations and modifications to his or her program (CEC, 2011)

http://asksusanfitzell.com/inclusionresources/l earnedhelplessness-134.pdf Gordon, R., & Gordon, M. (n.d). Learned helplessness and school failure. Retrieved from http://susanfitzell.com/inclusionresources/lear nedhelplessness-133.pdf Grimes, L. (1981). Learned helplessness and attribution theory: Redefining childrens learning problems. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4(1), 91-100. Higbee, T.S., & Reagon, K.A. (2005). Activity schedules for promoting independent play in children with autism. Paper presented at the Special Needs Conference. Paper retrieved from http://sper.usu.edu/ASSERT/ucsdhandout.pdf Holowach, K.T. (1989). Prompts: Advantages and Disadvantages. Teaching That Works: The Individualized Critical Skills Model, (p. 94). Sacramento, CA: Resources in Special Education. Hume, K., Loftin, R., & Lantz, J. (2009). Increasing independence in autism spectrum disorders: A Review of three focused interventions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 13291338. doi:10.1007/s10803009-0751-2

References Bridges Educational Corporation. (2010). Prompting. Behavioral Research-Based Intervention, Developmental Guidance, and Educational Services. San Diego: Bridges Corporation. Council for Exceptional Children. (2011). Intellectual Disability. Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/AM/Template.cfm?Se ction=Home&CONTENTID=18944& TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm Cohen, L. (2002). Prompting and fading. BBB Autism Online Support Network. Retrieved from http://www.bbbautism.com/prompting_and_fa ding.htm Edupics. (2012). Coloring page ear. Retrieved from http://www.edupics.com/coloring-page-eari9527.html Fitznell, S. (2011). Learned helplessness article 4: Eliminating learned helplessness, dependency, low self-esteem, and low achievement. Inclusion and Differentiation Resources. Retrieved from

Yes to independency. Promoting Prompt Fading 2012|Califonia