Preface .......................................................................................................................................................................................

xi
1

AIRPORTS AND SOLAR ENERGY: CHARTING A COURSE ................. 1

1.1 Purpose of the Solar Guide .......................................................................... 1
1.1.1 What is Driving Solar Energy Development? ............................................. 2
1.1.2 How is Solar Energy Impacting Airports?................................................... 2
1.2 Solar PV Basics.............................................................................................3
1.2.1 Types of Solar PV Technologies .............................................................. 3
1.2.2 Energy Conversion Process and Efficiency..............................................4
1.3 Other Solar Power Generating Systems........................................................... 5
1.3.1 Concentrated Solar ..................................................................................... 5
1.3.2 Solar Thermal Hot Water ............................................................................ 7
1.3.3 Transpired Solar Collectors......................................................................... 8
1.3.4 Compatibility of Solar Generating Systems with Airports ........................ 8
1.4 Photovoltaic Designs for Airports...................................................................... 9
1.4.1 Roof-mountings............................................................................................. 10
1.4.2 Ground Mountings ................................................................................. 11
1.4.3 Tracking ........................................................................................................ 12
1.4.4 Remote Systems .......................................................................................... 13
1.5 Solar PV Supply and Demand .....................................................................13
1.5.1 Supply Solar Resource and Other Weather Factors ........................ 13
1.5.2 Electricity Demand .................................................................................... 15
1.6 The Electrical Grid................................................................................ 15
1.6.1 System Infrastructure ................................................................................ 15
1.6.2 Electricity Transactions .......................................................................... 16
1.6.3 Solar Grid-Tie System............................................................................... 18
1.6.4 Distributed Generation and Its Benefits to the Grid ................................ 18
Case Study #1 Deploying Different PV Designs: Denver International Airport
Pena Boulevard and Fuel Farm Projects Colorado ................................. 19

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS: PLANNING AND SITING SOLAR

FACILITIES ............................................................................................ 21
2.1 Solar PV Project Life Cycle ............................................................................ 21
2.1.1 Siting and Feasibility ................................................................................ 21
2.1.2 Design and Permitting............................................................................... 21
2.1.3 Installation ...........................................................................................................21
2.1.4 Operations and Maintenance.................................................................... 22
2.1.5 Decommissioning/Re-commissioning..................................................... 22
2.2 Project Participants ..................................................................................... 22
2.2.1 FAA Airports........................................................................................................22
2.2.2 Airport Sponsor ..............................................................................................23
2.2.3 Utility ...................................................................................................................23
2.2.4 Private Developer...................................................................................... 24
2.2.5 Installer................................................................................................................24
2.2.6 Financier .............................................................................................................24
2.2.7 Other ....................................................................................................... 24
2.3 Airport Land Use and Safety Planning...........................................................24
2.3.1 Lands and Buildings.................................................................................. 25
2.3.2 Airport Design Standards .......................................................................... 27
2.3.3 Consistency with Aviation and Airport Activities ..................................... 28
2.3.4 Consistency with the Master Plan and Airport Layout Plan.................... 29
2.3.5 Airport Layout Plan Approval .................................................................... 30
2.3.6 Land Release Approval............................................................................. 30
2.3.7 Environmental Screening.......................................................................... 31
Case Study #2 A Unique Siting Example: Fresno Yosemite International Airport
(FYI) California .......................................................................................... 32

SAFETY AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR SOLAR

PROJECTS: MEETING AIRPSACE AND ENVIRONMENTAL
STANDARDS .............................................................................................................. 33
3.1 Airspace Review..........................................................................................33
3.1.1 Airspace Penetration......................................................................................35

3.1.2 Reflectivity...........................................................................................................36
3.1.3 Communication Systems Interference.................................................... 41
3.2 Environmental Review.................................................................................42
3.2.1 NEPA ...................................................................................................... 42
3.2.2 Examples of Potential Environmental Issues ........................................ 43
3.3 Off-Airport ....................................................................................................... 45
Case Study #3 Evaluating Airspace Issues: Metropolitan Oakland
International Airport California.................................................................... 46

AIRPORT SOLAR ECONOMICS: UNDERSTANDING THE

FINANCIAL INCENTIVES THAT MAKE SOLAR COST-EFFECTIVE .........47
4.1 Cost of Electricity ........................................................................................47
4.1.1 Conventional Electricity............................................................................. 47
4.1.2 Solar Electricity...............................................................................................49
4.1.3 The Power Purchase Agreement............................................................ 50
4.2 Financial Incentive Programs to Lower the Cost of Solar.............................. 51
4.2.1 Renewable Portfolio Standards ................................................................ 52
4.2.2 Renewable Energy Credits ....................................................................... 53
4.2.3 Tax Credits..........................................................................................................53
4.2.4 Government Grants and Rebates........................................................... 54
4.2.5 Feed-In Tariff..................................................................................................55
4.2.6 Bonds ...................................................................................................... 56
4.2.7 Net Metering .......................................................................................................57
4.3 Ownership Models.......................................................................................58
4.3.1 Private Ownership Airport as Host ........................................................ 58
4.3.2 Public Ownership Airport as Owner ...................................................... 60
Case Study #4 Partnering with a Private Developer: Meadows Field
Bakersfield, California.................................................................................. 63

THE FEDERAL ROLE IN AIRPORT SOLAR DEVELOPMENT ............. 65

5.1 Executive Orders for Energy Management and Sustainability ...................... 65
5.2 FAA Policy and Planning ................................................................................ 66
5.2.1 Possible Strategies for Solar Development.............................................. 67

5.2.2 FAA Airport Engineering Guidance........................................................... 67

5.2.3 Airport Sustainability Planning................................................................... 68
5.3 FAA Airport Funding ....................................................................................... 68
5.3.1 AIP and PFC Programs............................................................................. 68
5.3.2 VALE Program ...................................................................................................69
5.4 Recommendations.......................................................................................... 70
Case Study #5 Building on Local Initiatives: Albuquerque International Sunport
New Mexico................................................................................................... 71

Appendix A. FAA Contact Information.................................................................................A-1

Appendix B. Existing Airport Solar Projects and Contacts ...........................................B-1
Appendix C. Private Developer Ground Lease Example (Denver) ............................. C-1
Appendix D. Power Purchase Agreement Example (Denver)..................................... D-1

Table 1: Examples of FAA Regulatory Reviews for Existing Airport Solar Projects.... .. 43
Table 2: Highest Electricity Prices in April 2010............................................................... 49
Table 3: Top Ten States in Solar Installations for 2009 ................................................... 52
Table 4: Examples of Ownership Structure for Existing Airport Solar Projects................ 61
Table 5: Feasibility Checklist for Airport Sponsors ....................................................... 64