EqualAreaCriterion 1.0Developmentofequalareacriterion Asinpreviousnotes,allpowersareinperunit. I want to show you the equal area criterion a little differentlythanthebookdoesit. LetsstartfromEq.(2.43)inthebook.

2 H d 2 = Pm Pe = Pa 2 Re dt

(1)

Note in (1) that the book calls Re as R; however, we needtouse377(fora60Hzsystem). Wecanalsowrite(1)as

2 H d = Pm Pe = Pa Re dt

(2)

Now multiply the lefthandside by and the righthand sidebyd/dt(recall=d/dt)toget:

H d d 2 = [Pm Pe ] dt Re dt
1

(3)

Note:

d (t ) 2 d (t ) = 2 (t ) dt dt
H d 2 d = [Pm Pe ] dt Re dt
Multiplybydttoobtain:

(4)

Substitutionof(4)intothelefthandsideof(3)yields:

(5)

Re

d 2 = [Pm Pe ]d

(6)

Now consider a change in the state such that the angle goes from 1 to 2 while the speed goes from 1 to 2. Integrate(6)toobtain:

2 2

Re

2 d =
2 1

[P
1

Pe ]d

(7)

Note the variable of integration on the left is 2. This resultsin

2

Re

2 2

12 =

] [P
1

Pe ]d

(8)

The lefthandside of (8) is proportional to the change in kinetic energy between the two states, which can be shown more explicitly by substituting H=Wk/SB=(1/2)JR2/SBinto(8),forH:
2 2 1 JR 2 2 12 = [Pm Pe ]d 2 S BRe 1

(8a)

1 2 1 2 J2 J1 = [Pm Pe ]d S BRe 2 2
2 R
1

(8b)

Returning to (8), let 1 be the speed at the initial moment of the fault (t=0+,=1), and2 be the speed at themaximumangle(=r),asshowninFig.1below. Notethatthefactthatweidentifyamaximumangle=r indicates an implicit assumption that the performance is stable. Therefore the following development assumes stableperformance.
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Pm1 Pe Pm3 Pm Pm2 Pe3 Pe2 1 3c 90 Fig.1 Since speed is zero at t=0, it remains zero at t=0+. Also, since r is the maximum angle, the speed is zero at this pointaswell. Therefore,theangleandspeedforthetwo points of interest to us are (note the dual meaning of1: itislowervariableofintegration;itisinitialangle): 1=1 1=0

Pe1

r m

180

=r 2=0

 Therefore,(8)becomes:

Re

2 2

12 = 0 =

[P
1

Pe ]d

(9a)

We have developed a criterion under the assumption of stableperformance,andthatcriterionis:

r

[P
1

Pe ]d = 0

(9b)

Recalling that Pa=PmPe, we see that (9b) says that for stable performance, the integration of the accelerating powerfrominitialangletomaximumanglemustbezero. Recalling again (8b), which indicated the lefthandside was proportional to the change in the kinetic energy between the two states, we can say that (9b) indicates thattheacceleratingenergymustexactlycounterbalance thedeceleratingenergy. Inspection of Fig. 1 indicates that the integration of (9b) includes a discontinuity at the moment when the fault is
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cleared, at angle =c. Therefore we need to break up theintegrationof(9b)asfollows:

c

[P
1

Pe 2 ]d + [Pm Pe3 ]d = 0
c

(10)

Takingthesecondtermtotherighthandside:
c

[P
1

Pe 2 ]d = [Pm Pe3 ]d
c

(11)

Carryingthenegativeinsidetherightintegral:
c

[P
1

Pe 2 ]d =

[P
c

e3

Pm ]d

(12)

Observing that these two terms each represent areas on the powerangle curve, we see that we have developed the socalled equalarea criterion for stability. This criterion says that stable performance requires that the acceleratingareabeequaltothedeceleratingarea,i.e.,

A1 = A2
6

(13)

where
A1 =
c

[P
1

Pe 2 ]d

(13a)

A2 =

[P
c

e3

Pm ]d

(13b)

Figure2illustrates. Pm1 Pe Pm3 A2 Pm Pm2 A1 Pe1

Pe3 Pe2 1 3c 90 Fig.2

7

r m

180

Figure 2 indicates a way to identify the maximum swing angle, r. Given a particular clearing angle c, which in turn fixes A1, the machine angle will continue to increase untilitreachesananglersuchthatA2=A1. 2.0Moreseverestabilityperformance Stability performance become more severe, or moves closer to instability, when A1 increases, or if available A2 decreases. We consider A2 as being bounded from above by m, because, as we have seen in previous notes, cannot exceed m because >m results in more accelerating energy, not more decelerating energy. Thus we speak of the available A2 as being the area within Pe3Pmboundedontheleftbycandontherightbym. Contributing factors to increasing A1, and/or decreasing availableA2,aresummarizedinthefollowingfourbullets andcorrespondingillustrations.
8

1. Pmincreases:A1increases,availableA2decreases Pm1 Pe Pm3 A2 Pm Pm2 A1 Pe1

Pe3 Pe2 1 3c 90 Fig.3

9

r m

180

2. Pe2decreases:A1increases. Pm1 Pe Pm3 A2 Pm Pm2 A1 Pe1

Pe3 Pe2 1 3c 90 Fig.4

10

r m

180

3. tcincreases:A1increases,availableA2decreases Pm1 Pe Pm3 A2 Pm Pm2 A1 Pe1

Pe3 Pe2 1 3c 90 Fig.5

11

r m

180

4. Pe3decreases:availableA2decreases. Pm1 Pe Pm3 A2 Pm Pm2 A1 Pe1

Pe3 Pe2 1 3c 90 Fig.6 3.0Instabilityandcriticalclearingangle/time Instability occurs when available A2<A1. This situation is illustratedinFig.7. r m 180

12

Pm1 Pe Pm3 A2 Pm Pm2 A1 Pe1

Pe3 Pe2 1 3 c Fig.7 Consideration of Fig. 7 raises the following question: Can we express the maximum clearing angle for marginal stability, cr, as a function of Pm and attributes of the threepoweranglecurves,Pe1,Pe2,andPe3? The answer is yes, by applying the equal area criterion andlettingc=crandr=m.Thesituationisillustratedin Fig.8.
13

180

Pm1 Pe Pm3 A2 Pm Pm2 A1 Pe1

Pe3 Pe2 1 3 cr Fig.8 ApplyingA1=A2,wehavethat

cr

180

[P
1

Pe 2 ]d =

[P
cr

e3

Pm ]d

(14)

14

The approach to solve this is as follows (this is #7 in your homework#3): 1. SubstitutePe2=PM2sin,Pe3=PM3sin 2. Dosomealgebra. 3. Define r1=PM2/PM1, r2=PM3/PM1, which is the same as r1=X1/X2,r2=X1/X3. 4. Thenyouobtain:

Pm ( m 1 ) + r2 cos m r1 cos1 P cos cr = M 1 r2 r1

Andthisisequation(2.51)inyourtext.

(15)

Your text, section 2.8.2, illustrates application of (15) for the examples 2.4 and 2.5 (we also worked these examples in the notes called ClassicalModel). We will do a slightly different example here but using the same system.
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Example: Consider the system of examples 2.32.5 in yourtext,butassumethatthefaultis Atthemachineterminalsr1=PM2/PM1=0. Temporary(nolineoutage)r2=PM3/PM1=1. The prefault swing equation, given by equation (19) of thenotescalledClassicalModel,is

Re

2 H && (t ) = 0.8 2.223 sin

(16)

with H=5. Since the fault is temporary, the postfault equationisalsogivenby(16)above. Since the fault is at the machine terminals, then the faultonswingequationhasPe2=0,resultingin:

Re

2 H && (t ) = 0.8

(17)

With r1=0 and r2=1, the equation for critical clearing angle(15)becomes:

cos cr =

Pm ( m 1 ) + cos m PM 1
16

(18)

Recallm=1;substitutinginto(18)resultsin

Pm ( 21 ) + cos( 1 ) cos cr = PM 1

(17)

Recall the trig identity that cos(x)=cos(x). Then (17) becomes:

Pm ( 21 ) cos1 cos cr = PM 1

(18)

In the specific example of interest here, we can solve for 1fromtheprefaultswingequation,with0acceleration, accordingto

0 = 0.8 2.223 sin 1 1 = 0.3681rad = 21.0925

(19) In this case, because the prefault and postfault power angle curves are the same, m is determined from 1 accordingto

m = 180 1 = 180 21.0925 = 158.9075

ThisisillustratedinFig.9.
17

(20)

PM1 Pe

Pm

Pe1

cr Fig.9

180

From (16), we see that Pm=0.8 and PM1=2.223, and (18) canbeevaluatedas

cos cr = =

Pm ( 21 ) cos1 PM 1

0.8 ( 2(0.3681)) cos(0.3681) 2.223 = 0.8656 0.9330 = 0.0674

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Thereforecr=1.6382rad=93.86. Itisinterestingtonotethatinthisparticularcase,wecan also express the clearing time corresponding to any clearing angle c by performing two integrations of the swingequation.

2 H d 2 = Pm Pe 2 Re dt

(21)

Forafaultatthemachineterminals,Pe=0,so

2 H d 2 d 2 Re = Pm 2 = Pm 2 dt 2H Re dt

(22)

Thus we see that for the condition of fault at the machine terminals, the acceleration is a constant. This is what allows us to successfully obtain t in closed form, as follows.
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Integrate(22)fromt=0tot=t:

Re d 2 dt = Pm dt 2 2H dt 0 0
t t

d dt

t =t

=
t =0

Re
2H

Pmt

(23)

The lefthandside of (23) is speed. Speed at t=0 is 0. Therefore

d Re = Pm t dt 2 H
Re d dt = Pm t dt 2H 0 0
t t

(24)

Nowperformanotherintegrationof(24): (25)

The lefthandside of (25) is actually an integration with respect to , but we need to change the integration limitsaccordingly,where(t=0)=1,toget
(t ) 1

d =
0

Re
2H
20

Pm tdt

(26)

Performingtheintegrationresultsin

t2 Pm (t ) 1 = 2H 2
Solvingfortyields:

Re

(27)

4H ( (t ) 1 ) t= Re Pm

(28)

So we obtain the time t corresponding to any clearing angle c, when fault is temporary (no loss of a component)andfaultisatmachineterminals,using(28), bysetting(t)=c. Returningtoourexample,wherewehadPm=0.8,H=5sec, 1=0.3681rad, and cr=1.6382rad=93.86, we can computecriticalclearingtimetcraccordingto

4(5) (1.6382 0.3681) = 0.2902 tcr = (377 )(0.8)

The units should be seconds, and we can check this from (28)accordingtothefollowing:

21

sec (rad ) = sec ( rad / sec)( pu )

I have used my Matlab numerical integration tool to test theabovecalculation.Ihaverunthreecases: tc=0.28seconds tc=0.2902seconds tc=0.2903seconds Results for angles are shown in Fig. 10, and results for speedsareshowninFig.11.

22

 Fig.11
25 tclear=0.2903 seconds 20 15 tclear=0.2902 seconds Speed (rad/sec) 10 5 0 -5 -10 tclear=0.28 seconds -15 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Time (seconds) 3.5 4 4.5 5

Fig.12
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Some interesting observations can be made for the two plotsinFigs.11and12. Intheplotsofangle: The plot of asterisks has clearing time 0.2903 seconds which exceeds the critical clearing time of 0.2902 secondsbyjustalittle.Butitisenough;exceedingitby anyamountatallwillcauseinstability,wheretherotor angleincreaseswithoutbound. The plot with clearing time 0.28 second looks almost sinusoidal, with relatively sharp peaks. In contrast, notice how the plot with clearing time 0.2902 second (thecriticalclearingtime)hasveryroundedpeaks.This istypical:asacaseisdrivenmoreclosetothemarginal stabilitypoint,thepeaksbecomemorerounded. Intheplotsofspeed: The speed increases linearly during the first ~0.280.29 seconds of each plot. This is because the accelerating power is constant during this time period, i.e., Pa=Pm, since the fault is at the machine terminals (and thereforePe=0).
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 Inthesolidplot(clearingtime0.28seconds),thespeed passes straight through the zero speed axis with a constant deceleration; in this case, the turnaround point on the powerangle curve (where speed goes to zero) is a point having angle less than m. But in the dashed plot (clearing time 0.2902 seconds), the speed passes through the zero speed axis with decreasing deceleration; in this case, the turnaround point on the power angle curve (where speed goes to zero) is a pointhavingangleequaltom.Thispoint,whereangle equals m, is the unstable equilibrium point. You can perhapsbestunderstandwhatishappeninghereifyou think about a pendulum. If it is at rest (at its stable equilibrium point), and you give it a push, it will swing upwards. The harder you push it, the closer it gets to its unstable equilibrium point, and the more slowly it decelerates as it turns around. If you push it just right, then it will swing right up to the unstable equilibrium point, hover there for a bit, and then turn aroundandcomeback.
25

 In the speed plot of asterisks, corresponding to clearing time of 0.2902 seconds, the speed increases, and then decreases to zero, where it hovers for a bit, and then goes back positive, i.e., it does not turn around at all. This is equivalent to the situation where you have pushed the pendulum just a little harder so that it reaches the unstable equilibrium point, hovers forabit,andthenfallstheotherway. It is interesting that the speed plot of asterisks (corresponding to clearing time of 0.2902 seconds) increases to about 24 rad/sec at about 1.4 second and then seems to turn around. What is going on here? To get a better look at this, I have plotted this to 5 seconds,asshowninFig.13.

26

 Fig.13 In Fig. 13, we observe that the oscillatory behavior continues forever, but that oscillatory behavior occurs about a linearly increasing speed. This oscillatory behavior may be understood in terms of the power anglecurve,asshowninFig.14.

27

Power Pm

Deceleratingenergy Pe

Acceleratingenergy Fig.14 We see that Fig. 14 indicates that the machine does in fact cycle between a small amount of decelerating energy and a much larger amount of accelerating energy, and this causes the oscillatory behavior. The fact that, each cycle, the accelerating energy is much larger than the decelerating energy is the reason why thespeedisincreasingwithtime.
28

You can think about this in terms of the pendulum: if you give it a push so that it goes over the top, if there are no losses, then it will continue to go round andround.Inthiscase,however,theaveragevelocity would not increase but would be constant. This is because our analogy of a onepush differs from the generatorcase,wherethegeneratorisbeingpushed continuously by the mechanical power into the machine. You should realize that Fig. 14 fairly reflects what is happening in our plot of Fig. 13, i.e., it appropriately represents our model. However, it differs from what would actually happen in a synchronous machine. In reality, once the angle reaches 180 degrees, the rotor magnetic field would be reconfigured with respect to the stator magnetic field. This is called slipping a pole. Most generators have outofstep protection thatisabletodeterminewhenthishappensandwould thentripthemachine.
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4.0Afewadditionalcomments 4.1Criticalclearingtime Critical clearing time, or critical clearing angle, was very important many years ago when protective relaying was very slow, and there was great motivation for increasing relaying speed. Part of that motivation came from the desiretolowerthecriticalclearingtime.Today,however, we use protection with the fastest clearing times and so thereistypicallynooptiontoincreaserelayingtimes. Perhaps of most importance, however, is to recognize that critical clearing time has never been a good operational performance indicator because clearing time isnotadjustableonceaprotectivesystemisinplace. 4.2 Smallsystems What we have done applies to a onemachineinfinite bus system. It also applies to a 2generator system (see problem 2.14 in the book). It does not apply to multimachinesystems,exceptinaconceptualsense.
30

4.2 Multimachinesystems We will see that numerical integration is the only way to analyze multimachine systems. We will take a brief look atthisinthenextlecture.

31