LOGIC

LOGIC

Proposition A proposition is a declarative sentence that can be meaningfully classified as either true or false. 1. 2. 3. 4. The earth is round. The price of an IBM personal computer was RM1800 on July 8, 2002. What is the exchange rate from United States dollars to German marks? The prices of most stocks on the New York Stock Exchange rose during the period 1929 1931.

Compound proposition A compound proposition is a proposition formed by connecting two or more propositions or by negating a single proposition.

Connectives The words and phrases (or symbols) used to form compound propositions are called connectives.

Conjunction Let p and q denote propositions. The compound proposition p and q is called the conjunction of p and q and is denoted symbolically by p q. 1. Consider the two statements p: Washington, D. C. is the capital of the United States. q: Hawaii is the fiftieth state of the United States. The conjunction statement of p and q is p q:

Since both p and q are true statements, we conclude that the compound statement p q is true. 2. Consider the two statements p: Washington, D. C. is the capital of the United States. q: Vermont is the largest of the fifty states.

LOGIC

The conjunction proposition of p and q is p q:

Since the statement q is false, the compound statements p q is false even though p is true.

Inclusive disjunction Let p and q denote propositions. The compound proposition p or q is called the inclusive disjunction of p and q, read as p or q or both, is denoted symbolically by p q. Consider the propositions p: XYZ Company is the largest producer of nails in the world. q: Mines, Ltd., has three uranium mines in Nevada. The compound proposition p q is p q:

Exclusive disjunction Let p and q denote propositions. The compound proposition p or q is called the exclusive disjunction of p and q, read as either p or q but not both, is denoted symbolically by p q. Consider the propositions p: XYZ Company earned RM3.20 per share in 1990. q: XYZ Company paid a dividend of RM1.20 per share in 1990 The inclusive disjunction of p and q is p q:

The exclusive disjunction of p and q is p q:

LOGIC

Negation If p is any proposition, the negation of p, denoted by p and read as not p is a proposition that is false when p is true and true when p is false. Consider the proposition p: One share of XYZ stock is worth less than RM89. The negation of p is p: One share of XYZ stock is worth at least RM89. Note that the sentence A share of XYZ stock is worth more than RM89 is not a correct statement of the negation of p.

Quantifier A quantifier is a word or phrase telling how many. English quantifiers include all, none, some and not all. The quantifiers all, every, and each are interchangeable. The quantifiers some, there exist(s), and at least one are also interchangeable. 1. The following propositions all have the same meaning p: All people are intelligent. q: Every person is intelligent. r: Each person is intelligent. s: Any person is intelligent. The negation of the proposition p: All students are intelligent. is p: Some students are not intelligent. p: There exists a student who is not intelligent. p: At least one student is not intelligent. The negation of the proposition q: No student is intelligent. is q: At least one student is intelligent.

2.

3.

Note that No student is intelligent is not the negation of p; All students are intelligent is not the negation of q.

LOGIC

Summary of connectives Connectives Conjunction Inclusive disjunction Exclusive Disjunction Negation Implication Biconditional connective Symbols pq pq pq p pq pq p and q p or q or both either p or q but not both not p if p, then q p if and only if q Read as...

Truth table A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound proposition for all possible cases.

Truth value The truth value of a proposition is either true (T) or false (F).

Table 1:

p T F
Table 2:

p
F T

p T T F F
Table 3:

q T F T F

pq T F F F

p T T F F

q T F T F

pq T T T F
4

pq F T T F

LOGIC

Table 4: Truth table for (p q) (p)

p T T F F
Constructing truth table 1.

q T F T F

pq

(p q) (p)

Truth table for (p q) p

p T T F F
2.

q T F T F

p q

(p q) p

Truth table for (p q) (p q)

p T T F F
3.

q T F T F

p q

pq

(p q)

(p q)

(p q) (p q)

Truth table for p (q r)

p T T T T F F F F
Logical equivalence

q T T F F T T F F

r T F T F T F T F

qr

p (q r)

If two propositions a and b have the same truth values in every possible case, the propositions are called logically equivalent, denoted by a b.

LOGIC

1.

Show that (p q) is logically equivalent to p q.

1 p T T F F

2 q T F T F

3 pq

4 (p q)

5 p

6 q

7 p q

Since the entries in column 4 and 7 of the truth table are the same, the two propositions are logically equivalent. 2. Show that p q is logically equivalent to (p q).

1 P T T F F

2 q T F T F

3 pq

4 p

5 q

6 p q

7 (p q)

Implication If p and q are any two propositions, then we call the proposition if p, then q an implication or conditional statement and the connective if ..., then the conditional connective. We denote the conditional connective symbolically by and implication if p, then q by p q. In implication p q, p is called the hypothesis and q is called the conclusion. The implication p q can also be read as follows: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) p implies q. p is sufficient for q. p only if q. q is necessary for p. q, if p.

LOGIC

Truth table

p T T F F
1. 2.

q T F T F

pq T F T T

If XYZ common stock reaches $80 per share, it will be sold. If you are a thief, then you will go to jail.

Converse The implication If q, then p is called the converse of the implication If p, then q. That is, q p is the converse of p q.

p T T F F
Consider the statement p: You are a thief. q: You will go to jail.

q T F T F

pq

qp

The implication p q states that

The converse of this implication, namely q p, states that

Contrapositive The implication If not q, then not p, written as q p, is called the contrapositive of the implication p q. Consider the statement p: You are a thief. q: You will go to jail. 7

LOGIC

The implication p q states that

The contrapositive of this implication, namely q p, states that

Inverse The implication If not p, then not q, written as p q, is called the inverse of the implication p q. Consider the statement p: You are a thief. q: You will go to jail. The implication p q states that

The inverse of this implication, namely p q, states that

Truth table
implication converse negation inverse contrapositive

p T T F F

q T F T F

pq

qp

p q

q p

We conclude that p q q p q p p q

LOGIC

Biconditional connective The connective if and only if is called the biconditional connective and is denoted by the symbol . The compound proposition p q (p if and only if q) is equivalent to (p q) (q p) The statement p q also may read as p is necessary and sufficient for q or as p implies q and q implies p.

Truth table

p T T F F
Tautology

q T F T F

pq

qp

(p q) (q p)

pq T F F T

A tautology is a compound proposition P(p, q, ...) that is true in every possible case. Truth table for p (p q)

p T T F F

q T F T F

pq

p (p q )

See: http://www.math.csusb.edu/notes/quizzes/tablequiz/tablepractice.html

LOGIC

Validity of arguments An argument or proof consists of a set of propositions p1, p2, ..., pn, called the premises or hypothesis, and a proposition q, called the conclusion. An argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true whenever the premises are all true. An argument that is not valid is called a fallacy or an invalid argument. Premises: (1) All college students are intelligent. (2) All freshmen are college students. __________________________________ Conclusion: All freshmen are intelligent.

Steps to determine the validity of an argument Write the argument in symbolic form. Construct a truth table containing the prime propositions, the premises and the conclusion. Check the rows in which the premises are all true. If the conclusion in each of these rows is also true, then the argument is valid. Otherwise, it is a fallacy.

Examples 1. Suppose it is true that Either John obeyed the law or John was punished, but not both. and John was not punished. Prove that John obeyed the law.

2.

Suppose it is true that It is snowing. and If it is warm, then it is not snowing. and If it is not warm, then I can not go swimming. Prove that I can not go swimming.

10

LOGIC

3.

Suppose it is true that If Dan comes, so will Bill. and If Sandy will not come, then Bill will not come. Show that If Dan comes, then Sandy will come.

4.

Suppose it is true that If I enjoy studying, then I will study. and I will do my homework or I will not study. and I will not do my homework. Show that I do not enjoy studying.

5.

Suppose that If I am lazy, I do not study. and I study or I enjoy myself. and I do not enjoy myself. Prove that I am not lazy.

11