Internetworking & Internet Protocols

2013

OUTLINE

o OSI and TCP/IP Model. o FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface). o Internetwork and Its Architectural Modal. o Function of TCP protocol. o Token Ring Protocol. o Ethernet. o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) & Wide Area Network (WAN)

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OSI and TCP/IP Reference Model

Application Layer: The application layer represents the level at which applications access the network services. The layer represents the services that directly support applications such as software for file transfers, database access, and electronic mail. Presentation layer: The presentation layer translates data from the application layer into an intermediary format. This layer also manages security issues by providing services such as data encryption, and compresses data so that fewer bits need to be transferred on the network. Session layer: The session layer allows two applications on different computers to establish, use, and end a session. This layer establishes dialog control between the two computers in a session, regulating which side transmits, plus when and how long it transmits. Transport layer: The transport layer handles error recognition and recovery. It also repackages long messages when necessary into small packets for transmission and, at the receiving end, rebuilds packets into the original message. The receiving transport layer also sends receipt acknowledgments. Network layer: The network layer addresses messages and translates logical addresses and names into physical addresses. It also determines the route from the source to the destination computer and manages traffic problems, such as switching, routing, and controlling the

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congestion of data packets. Data link layer: The data link layer packages raw bits from the physical layer into frames (logical, structured packets for data). This layer is responsible for transferring frames from one computer to another, without errors. After sending a frame, it waits for an acknowledgment from the receiving computer. Physical layer: The physical layer transmits bits from one computer to another and regulates the transmission of a stream of bits over a physical medium. The layer defines how the cable is attached to the network adapter and what transmission technique is used to send data over the cable The Internet Protocol Suite also known as TCP/IP is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks. It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this standard. IP networking represents a synthesis of several developments that began to evolve in the 1960s and 1970s, namely the Internet and LANs (Local Area Networks), which emerged in the mid- to late-1980s, together with the advent of the World Wide Web in early 1990s. The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, may be viewed as a set of layers. Each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the upper layer protocols based on using services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted. The main differences between the two models are as follows: 1. OSI is a reference model and TCP/IP is an implementation of OSI model. 2. TCP/IP Protocols are considered to be standards around which the internet has developed. The OSI model however is a "generic, protocol independent standard." 3. TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer. 4. TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer. 5. TCP/IP appears to be a simpler model and this is mainly due to the fact that it has fewer layers. 6. TCP/IP is considered to be a more credible model- This is mainly due to the fact because TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the internet was developed therefore it mainly gains creditability due to this reason. Whereas in contrast networks are not usually built around the OSI model as it is merely used as a guidance tool. 7. The OSI model consists of 7 architectural layers whereas the TCP/IP only has 4 layers. 8. In the TCP/IP model of the Internet, protocols are deliberately not as rigidly designed into strict layers as the OSI model.[6] RFC 3439 contains a section entitled "Layering considered harmful." However, TCP/IP does recognize four broad layers of functionality which are derived from the operating scope of their contained protocols,
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namely the scope of the software application, the end-to-end transport connection, the internetworking range, and lastly the scope of the direct links to other nodes on the local network. 9. The presumably strict consumer/producer layering of OSI as it is usually described does not present contradictions in TCP/IP, as it is permissible that protocol usage does not follow the hierarchy implied in a layered model. Such examples exist in some routing protocols (e.g., OSPF), or in the description of tunnelling protocols, which provide a Link Layer for an application, although the tunnel host protocol may well be a Transport or even an Application Layer protocol in its own right. 10. The TCP/IP design generally favours decisions based on simplicity, efficiency and ease of implementation.

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface).

FDDI is another popular local area networking technology that provides a data rate of 100 Mbps (i.e., the same data rate as Fast Ethernet). Unlike Ethernet and other LAN technologies that use copper cables to carry electrical signals, FDDI is designed to use optical fiber. Data is encoded in pulses of light. FDDI defines use of two types of fiber: single mode (sometimes called mono mode) and multimode. Modes can be thought of as bundles of light rays entering the fiber at a particular angle. Single-mode fiber allows only one mode of light to propagate through the fiber, while multimode fiber allows multiple modes of light to propagate through the fiber. Because multiple modes of light propagating through the fiber may travel different distances (depending on the entry angles), causing them to arrive at the destination at different times (a phenomenon called modal dispersion), single-mode fiber is capable of higher bandwidth and greater cable run distances than multimode fiber. Due to these characteristics, single-mode fiber is often used for interbuilding connectivity, while multimode fiber is often used for intrabuilding connectivity. Multimode fiber uses light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as the lightgenerating devices, while single-mode fiber generally uses lasers.

Dual-counter-rotating token ring architecture one ring is primary and the other secondary. Up
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to 500 stations with a maximum distance of 2 km between any pair of stations for multimode fiber with single-mode fiber the distance can be up to 40 km Maximum ring length is 100 km (total fiber length is 200 km for two rings) and uses 4b/5b encoding. Architectural model of FDDI:

Media Access Control (MAC): Defines how the medium is accessed, including frame format, token handling, addressing, algorithm for calculating a cyclic redundancy check value, and error recovery mechanisms. Physical Layer Protocol (PHY): Defines data encoding/decoding procedures, clocking requirements, framing, and other functions. Physical Layer Medium (PMD): Defines the characteristics of the transmission medium, including the fiber-optic link, power levels, bit error rates, optical components, and connectors. Station Management (SMT): Defines the FDDI station configuration, ring configuration, and ring control features, including station insertion and removal, initialization, fault isolation and recovery, scheduling, and collection of statistics. FDDI Frame Format: The fields of an FDDI frame are as follows: Preamble: Prepares each station for the upcoming frame. Start delimiter: Indicates the beginning of the frame. It consists of signalling patterns that differentiate it from the rest of the frame.
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Frame control: Indicates the size of the address fields, whether the frame contains asynchronous or synchronous data, and other control information. Destination address: Contains a unicast (singular), multicast (group), or broadcast (every station) address. As with Ethernet and Token Ring, FDDI destination addresses are 6 bytes. Source address: Identifies the single station that sent the frame. As with Ethernet and Token Ring, FDDI source addresses are 6bytes. Data: Contains either information destined for an upper-layer protocol or control information. Frame check sequence (FCS): Filled by the source station with a calculated cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value dependent on the frame contents (as with Token Ring and Ethernet). The destination station recalculates the value to determine whether the frame may have been damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded. End delimiter: Contains non data symbols that indicate the end of the frame. Frame status: Allows the source station to determine if an error occurred and if the frame was recognized and copied by a receiving station.

Advantages of FDDI over token ring: High bandwidth (10 times more than token ring) Larger distances between FDDI nodes because of very low attenuation ( 0.3 db/km) in fibers Improved signal-to-noise ratio because of no interference from external radio frequencies and electromagnetic noise Token ring protocol cannot work if a link or a station fails. So, it is vulnerable to link and station failure but FDDI does works even. Very difficult to tap signals form a fiber cable
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Internetwork and Its Architectural Modal

An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate networking devices, that functions as a single large network. Internetworking refers to the industry, products, and procedures that meet the challenge of creating and administering internetworks. Figure below illustrates some different kinds of network technologies that can be interconnected by routers and other networking devices to create an internetwork.

The words internetwork and internet are simply a contraction of the phrase interconnected network. However, when written with a capital I, the Internet refers to the worldwide set of interconnected networks. Therefore, the Internet is an internet, but the reverse does not apply. The Internet is sometimes called the connected Internet. Architectural Modal of Internetwork: The Internetwork consists of the following groups of networks: 1. Backbones: Large networks that exist primarily to interconnect other networks. Also known as network access points (NAPs) or Internet Exchange Points (IXPs). Currently, the backbones consist of commercial entities. 2. Regional networks connecting, for example, universities and colleges. 3. Commercial networks providing access to the backbones to subscribers, and networks owned by commercial organizations for internal use that also have connections to the Internet. 4. Local networks, such as campus-wide university networks. Another important aspect of internetworking is the creation of a standardized abstraction
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of the communication mechanisms provided by each type of network. Each physical network has its own technology-dependent communication interface, in the form of a programming interface that provides basic communication functions (primitives). TCP/IP provides communication services that run between the programming interface of a physical network and user applications. It enables a common interface for these applications, independent of the underlying physical network. The architecture of the physical network is therefore hidden from the user and from the developer of the application. The application need only code to the standardized communication abstraction to be able to function under any type of physical network and operating platform.

In Figure, to interconnect two networks, we need a computer that is attached to both networks and can forward data packets from one network to the other; such a machine is called a router. The term IP router is also used because the routing function is part of the Internet Protocol portion of the TCP/IP protocol suite To be able to identify a host within the internetwork, each host is assigned an address, called the IP address. When a host has multiple network adapters (interfaces) such as with a router, each interface has a unique IP address. The IP address consists of two parts: IP address = <network number><host number> The network number part of the IP address identifies the network within the internet and is assigned by a central authority and is unique throughout the internet. The authority for assigning the host number part of the IP address resides with the organization that controls the network identified by the network number.

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Internetworking & Internet Protocols

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Function of TCP protocol

Functions Performed By TCP
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Addressing/Multiplexing: TCP is used by many different applications for their transport protocol. Therefore, like its simpler sibling UDP, an important job for TCP is multiplexing the data received from these different processes so they can be sent out using the underlying network-layer protocol. At the same time, these higher-layer application processes are identified using TCP ports. The section on TCP/IP transport layer addressing contains a great deal of detail on how this addressing works. Connection Establishment, Management and Termination: TCP provides a set of procedures that devices follow to negotiate and establish a TCP connection over which data can travel. Once opened, TCP includes logic for managing connections and handling problems that may result with them. When a device is done with a TCP connection, a special process is followed to terminate it. Data Handling and Packaging: TCP defines a mechanism by which applications are able to send data to it from higher layers. This data is then packaged into messages to be sent to the destination TCP software. The destination software un packages the data and gives it to the application on the destination machine. Data Transfer: Conceptually, the TCP implementation on a transmitting device is responsible for the transfer of packaged data to the TCP process on the other device. Following the principle of layering, this is done by having the TCP software on the sending machine pass the data packets to the underlying network-layer protocol, which again normally means IP. Providing Reliability and Transmission Quality Services: TCP includes a set of services and features that allow an application to consider the sending of data using the protocol to be reliable. This means that normally, a TCP application doesn't have to worry about data being sent and never showing up, or arriving in the wrong order. It also means other common problems that might arise if IP were used directly are avoided. Providing Flow Control and Congestion Avoidance Features: TCP allows the flow of data between two devices to be controlled and managed. It also includes features to deal with congestion that may be experienced during communication between devices.

TCP Header Format: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) header is the first 24 bytes of a TCP segment that contains the parameters and state of an end-to-end TCP socket. The TCP header is used to track the state of communication between two TCP endpoints. Since TCP segments are inserted (encapsulated) in the payload of the IP packet the TCP header immediately follows
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the IP header during transmission. TCP does not need to keep track of which systems are communicating, it only needs to track which end to end sockets are currently open. Internet Protocol handles the logical addressing, routing and host-to-host connectivity.

TCP uses port numbers on each side of the connection to track the connection endpoints, state bits such as SYN, ACK, RST, FIN, sequence numbers and acknowledgement numbers to track the communication at each step in transmission.

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Token Ring Protocol

Token ring: a number of stations connected by transmission links in a ring topology. Information flows in one direction along the ring from source to destination and back to source. Medium access control is provided by a small frame, the token that circulates around the ring when all stations are idle. Only the station possessing the token is allowed to transmit at any given time. Token Ring Operation When a station wishes to transmit, it must wait for token to pass by and seize the token. One approach: change one bit in token which transforms it into a start-offrame sequence and appends frame for transmission. Second approach: station claims token by removing it from the ring.

Frame circles the ring and is removed by the transmitting station. Each station interrogates passing frame, if destined for station, it copies the frame into local buffer. {Normally, there is a one bit delay as the frame passes through a station.}

Features: 4 and 16 Mbps using twisted-pair cabling with differential Manchester line encoding. Maximum number of stations is 250. Waits for last byte of frame to arrive before reinserting token on ring {new token after received}. 8 priority levels provided via two 3-bit fields (priority and reservation) in data and token frames. Permits 16-bit and 48-bit addresses. Under light load delay is added due to waiting for the token. Under heavy load ring is round-robin The ring must be long enough to hold the complete token. Advantages fair access Disadvantages ring is single point of failure, added issues due to token maintenance.

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Frame format: Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 support two basic frame types: Tokens Data/command frames.

Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end delimiter. Data frames carry information for upper-layer protocols Command frames contain control information and have no data for upper-layer protocols.

Token Frame contains three fields, each of which is 1 byte in length:

Start Delimiter Access Control Ending delimiter

Start delimiter (1 byte): Alerts each station of the arrival of a token (or data/command frame). This field includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame. Access-control (1 byte): Contains the Priority field (the most significant 3 bits) and the Reservation field (the least significant 3 bits), as well as a token bit (used to differentiate a token from a data/command frame) and a monitor bit (used by the active monitor to determine whether a frame is circling the ring endlessly). End delimiter (1 byte): Signals the end of the token or data/command frame. This field also contains bits to indicate a damaged frame and identify the frame that is the last in a logical sequence. Data/command frames have the same three fields as Token Frames, plus several others. The Data/command frame fields are described below:
Start Delimiter Access Control Frame Control Destination address Source address Data Frame check sequence End Delimiter Frame Status

Frame-control byte (1 byte): Indicates whether the frame contains data or control information. In control frames, this byte specifies the type of control information. Destination and source addresses (2-6 bytes): Consists of two 6-byte address fields that identify the destination and source station addresses. Data (up to 4500 bytes): Indicates that the length of field is limited by the ring token holding time, which defines the maximum time a station can hold the token. Frame-check sequence (FCS- 4 byte): Is filed by the source station with a calculated value dependent on the frame contents. The destination station recalculates the value to determine whether the frame was damaged in transit. If so, the frame is discarded. Frame Status (1 byte): This is the terminating field of a command/data frame. The Frame Status field includes the address-recognized indicator and frame-copied indicator.

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ETHERNET
Ethernet is a well-known and widely used network technology that employs bus topology. IEEE802.3 working group controls the Ethernet standards. The original Ethernet hardware operated at a rate of 10 Mbps A later version known as Fast Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps. The most recent version, which is known as Gigabit Ethernet operates at 1000 Mbps or 1 Gigabit per second (Gbps). 10Gbps on copper will soon be available

Ethernet uses a bus topology; Ethernet requires multiple computers to share access to a single medium.

While transmitting a frame, a computer has the exclusive use of the cable. A sender transmits a signal, which propagates from the sender toward both ends of the cable. Sharing in local area networks technologies does not mean that multiple frames from different computers are being sent at the same time. Instead, the sending computer has exclusive use of the entire cable during the transmission of a given frame other computers must wait. Only one computer can transmit at any time. After the computer finishes transmitting one frame, the shared cable becomes available for another computer to use. Ethernet has several different variations, each of which uses different cable types, topologies, and distance limitations. The different types are: 10 Base-5 (Thick Ethernet) 10 Base-2 (Thin Ethernet) 10 Base-T (UTP Ethernet)

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10 Base-FL 100 Base-T 100 Base-F Gigabit Ethernet 10-Gigabit Ethernet

Thick Ethernet, officially known as 10 Base-5 10 Base-5 is laid out in a bus topology, with a single coaxial cable connecting all nodes together. At each end of the coaxial cable is a terminator. Each node on the network physically connects to the coaxial cable through a device called a transceiver and an AUI cable is connected between the node and the transceiver.

A single 10 Base-5 segment may be up to 500 meters (1650 feet)in length and may have up to 255 nodes connected to it. Each node must be at least 2.5 meters (8.25 feet) apart. Advantage and Disadvantage of 10 Base-5 Advantage: Long Distances Possible: 10 Base-5 allows distances up to 500 meters (1650 feet). This makes it very useful as a "backbone" technology for wiring together multiple locations within a building without the use of repeaters Noise Immunity: Since 10 Base-5 uses a very heavily shielded cable, it can be used in electrically noisy environments which can cause other network types to fail. Conceptually Simple: Since all devices on a 10 Base-5 network are simply chained together on a common coaxial cable, it is a simple matter to plan the routing of the cable. Disadvantage: Inflexible: 10 Base-5 networks do not lend themselves well to installations where the setup of the network will change much after the initial installation. It can be very difficult to add or move a node once it is connected to the coaxial cable. Fault Intolerant: Since 10 Base-5 uses a common physical cable to interconnect all the
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nodes, the failure of any part of the coaxial cable or any node has the ability to cause the collapse of the entire network. Susceptible to Ground Loops: A ground loop occurs when a network cable is used to interconnect devices which are powered from different sources, and therefore a difference in voltage exists between two points on the network. The result is an electrical current flowing through the shields of the cable, which causes considerable noise to be introduced into the center conductor. Very Difficult Troubleshooting: As mentioned above, a failure anywhere on a 10 Base-5 segment has the ability to drop the entire network. Troubleshooting such a failure can be extremely frustrating, as the only way to do it is to check each node and the cabling between them one at a time. This is very time consuming, and can be expensive if a company's entire business relies on the network to be up.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) & Wide Area Network (WAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A MAN (metropolitan area network) is a high-speed network covering wider distances than LAN. A MA N spans distances of approximately 100 miles; therefore, it is suitable for connecting devices and LANs in a metropolitan area. MAN speeds are typically 100 Mbps or higher. The most commonly implemented MAN is the fiber distributed data interface (FDDI). It operates at 100 Mbps over fiber optic cable for distances up to 200 kilometers.

Wide Area Network (WAN) A WAN is the oldest type of network. WANs generally span a wide geographic area like a state, province, country, or multiple countries. However, some WANs are confined to a limited geographic area, like a LAN. A WAN in a limited geographic area could be easily extended over a wide area using the same technologies. The same is not true of a LAN.

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