Antennas for Wireless Communications: Basic Principles and System Applications

Warren Stutzman and Bill Davis Vi i i Tech Virginia T h Antenna A t Group G June 2, 2011
antenna.ece.vt.edu t t d

OUTLINE
1. Introduction 2. Antenna Fundamentals 3. Antenna Elements 4. Array Antennas
break
Stutzman Davis Davis Stutzman Davis Both Stutzman

5. S 5 System stem Considerations 6. Wireless Applications 7 Pictorial Presentation 7.

1 INTRODUCTION 1.
The Speakers Self Introductions of Class Wireless versus Wireline History of Communications The Spectrum p Antenna Performance Parameters

Warren Stutzman
Professor at VT for 42 years Fellow of the IEEE Past President of IEEE Ant & Prop. Society Distinguished alumnus of U of f Illinois Illi i Founder of Virginia Tech Antenna Group Served as ECE Dept Head twice

Bill Davis
Professor at VT for 33 years g Tech Director of Virginia Antenna Group Past Commission Chair USNC/URSI Commission A Incoming Commission Chair International URSI Commission A URSI Meetings Coordinator Vice Chair 2005 IEEE APS/URSI Symposium

Wireless versus Wireline

Fields of Application
Communications Sensing and Imaging
Active Radar Passive Radiometry

Industrial
Control Ex.: garage door opener Medical Ex : pace maker interaction Ex.: Heating, cooking, drying, ...

Communications
Antennas must be used for:
Mobile communications Very long distances
S Space Remote terrestrial locations

 Antennas are preferred for

Broadcast and point-to-multipoint comm. Long g distance communications Thin routes Portable and personal communications

The physics of wireless vs vs. wireline

Loss in wireline is Loss in wireless is

References W. Stutzman and G. Thiele, Antenna Theory and Design, 2e, Wiley, 1998. T Rappaport, T. Rappaport Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice Practice, Prentice-Hall, 1996. K. Siwiak, Radiowave Propagation and Antennas for Personal Communications, Sec. Ed., Artech House, 1998.

The History of Communications

Pre-modern civilization Optical p communications: Smoke signals, g , flags, g , .... Acoustical communications: Drums [note all are forms of wireless ndigital communications] 1844 Telegraph (Morse) digital wireline comm. 1864 Maxwells equations principles of radio waves 1876 Telephone (Bell) analog wireline comm. 1887 First antenna (Hertz) 1897 First radio systems (Marconi, Popov)

1901 First transatlantic radio (Marconi) 1907 Lee de Forest invented triode tube 1920 KDKA, 1st modern radio station (Pittsburgh) World War II Development of radar & Magnetron 1960 Fiber optics 1980s Wireless reinvented Wireless 1900 Radio Wireless 2000

The Spectrum
Wavelength
(m) = 300 / f(MHz) (cm) = 30 / f(GHz)

Frequency bands
Band VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF Frequencies
3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz

Wavelengths
100 km 10 km 10 km 1 km 100 m 10 m 1m 1 cm 1 km 100 m 10 m 1m 10 cm 1 mm

Antenna Performance Parameters

Radiation pattern F(,)
The angular variation of radiation around an antenna Pattern types: Directive (narrow main beam) Omnidirectional Shaped beam Low side lobe

Directivity D
Ratio of power density in the direction of pattern maximum to the Average power density at the same distance from the antenna; i.e. how much more focused the power is than if isotropically distributed.

Gain G
Directivity reduced by losses on the antenna

 Polarization
The figure traced out with time by the instantaneous electric field vector. Types: Linear, , circular, , elliptical, p , dual (for ( diversity y and reuse) )

Impedance
Input impedance at the antenna terminals

Bandwidth
Range of operating frequencies for which performance parameters are acceptable.

Scanning
Movement of the radiation pattern in angular space Types: electronic, electronic mechanical mechanical, hybrid

Mechanical
Size, weight, RCS, aerodynamics

Cost

2 ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS 2.
What is an antenna? Connecting to the antenna Basic properties
Impedance Gain Pattern Polarization

Fundamental Limits

What is an antenna?
Collection of metal/material objects
Wire Plates (reflector, dish) EM Bandgap Materials

Absence of metal
Slots Waveguide g apertures p

Transformation from Electronics to Space

Determining the Radiation

Start with the current (assume)
Wire: Approximate sinusoid/traveling wave Plate: Physical Optics approximation or image current

Giving for example (dipole):

r r I cos( z ) ( x) ( y ) J (r , ) = z

To the Fields
Current Vector Potential

r r e jr r r jrrr ' A(r ) = J ( r ' )e dv' 4r V

r r E, H

The Fields (far field)

Magnetic Field

r r 1 A) H = ( j r

Electric Field

r r r H = j ( A r Ar ) E = r

Far Field
Linear E-field Decibel E-field

Far-Field Far Field Conditions

Wavelength

r >>
r >> max(r ' ) = D
r> 2D
2

Distance

Size

phase <

16

Far Field

Observation

Distance Antenna

Projection ~ replace distance

Diameter D

Example Short Dipole

Current Vector Potential Magnetic Field Electric Field Poynting Vector

r r I z (r ) J~z j r r e I z A= z 4r

r e j r H = j I z sin 4r r e j r I z sin E = j 4r

2 2 r 1 r r* 1 I z 2 2 sin S = EH = r 2 2 2 2 16 r

P =

I z 12

Radiation Resistance Short Dipole

EQUATE
Input Power & Radiation Power

Rrad

Prad 2 z 2 z d = 80 1 2 3 I 2 L practical dipole p z , For p 2

Radiation Pattern
Variation of Fields with Elevation () and Azimuth ()

F ( , ) =
Variations:

E ( , ) max E
,

= sin , for short dipole

Spherical E-plane & H-plane (or Elevation & Azimuth) Conical

Patterns

Linear, Principal-Plane C uts

120 150 180 210 240 270 300 90 1 0.5 60 30 0 330 150 180 210 240 270 300 120 90 1 0.5 60 30 0 330 150 180 210 240 270 300 120 90 1 0.5 60 30 0 330

y = 0 or = 0 Cut

x = 0 or = 90 Cut

z = 0 or = 90 Cut

Half-Power Half Power Beamwidth

Efficiency
Loss
Rrad Power Radiated e= = Power Input Rrad + Rloss

Radiation Resistance

Rloss =

1 I
2

S
2

r 2 J S Rsurface ds

Mismatch

q = 1 =

4 Z o RAnt Z Ant + Z o

, Z o Real

Total

Efficiency = qe

Example: Approximate /4 dipole

f = 150 MHz L = 0.5 m Dia. Di = 0.01 0 01 m

Directivity & Directive Gain

F2 D( , ) = = 2 Average( F ) 4F 2
,
2 F ( , )d

D = max[ D( , )]
4 D= A
A = F
, 2

d = Beam Solid Angle g

Directivity y
d = sin d d sin d d g 1-17 Figure Element of solid angle d.

Um

Um

Figure 1-18 Antenna beam solid angle A.

(a) Actual pattern

(b)

Open Circuit Voltage & Eff Effective i L Length h

Open Circuit Voltage

VOC
Effective Length

r* r = h E

r* 1 r r j rrr ' r J (r ') h ( , ) = r )e dv ' I Ant r Erad = j (e j r / 4 r ) I

Short Dipole
j r r e I z sin Erad = j 4 r

r* h ( , ) = z sin

Polarization
Linear, Circular, Elliptical

E1 cos t + y E2 cos(t + ) E=x

Polarization Factor
r2 r2 r r2 p = h E / h * E
p=1 for matched wave and antenna p= for CP ant. and LP wave p=0 p 0 for orthogonal ant. ant and wave

jwt j( t + ) E = x Ex + y Ey = x E1e + y E2 e

E2 E1

2 Right handed Right-handed 1

1 2

Left handed Left-handed

Counterclockwise l k i

Clockwise

-180

-135

-90

-45

+45

+90

+135

+180

Figure 2-37 Polarization ellipses as a function of the ratio E2/E1 and phase angle with wave approaching. approaching Clockwise rotation of the resultant E corresponds to left-handed polarization (IEEE definition) while counterclockwise corresponds to right-handed polarization.

Gain & Realized Gain

Gain

G = eD D
GR = qeD
g R = pGR = pqeD

Realized Gain

Partial Realized Gain

A Communication Link

Friis Trans. Formula

PRcv

PXmit GT GR = 2 (4R )

Effective Area

AR ( , ) = GR ( , ) 4
2

To Give

PRcv R

PXmit GT AR = 2 4R

Transient Link

vOC

r r R i (t ) = hr (t ) ht t 4R c t

Connections
Connectors (coax, twin-lead) twin lead) Balanced vs Unbalanced
Balun

Feed Network (Arrays)

Phased True Time-Delay

Filtering & Impedance Transformation

Circuit & loading Tapering

Properties
Impedance p
Treat as a circuit element By Reciprocity:

Z Rcv R = Z Xmit X it
Induced EMF Z

1 Z= 2 I

Ant

r r r J E ( J ) d

Properties
Patterns

FRcv = FXmit

Pattern Reciprocity

Fundamental Limits
A bit of Controversy
Chu (1948)

2 a + 1 Q= 3 3 2 2 a ( a + 1)
2 2
10
2

McLean

1 1 Q= 3 3 + a a

Antenna Fundamental Limit

Patch Inverted F Dual Inverted F

10 Rad diation Q

Planar Inverted F Goubau

Dipole

Foursquare q

10

Wideband, Compact, Planar Inverted F

10

-1

McLean Grimes Chu 0.5 1 ka 1.5 2 2.5

New Pub. Pub on Fund Fund. Limits

1 Q= 3 3 a
Previous error: Assumed radiation fields travel RADIALLY at speed of light.

3 ANTENNA ELEMENTS 3.
The Four Antenna Types
Electrically Small Antennas Resonant Antennas Broadband Antennas
Frequency q y Independent p Ultra Wideband

Aperture Antennas

The Four Antenna Types

Electrically Small Antennas
Examples Short dipole Small loop

Properties Low directivity Low input resistance Low efficiency and gain

 Resonant Antennas
Examples Dipole Microstrip antenna Yagi

Properties Low to moderate gain Real input impedance Low efficiency and gain

Monopoles and Images

ILA

 Broadband Antennas
Examples (Frequency Independent) Spiral Log Periodic Dipole Array

There are two types of broadband antennas antennas, ones that have frequency independent performance and ones that preserve signal properties in the time domain (UWB) Properties Low to moderate gain p impedance p Real input Low efficiency and gain

 Aperture Antennas
Examples Horn antenna Parabolic reflector antenna

Properties Low to moderate gain Real input impedance Low efficiency and gain

4 ARRAY ANTENNAS 4.
A. Array Basics y of Isotropic p Elements B. Arrays C. Inclusion of Element Effects D M D. Mutual t lC Coupling li y E. Phased Arrays

A. Array Basics
Def.: Array Antenna. An antenna comprised of a number of identical radiating elements in a regular arrangement and excited to obtain a prescribed radiation pattern. Advantages of arrays:
Many M small ll antenna t elements l t instead i t d of f one large l mechanical h i l structure t t

Scanning at electronic speeds is possible Multiple user (target) tracking is possible Many geometries, including conformal, are possible Problems: A feed network is required with its losses and bandwidth limitations Mutual coupling between elements affects performance and complicates design Computer C t control t l may be b necessary

General array configuration with feed network

Feed network

Phase shifter Attenuator

Figure 3-1 A typical linear array. The symbols and indicate variable phase shifters and attenuators. The output currents are summed before entering the receiver

Receiver

B. Linear Arrays of Isotropic Elements

General array configuration of isotropic elements
Rays

Phase =

1
1e

Reference wavefront

1 e j 0

1 e j 1

j n n

Wavefronts

Ph ( I n )
In

I 0e

j 0

I n e j 1

Figure 3-2 Equivalent configuration of the array in Fig. 3-1 for determining the array factor. The elements of the array are replaced l d by b isotropic i t i point i t sources.

In e j n

Array factor

AF = I 0 e j 0 + I1 e j 1 + I 2 e j 2 + ...

(3-3)

n = phases at element n due to incoming wave

In
= complex current representing the feed network amplitude and phase at element n

 Two element arrays of isotropic elements of various spacings and phasings

0 45 90 135 180

1 d= 8

1 d= 4
Elements

3 d= 8
1 d= 2

I1

I1

F From [Kraus] [K ]
5 d= 8

d = 1

 General uniformly excited, equally spaced linear array (UE,ESLA)

d 0

d 2

Figure 3-7 Equally spaced linear array of isotropic point sources.

AF = I 0 + I1 e

j d cos

+ I2 e

j 2 d cos

+L =

N 1 n =0

e j nd cos

(3-14)

Now consider the array to be transmitting. If the current has a linear phase progression (i.e., relative phase between adjacent elements is the same), we can separate the phase explicitly as jna

I n = An e

(3-15)

where the n + 1th element leads the nth element in phase by a. Then (3-14) becomes

AF = An e
Define Then
n= 0

N 1

jn( d cos + a )

(3-16) (3-17) (3-18)

= d cos + a
AF = An e jn
n= 0 N 1

Universal array factor

Properties of the universal array factor

The array factor is periodic in 2
jn( + 2 ) Proof: AF ( + 2 ) = Ane

= Ane jn e jn2 = Ane jn = AF ( )

Visible region extent:

180 0 1 < cos < 1 d < d cos < d d < < + d

Exactly one period of the array factor appears in the visible region when the

element space is /2.

Proof: Width of the visible region = 2d AF period = 2 For one period visible: 2 = 2d = 2(2/)d d = /2 For d > /2, grating lobes may appear in the visible region depending on . For d , grating lobes will appear in the visible region

The general array factor expression for a UE,ESLA

A0 = A1 = A2 = L
N 1

AF = A0

e
n=0

j jn

= A0 e

j ( N 1 ) /2

sin ( N /2 ) sin ( /2 )

The expression is maximum for = 0

AF ( = 0 ) = A0 ( 1 + 1 +L + 1) = A0 N
f ( ) sin ( N /2 ) N sin ( /2 )

UE, ESLA

(3-33)

This is the normalized array factor for an N element UE, ESLA that is centered about the coordinate origin.

Universal array y factors for N = 3, , 5, , 10

f ( )

1.0

f ( )

1.0

N=5 N=3

(a)
0 0

2 3

4 3

(b)

0 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

1.0

f ( )

N = 10

Figure 3 3-11 11 Array factor of an equally spaced, uniformly excited linear array for a few array numbers. (a) Three elements. (b) Five elements. (c) Ten elements.

( c)
0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

Example 3-5 Four-element array steered to 120

1
1e
j ( /2 )

(a)

1e

1e

j ( 3 /2 )

1.0

f ( ) =

sin 2 4 sin

(b)

3 2

( c) o = 120 d = z

Figure 3-12 Array factor for a four-element, uniformly excited, equally spaced phased array (Examples 3-5). (a) The array excitations. (b) Universal pattern for N = 4. (c) Polar plot for d = /2 and = /2.

 Scanning the pattern of a linear array in space

The main beam maximum occurs for = 0. Let o be the value of in the direction of the beam maximum. Then

= 0 = d cos o +

= d cos o

(3 36) (3-36)

This element-to-element phase shift will scan the main beam peak to = 0. Often, we express as

= d (cos - coso )

(3-38) ( )

Beamwidth of the main beam

For Nd >> (Nd = L = length of the array) near b broadside d id at endfire
(3-45) (3-46)

HP 0.886( 0 886(/Nd) csco HP 2 0.886 ( /Nd )

1/2

Example N = 20 d = /2 0.886 ( /Nd) = 0.886 / ( 20/2) = 0.0886 radians o = 90 HP = 0.0886 r = 0.0886 ( 180/ ) = 5.1 o = 0
1/2

HP = 2[ 0.0886] = 0.595 ( 180/ ) = 34.1

 Directivity of Uniformly Excited, Equally Spaced Linear Arrays

sin ( N /2 ) N sin ( /2 ) 4 D= = 1 2 N 1 N - m 4 + sin m d cos m N N 2 m =1 m d (3-78)
If d = n , = 0 2 Then D = N
20

D=2
15

L for N = 10

= 0 =0
N = 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3

Dir rectivity (D)

10

Figure 3-20 Directivity as a function of element spacing for a broadside array of isotropic elements for several element numbers N.

0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Th directivity The di ti it of f a broadside b d id array of f isotropic i t i elements l t is i approximated i t d by b

D2

L Nd =2

broadside

(3-80)

where L = Nd is the array length. This is a straight-line approximation to the curves

 Nonuniformly excited, ESLA

AF = Ane jn
n=0 N1 N-1

= d cos +
Uniform
z

1.0 0.5

An

(a)

1: 1 : 1 : 1 : 1

0 An

1/2

3/2

1.0

Triangular g
0 An 1/2 3/2 2 z

(b)

1:2:3:2:1

1.0 0.5

(c)
1.0 0.5

0 An

1/2

3/2

(d)

0 0 An

1/2

3/2

Figure 3-24 Current distributions Binomial corresponding to the patterns of Fig. 3-23. The current phases are 1:4:6:4:1 zero ( = 0). Currents are normalized to unity at the array center. (a) Uniform. (b) Triangular. Dolph Chebyshev Dolph-Chebyshev (c) Bi Binomial. i l (d) D Dolphl h for a side lobe level of -20dB Chebyshev (SLL = -20 dB). 1 : 1.61 : 1.94 : 1.61 : 1 (e) Dolph-Chebyshev.

1.0 0.5

(e)

0 0 1/2 3/2 2

Dolph-Chebyshev for a side lobe level of -30dB 1 : 2.41 : 3.14 : 2.41 : 1

D=5 HP = 20.5 SLL = 12 dB

D = 4.26 4 26 HP = 26.0 SLL = 19.1 dB

D = 3.66 3 66 HP = 30.3 SLL = dB

180

0.75 0.25 0.50

1.00 0 180 0.25 0.50

0.75

1.00 0 180 0.25 0.50

0.75

1.00 0

(a) Uniform currents, 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1.

(b) Triangular current amplitude distribution, 1 : 2 : 3 : 2 : 1.

(c) Binomial current amplitude distribution, 1 : 4 : 6 : 4 : 1.

Figure 3-23 Patterns of several uniform phase (o = 90), equally spaced (d = /2) linear arrays with various amplitude distributions. The currents are plotted in Fig. 3-24.

D = 4.68 HP = 23.6 SLL = -20 dB

D = 4.22 HP = 26.4 26 4 SLL = 30 dB

180

0.25

0.50

0.75

1.00 0 180 0.25 1.00 0

0 50 0.50

0.75

(d) Dolph-Chebyshev Dolph Chebyshev Current amplitude distribution, 1 : 1.61 : 1.94 : 1.61 : 1 for a side lobe level of -20 dB.

(e)

Dolph-Chebyshev

Current amplitude distribution, 1 : 2.41 : 3.14 : 2.41 : 1, with a side lobe level of -30 dB.

Fi 3-23 Fig. 3 23 (continued) ( i d)

We can draw a general conclusion from the foregoing examples that applies to antennas in general: As amplitude taper increases: Beamwidth increases Directivity decreases (as a consequence of beamwidth increasing) Sidelobes decrease Current envelope:

Pattern:

Directivity of nonuniformly excited, isotropic element arrays

General case of unequally spacings and nonuniform phasings
N 1 Ak 0 k =0 D= N 1 N 1 sin zm z p j ( m p ) Am Ap e zm z p m =0 p =0
2

(3 91) (3-91)

Equal spacings and broadside operation

N 1 Ak k =0 D= N 1 N 1 sin ( m p ) d A A m p ( m p) d m =0 p =0
2

n = 0, zn = nd

(3-92) (3 92)

Spacings p g a multiple p of a half-wavelength g and broadside

N 1 An n =0 D= N 1 2 ( An )
n =0

d=

, , . . .

(3-93)

C. Inclusion of Element Effects

Principle of Pattern Multiplication: The pattern of an array (array pattern, F) consisting of similar elements is the product of the pattern of one of the elements (the element pattern, ga) and the pattern f the array of isotropic elements with the same locations, relative l ti amplitudes lit d and d phases h as the th original i i l array (the (th array factor, f t f). f) Pattern F

Element pattern ga

Array y factor f

F(,) = ga (,) f(,)

(3-36)

Collinear elements Parallel elements

Example: Two collinear short dipoles

|
Io = 1
Element pattern

|
I1 = 1 (a) The array.
Array factor

Total pattern
y z

Figure 3-18 A linear array of parallel line sources.

sin
cos cos 2 sin cos cos 2

(b) The pattern. Figure 3-17 Array of two half-wavelength spaced, equal amplitude, equal phase, collinear short dipoles (Example 3-8).

Parallel half-wave dipoles

For a half-wave dipole along z-axis
z

cos ( /2 ) cos sin

half wave dipole

(2-8)

For an array of parallel half-wave dipoles it is best to orient the elements along the x-axis. Then the element pattern is expressed as
x

ga ( ) =
z

cos ( /2 ) cos sin

(3-68)

cos = sin cos g a ( , ) =

sin = 1 - sin 2 cos 2

cos ( /2 ) sin cos 1 - sin 2 cos 2

(3-69)

Prob. 3.3-2 3.3 2

From (2-7)

cos cos 2 ga ( ) = sin

From (3-13) f ( ) = cos ( cos )

cos cos 2 cos cos ( ) So F ( ) = g a ( ) f ( ) = sin

ga z

= z

F z

(Fig. 2-5b)

(Fig. 3-6c)

 Method used in practice to produce a single endfire beam

x y

4
Ground plane

Image theory solution

x y

The array factor is that of Example 3 3-2 2

yz-plane (array factor)

-1

-1

1
xz-plane (including /2 dipole effect)

d= 2

d= 2

Problem 3.7-7 uses array theory to find the patterns

 Directivity of arrays of real elements

There is no general exact formula for the directivity of arrays including the element pattern. The following often- quoted approximate directivity formula must be used with caution

D De Di De = directivity of a single element Di = directivity of the array with isotropic elements

Example: 4-element, broadside array of collinear short dipoles with spacing d = /2 (3-83) gives D = 5.6, an exact answer

D DeDi = ( 1.5 )( 4 ) = 6

 Base Station Collinear Arrays

d = 0.72 0 72

From code
L=

D = 7.75 dBi = 5.6 dBd

( d = 0.72 )

Approximate directivity D DeDi = 1.64(5.4) = 8.9, using Fig. 3-20 = 9.5 dB = 7.3 dBd

The tower enhances the gain by making pattern more directive

Base station with elements in opposing pairs and clocked 90 degrees around the tower to produce nearly an omnidirectional pattern

D. Mutual Coupling

Feed network

Figure 3-26 (a) Mechanisms for coupling between elements of an array. There are three mechanisms responsible for mutual coupling: Direct free space coupling between elements Indirect coupling due to scattering by nearby objects Coupling through the feed network In many arrays the elements are impedance matched to the feed network and feed coupling can be ignored. Then the array can be modeled with independent generators, leading to the conventional circuit N port representation. V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 + K + Z1N IN

V2 = Z12 I1 + Z 22 I2 + K + Z 2N IN VN = Z1N I1 + Z1N I2 + K + ZNN IN

where the mutual impedance is V Zmn = m with I i = 0 for all i except i = n Im and reciprocity has been assumed through Zmn = Znm

The input impedance of the mth element in an array with all elements active and d mutual t l coupling li included i l d d is i

Zm =

Vm I I 1 = Zm1 1 + Zm2 2 + + ZmN N Im Im Im 1m

Vm

(3-103)

g Zm

Zm
g Vm

Im

This is often called active impedance or driving point impedance.

Note that active impedance depends on mutual impedances between elements as well as the excitations of all elements. This dependence includes the current phases and thus scan angle in phased arrays. The effects of mutual coupling include:
The impedance of an element in an array differs from its free space value and depends on that array scan angle (element phases) and the element location. The pattern of an element is changed from its isolated pattern and depends on array position.

Polarization characteristics deteriorate.

Example: Mutual coupling effect on a 12-element, half-wave spaced linear array

Current generator Voltage generator (loaded)

y x z
= 180

0 -10 dB -20

= 0

Figure 10-27 Linear array pattern with main beam steered to o = 45 and ideal current generators (solid curve) compared to patterns from an array with voltage generators for 72- loaded voltage generator excitations (dashed curve). Also see: D. Kelley and W. Stutzman, Array antenna pattern modeling methods that include mutual coupling effects, IEEE Trans. On Ant. And Prop., Dec. 1993.

E. Phased Arrays
90 o= 90 1.00 0.75 0 50 0.50 0.25 0 90 o= 75 1.00 0.75 0.50 0 25 0.25 0

180

180

(a) o= 90 90 o= 30 0.75 1.0 0.50 0.25 0

(b) o= 90 90 o= 0 1.0 0.50 0.75 0.25 0

(c) o= 75

180

180

(f) Endfire (o = 90) (d) o = 30 (bifurcated pattern) (e) Endfire (o = 0)

Figure 3-32 Example of phase-scanned patterns for a five-element linear array along the z-axis with elements equally spaced at d = 0.4 and with uniform current magnitudes for various main beam pointing angles o.

Important p point p to remember: The array factor scans inside the envelope of the fixed element pattern
Example: Linear array of four broadside elements spaced 0.7 apart. The element pattern is g() = (cos )2. Broadside operation
1 0.8 06 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -90-80 -70 -60-50 -40-30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fmag() g()
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Scanned 30 off broadside

0 -90-80 -70 -60-50 -40-30-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

 Basic Feed Types

(a) Parallel, or corporate, feed.

(b) Series feed.

Primary transmitting antenna Pickup antenna (c) Space feed. Figure 3-33 Types of array feed networks. Secondary transmitting antenna t

(d) Parallel-series feed.

Phased array example: AWACS (Airborne Warning and Control System)

Mounted M t d on top t of f aircraft i ft such h as E-3A, E 3A E E-2C 2C f for aerial i l surveilil lance and detection of bombers and low flying fighters coming in over north pole First operational radar antenna with very low sidelobes: -40 dB Sl tt d waveguide Slotted id array with ith 4000 slots l t Scanned in vertical plane using ferrite phase shifters Rotated for azimuth coverage Next generation: phased array conforming to the aircraft

E 2C E-2C

 Beam switched scanning

Go
4 3 2 1 (a) 1 x 4 Switch

Pe = Ps

Ps

Go

Pe

ERP = PTGT = GePs Ps Pe = 4

Rotman Lens or Butler Matrix

Go

Pe =

Ps 4

+10 Log N = 6 dB for N = 4 ERP = PT GT = NGo NPo

1 x 4 Switch (b)

= 4GsPs
(c)

Ps

Ps

Switched antenna system vs linear array configurations: (a) switched antennas; (b) ( ) multiple-beam array; y ( (c) ) steered-beam array. y [Microwave Journal, January 1987]

 Digital Beam Forming

Receiving Antenna RX ADC

Beams

Array

RX

ADC

Digital Beamformer

RX

ADC

Weights Controller Calibration Tone Directions of Look

 Scanning arrays of wideband elements

[Stutzman and Buxton, Microwave Journal, Feb. 2000.]
1

0 6.4 14.5
..

Norm malized Eleme ent Spacing (d d/)

0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 01 0.1 0

25.4 41.8 90

1.5

2.5

Bandwidth (f/f )
L

Ma aximum Scan n Angle

 The future for phased arrays

- Wideband, multifunctional arrays will be used - Intelligence will be integrated with arrays, creating smart arrays that can adapt to changing conditions and faults - Radiating elements will be printed, giving low cost and uniform geometrical construction (see figure) - Feed networks will make use of integrated fabrication techniques such as MMIC. - Elements and feeds will be integrated together - Beam B steering: t i Low cost phase shifters: MEMS, Ferroelectric, . . . Photonic feeds Digital g beam forming g will be very y popular p p as RF and DSP module performance and cost improve

2x2 array of Foursquare elements

Fourpoint element

capable of 2:1 bandwidth and dual polarization

5 SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS 5.
Friis Transmission Equation Propagation in real links Factors in selecting an operating frequency

Friis Transmission (review)

Basic Single Path

PRcv
Multipath link

PXmit GT GR = p 2 (4 R)
2
R

PRcv =

T R

( R , R ) pR ( C ( R , R ;T , T )
2

*GT (T , T ) pT d R d T PXmit 4

Basic Propagation
T Two main i f factors t affecting ff ti signal i l at t receiver
Distance (or delay) Path attenuation Multipath Phase differences
Green signal travels 1/2 farther than Yellow to reach receiver, who sees Red. For 2.4 GHz, (wavelength) =12.5cm.

Ref: UCLA, CSCI 694, 24 September 1999, Lewis Girod

Basic Issues
Outdoor
Free Space Loss Ground Bounce Atmospheric Absorption Building/Mountain reflection/diffraction

Indoor
Doors Walls Waveguide effects (maybe use ducting)

Transient links
Basic Single Path

vOC

r r R i (t ) = hr (t ) ht t 4R c t

Multipath link

vOC

r sr r R i (t ) = hr (t ) C ( R , R ;T , T ; t ht t d R d T c t T R

Frequency Tradeoff
Lower Frequency
Higher signal vs Scale antenna size Higher noise

Higher Hi h F Frequency
Smaller Antenna Lower Q for same size Higher Gain for same size

 Factors in operating frequency selection

Propagation and link budget considerations
VHF and below for long distance, narrow bandwidth UHF and above for wide bandwidth Above Ab 10 GHz, GH atmospheric t h i l losses are hi high h

Antenna considerations
Very long distance point-to-point point to point communications require high frequencies to enable large antenna gains

Regulatory g y issues
Must use allocated bands Licensed vs. unlicensed bands

6 WIRELESS APPLICATIONS 6.
Base Station Antennas for Land Mobile Antennas for Satellite Communications Vehicle Antennas Antennas for Personal Communications UWB
Some Concepts

Radiation Safety

Base Station Antennas for Land Mobile Radio

Cell Coverage Types

Omnidirectional

Sectorized

Smart S t antenna t that th t forms beams on users

 Omnidirectional pattern base station antennas

Pattern is constant in azimuth and narrow in elevation Usually realized with collinear array of dipoles E Example: l Cellular C ll l base b station t ti

Antel Cellular Base Station Antenna 870-970 MHz Collinear dipoles 136 in long 10 dBd gain 1.25 deg downtilt

 Sector base station antennas

Typical 120 deg sectors, VP

Polarization diversity 120 deg sectors, dual slant 45 deg LP

 Sector (panel) antennas

Elements
Dipoles in front of a ground plane Log periodic dipole (LPDA) and LPDA vees Patches Fourpoint antenna (VT) covers both cellular and PCS with dual polarization

Considerations
Bandwidth (VSWR<2) Power handling Intermodulation products

DB Products LPDA vee antenna

 A new wideband base station antenna developed at VTAG: VTAG

Minimum number of antennas on tower Dual-polarized for diversity y Multi-functional capability (800 ~ 2200 MHz) Low profile and compact Printed antenna on a PCB

Front view

Tuning plate on back

Fourpoint Antenna Data

AMPS GSM, AMPS, GSM DCS, DCS PCS, PCS etc

Measured easu ed Radiation ad at o Patterns atte s

H-plane E-plane

900 MHz HPBW: 60 ~ 80

1800 MHz

Low cross-pol, less than -30 dB

 Satellite communications antennas

Satellite services
FSS Fixed Satellite Service [gateways VSATs] [gateways, BSS Broadcast Satellite Service (DBS, DTH) Mobile (Iridium, Orbcom, Inmarsat)

Gain of spacecraft antenna

Global coverage US coverage 19 dB 34 dB

Ground station antennas

Reflectors f are used above a few f G GHz Small offset reflectors for VSAT Large, dual reflectors for gateways

Direct Broadcast system y from DirecTV manual ________________________ 12.2 -12.7 GHz downlink to user 17.3-17.8 GHz uplink from gateway Dual circularly polarized

Vehicular Antennas
Broadcast reception
Traditional 31 (0.003 at AM) fender mount whip antenna is vanishing vanishing. New cars have mostly on-glass antennas

Example of a Ford rear window glass antenna

 Two-way land mobile vehicle antennas

VHF and below Short monopole Quarter-wave monopole

Example quarter-wave monopole

UHF Quarter-wave monopole 5/8 over wavelength

Example 5/8 over wavelength

 Aircraft antennas
Example: Commercial MD-80 airplane

 Antennas for fixed wireless Access points and terminals

Omnidirectional antennas Collinears for access points Stubby or planar antennas for terminals High gain (20 dB or more) reflectors Moderate gain g Yagi Stub loaded helix antenna
75% volume reduction Circularly polarized

Example; Stub loaded helix antenna www.frc-corp.com

 Antennas for personal communications

VHF Short monopole Loops, p , small and/or loaded Normal mode helix UHF Monopole Normal mode helix Patch Inverted-L Pl Planar inverted-L i t dL Embedded

Perhaps the most popular antenna for cell phones is the stubby antenna with an extendable wire antenna

Nokia Patent 5,612,704

 Inverted-L family of antennas

Inverted-L

Inverted-F

Dual Inverted-F

Planar Inverted-F

Wideband Compact PIFA

Antenna Patch IFA DIFA PIFA Di l Dipole WC PIFA

VT patent 6,795,028

Bandwidth (%) 1 2 4 8 12 43

UWB Antennas

TEM Horn

Ridged Horn

BiCone

Tapered Slot (Vivaldi)

Impulse Radiating Antenna (IRA)

Half-Disk

PICA & VSWR

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 S imulation Meas urement

10

12

14

16

18

20

Typical Responses TEM Horn

Reflection
Return Loss 0 0

Transmission Link
Frequency Response s 21

Amp plitude (dB)

-10 -20 -30 -40 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Frequency (GHz) Ph Phase -D Delay l Ph Phase 200 2 14 16 18 20

s2 (dB) 21

-50

-100

8 10 12 Frequency (GHz) Impulse Response s 21

14

16

18

20

x 10

Phase (degrees)

0 -200 -400

Amp plitude (s -1)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Frequency (GHz) 14 16 18 20

1 0 -1

10 12 Time (nsec)

14

16

18

20

Phase

Transient Transmission

The Monster Antenna

At least 10:1 instantaneous Gain Bandwidth with 0.1 Size Relatively-constant Monopole-like Radiation Pattern Size & Performance Close to Theoretical Limits Light, Aerodynamic, and Inexpensive Design
10 5 0
Realized Gain (dBi)

-5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Frequency (GHz)

Picture of Prototype

Realized Gain v.s. Frequency

Comparison to Limit

The Monster Antenna

10 9 8 7 Measurement FDTD [CST, 2007] MoM [FEKO, 2007]

1 Measurement

VSWR

6 5 4 3 2 1

Normalized Aplitude

0.5

-0.5

-1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

4.5

5.5

6.5

Measured and Simulated VSWRs

Frequency (GHz)

Time (ns)

Radiated Pulse

Measured Patterns @ Selected Freqs

Printed Version: 450 MHz10 GHz

Radiation Safety & Interference

SAR Specific Absorption Rate Power per area absorption HAC Hearing Aid Compatibility Buzzing and related noise in Hearing Aid System Interference and Cross-Modulation

Facilities
Measured Near Field Pattern

Calculated Far Field Pattern

INSTRUMENTATION ANTCOM 7+1 axis near field far field scanner Agilent 8510, 8511, 8530 Network Analyzer

Next: Pictorial Presentation on Antennas