Introduction to Aircrafts

An Aircraft is a device that is used, or intended to be used, for flight. It can also be defined as any machine capable of atmospheric flight. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by using either Static Lift or by using the Dynamic Lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Although rockets and missiles also travel through the atmosphere, most are not considered aircraft because they use rocket thrust instead of aerodynamics as the primary means of lift.

1.0

Categories and Classification:

Aircraft fall into two broad Categories. 1. Lighter than Air (Aerostats). 2. Heavier than Air (Aerodynes).

1.1 Lighter than Air (Aerostats):

Lighter than air also known as Aerostats uses Archimedes Principle. In this the envelope of a balloon/ airship displaces the air, and therefore there is an upward force on the airship which is equal to the weight of the displaced air. If this upward force is equal to the weight of the airship, it will float; if the upward force is greater than the weight, the airship will rise; if it is less, it will fall. In order to keep the weight of the airship itself as small as possible it must Be made of the lightest materials available. A very light gas must be used in the envelope.

Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable balloons, such as hot air balloons and gas balloons, and airships. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling forward motion and steering, while balloons simply drift with the wind. The lightest gas in commercial use is hydrogen, and, for many years, this gas was always used in airships and balloons. Unfortunately, however hydrogen is very inflammable, and its use added considerably to the dangers of Aerostats. So the helium came to be used in spite of the fact that it is much more expensive than and twice as heavy as hydrogen.

1.2 Heavier than Air (Aerodyne):

Heavier-than-air aircraft must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term A erodyne. There are two ways to produce dynamic up thrust: aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust. Heavier than air aerodynes, including auto gyros, helicopters and variants, and conventional fixed-wing aircraft: aero planes. Fixed wing aircraft generally use an internal-combustion engine in the form of a piston engine (with a propeller) or a turbine engine (jet or turboprop), to provide thrust that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air over the airfoil produces lift that causes the aircraft to fly.

Exceptions are gliders which have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, from winches or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. That is, in order to maintain their forward speed they must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Helicopters and auto gyros use a spinning rotor (a rotary wing) to provide both lift and thrust. The abbreviation VTOL is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically. Likewise, STOL stands for Short Take Off and Landing.

A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles which obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case Aircraft based on Usage: 1. Civil Transport Aircraft 2. Military Aircraft 3. Space Vehicles

1.3 Civil Transport Aircraft:

Civil aviation includes scheduled airline flights and general aviation, a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use. The vast majority of flights flown around the world each day belong to the general aviation category, ranging from recreational balloon flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargo transportation on freight aircraft. Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private flights (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or employer). Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel, business travel, or recreation. Commercial general aviation pilots (when not flying privately) use aircraft for a wide range of tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical transport (medevac). Piston-powered propeller airplanes (single-engine or twinengine) are especially common for both private and commercial general aviation, but even private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters.

1.4 Military Aircraft:

Military aircraft and helicopters are purchased by governments to meet national defense needs, such as delivering weapons to military targets and transporting troops and equipment around the globe. Other aircraft, such as unmanned aerial vehicles, are produced to gather defense intelligence such as radio signals or to monitor movement on the ground.

1.5 Space Vehicles:

The part of the industry also produces space vehicles and the rockets for launching them into space. Consumers of spacecraft include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), ISRO, telecommunications companies, television networks, and news organizations.

2.0 Stages in the development of an Aircraft:

Conceptual Design Aeronautical Configuration CFD, Wind Tunnel Testing Systems Design Airframe Detail Design Airframe Analysis Airframe Testing Prototype Building Prototype Testing Flight Testing A large volume of work is involved in Airframe design and analysis

3.0 Air craft Components

4.0 Axis System

5.0 Basic parts of an Aero plane

6.0 Aircraft Structure and Systems

6.1 AirCraft Structure
The basic functions of an aircrafts structure are to transmit and resist the applied loads; to provide an aerodynamic shape and to protect passengers, payload, systems etc. from the environmental conditions encountered in flight. The structure of an aircraft is required to support two distinct classes of load: the first, termed ground loads, includes all loads encountered by the aircraft during movement or transportation on the ground such as taxiing and landing loads, towing and hoisting loads; while the second, air loads, comprises loads imposed on the structure during flight by manoeuvres and gusts. The two classes of loads may be further divided into surface forces which act upon the surface of the structure, e.g. aerodynamic and hydrostatic pressure, and body forces which act over the volume of the structure and are produced by gravitational and inertial effects. The structure of an Aircraft includes: Fuselage Wings An Empennage Landing Gear and Power plant The Fuselage contains crew and payload, the latter being passengers, cargo, weapons plus fuel, depending on the type of aircraft and its function; the Wings provide the lift and the tailplane is the main contributor to directional control. In addition, ailerons, elevators and the rudder enable the pilot to manoeuvre the aircraft and maintain its stability in flight, while wing flaps provide the necessary increase of lift for takeoff and landing. The Landing Gear support the aircraft when parked, taxing, takeoff or when landing.

6.1.1 Fuselage
The fuselage, or body of the airplane, is a long hollow tube which holds all the pieces of an airplane together. The fuselage is hollow to reduce weight. As with most other parts of the airplane, the shape of the fuselage is normally determined by the mission of the aircraft. Cylindrical shape for containing pressure Streamlined to reduce Drag Nose houses Radar Carries a part of the fuel It is the main structure or body of the aircraft. The fuselage must be strong and streamlined, to enable it to withstand the forces that are created in flight. The fuselage serves several functions. It is the attachment point for the other major components. It

provides space for passenger, cargo, power plant, controls, accessories, and other requirements depending on the purpose viz.. Civil, military, transport. The Fuselage is divided into three main sections: The nose section Normally up to the cockpit bulk head includes cockpit avionics bay etc., The center section - includes passenger cabin and the baggage compartments The tail section - including the empennage and tail cones.

The construction of aircraft fuselages evolved from the early wood truss structural arrangements to monocoque shell structures to the current semimonocoque shell structures.

6.1.1.1 Truss Structure

It consists of two force members, Tension/Compression and are bolted/ riveted / welded in joints, generally made of steel, aluminum tubes. The main drawback of truss structure is its lack of a streamlined shape. In this construction method, lengths of tubing, called longerons, are welded in place to form a well-braced framework. Vertical and horizontal struts are welded to the longerons and give the structure a square or rectangular shape when viewed from the end. Additional struts are needed to resist stress that can come from any direction. Stringers and bulkheads, or formers, are added to shape the fuselage and support the covering.

Frames/ Bulkheads: Structural members which transfers concentrated loads to the shell of the aircraft (for wing ribs). Types: Machined frame / sheet metal built up / truss type. Bulkheads, which resist pressure loads due to fuel and air pressurisation, will have full webs. Skin It can resist only air loads. It cannot resist shear / bending loads. Stringers & Longerons These are longitudinal members of the fuselage structure which resist bending and axial loads. It helps in redistribution of shear flows in skin panel by panel braking. Longerons are located at the edges of opening in the shell, of greater area of cross section than the stringers. 6.1.1.2 Monocoque As technology progressed, aircraft designers began to enclose the truss members to streamline the airplane and improve performance. This was originally accomplished with cloth fabric, which eventually gave way to lightweight metals such as aluminum. It also includes other high technology materials such as titanium, corrosion resistance steel and carbon composites for primary structures, fiberglass and Kevlar for the secondary components. In some cases, the outside skin can support all or a major portion of the flight loads. Most modern aircraft use a form of this stressed skin structure known as monocoque or semimonocoque construction. Monocoque construction uses stressed skin to support almost all loads much like an aluminum beverage can. Although very strong, monocoque construction is not highly tolerant to deformation of the surface. For example, an aluminum beverage can supports considerable forces at the ends of the can, but if the side of the can is deformed slightly while supporting a load, it collapses easily. Because most twisting and bending stresses are carried by the external skin rather than by an open framework, the need for internal bracing was eliminated or reduced, saving weight and maximizing space. One of the notable and innovative methods for using monocoque construction was employed by Jack Northrop. In 1918, he devised a new way to construct a monocoque fuselage used for the Lockheed S-1 Racer. The technique utilized two molded plywood half-shells that were glued together around wooden hoops or stringers. To construct the half shells, rather than gluing many strips of plywood over a form, three large sets of spruce strips were soaked with glue and laid in a semi-circular concrete mold that looked

like a bathtub. Then, under a tightly clamped lid, a rubber balloon was inflated in the cavity to press the plywood against the mold. Twenty-four hours later, the smooth half-shell was ready to be joined to another to create the fuselage. The two halves were each less than a quarter inch thick. Although employed in the early aviation period, monocoque construction would not reemerge for several decades due to the complexities involved. Every day examples of monocoque construction can be found in automobile manufacturing where the unibody is considered standard in manufacturing. 6.1.1.3 Semimonocoque Semimonocoque construction, partial or one-half, uses a substructure to which the airplanes skin is attached. The substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of various sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage. The main section of the fuselage also includes wing attachment points and a firewall. On single-engine airplanes, the engine is usually attached to the front of the fuselage. There is a fireproof partition between the rear of the engine and the flight deck or cabin to protect the pilot and passengers from accidental engine fires. This partition is called a firewall and is usually made of heat-resistant material such as stainless steel. However, a new emerging process of construction is the integration of composites or aircraft made entirely of composites.

6.1.2. Wings

The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces that support the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes used by the various manufacturers. Each fulfills a certain need with respect to the expected performance for the particular airplane. Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of the fuselage. designs are referred to as high (stable), mid (acrobatic), and low-wing (less respectively. The number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single wings are referred to as monoplanes, while those with two sets are biplanes. These drag), set of called

Many high-wing airplanes have external braces, or wing struts, which transmit the flight and landing loads. The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. These are reinforced by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin. The wing ribs determine the shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are an integral part of the wings structure, or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the wing. Attached to the rear, or trailing, edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward toward the tip and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing. The flaps are normally flush with the wings surface during cruising flight. When extended, the flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and landings.

The wing frame work made up of 1. Spar 2. Ribs 3. Stringers and 4. Skin. Spar: Are the main strength members of the wing and run along the length of the wing. There will typically be two spars in the wing structure, or possibly three for larger aircraft. These form the main span wise beam of the wing and take most of the span wise bending and torsional loads. These also form a closed-cell configuration inconjunction with the skin. Ribs: Run from the leading edge to the rear of the wing and support the covering and provide the airfoil shape (camber) that allows the wing to create lift. Ribs help to maintain the aerodynamic shape of the sections and act with the skin to resist the distributed aerodynamic pressure loads. They are often located close to concentrated loads (e.g. pylons, landing gear, etc) and at discontinuities. Stringers The stringers improve the skin buckling resistance by dividing it into smaller panels.

Skin Skin forms an impermeable aerodynamic surface and transmits aerodynamic forces into the above mentioned structures. It also helps to resist the shear torsion loads and react against the axial bending loads. CONTROL SURFACES On high-speed airplanes, flight controls are divided into primary flight controls and secondary or auxiliary flight controls. The primary flight controls maneuver the airplane about the pitch, roll, and yaw axes. They include the ailerons, elevator, and rudder. Secondary or auxiliary flight controls include tabs, leading edge flaps, trailing edge flaps, spoilers, and slats. Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil. These changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/control surface combination, and allow a pilot to control the airplane about its three axes of rotation. Secondary or auxillary flight control surfaces are the high lifting devices. A wing has the following control surfaces among the above said. Ailerons Flaps Slats and Spoilers Ailerons: Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the outboard trailing edge of each wing and move in the opposite direction from each other. Ailerons are connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys or push-pull tubes to each other and to the control wheel. Moving the control wheel to the right causes the right aileron to deflect upward and the left aileron to deflect downward. The upward deflection of the right ailerondecreases the camber resulting in decreased lift on the right wing. The corresponding downward deflection of the left aileron increases the camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the left wing and the decreased lift on the right wing causes the airplane to roll to the right.

Differential Ailerons With differential ailerons, one aileron is raised a greater distance than the other aileron is lowered for a given movement of the control wheel. This produces an increase in drag on the descending wing. The greater drag results from deflecting the up aileron on the descending wing to a greater angle than the down aileron on the rising wing. While adverse yaw is reduced, it is not eliminated completely. Frise-type Aileron With a Frise-type aileron, when pressure is applied to the control wheel, the aileron that is being raised pivots on an offset hinge. This projects the leading edge of the aileron into the airflow and creates drag. This helps equalize the drag created by the lowered aileron on the opposite wing and reduces adverse yaw.

Flaps: Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on practically all airplanes. These surfaces, which are attached to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given angle of attack. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed, because they may be extended when needed, and retracted into the wings structure when not needed. There are four common types of flaps: Plain, Split, Slotted, and Fowler flaps. The plain flap is the simplest of the four types. It increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a significant increase in the coefficient of lift at a given angle of attack. At the same time, it greatly increases drag and moves the center of pressure aft on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-down pitching moment. The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil and produces a slightly greater increase in lift than does the plain flap. However, more drag is created because of the turbulent air pattern produced behind the airfoil. When fully extended, both plain and split flaps produce high drag with little additional lift. The most popular flap on airplanes today is the slotted flap. Variations of this design are used for small

airplanes as well as for large ones. Slotted flaps increase the lift coefficient significantly more than plain or spilt flaps. On small airplanes, the hinge is located below the lower surface of the flap, and when the flap is lowered, it forms a duct between the flap well in the wing and the leading edge of the flap. When the slotted flap is lowered, high-energy air from the lower surface is ducted to the flaps upper surface. The high-energy air from the slot accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation, providing a higher coefficient of lift. Thus, the slotted flap produces much greater increases in CLmax than the plain or split flap. While there are many types of slotted flaps, large airplanes often have double- and even triple-slotted flaps. These allow the maximum increase in drag without the airflow over the flaps separating and destroying the lift they produce. Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap. This flap design not only changes the camber of the wing, it also increases the wing area. Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides backwards on tracks. In the first portion of its extension, it increases the drag very little, but increases the lift a great deal as it increases both the area and camber. As the extension continues, the flap deflects downward, and during the last portion of its travel, it increases the drag with little additional increase in lift. Leading Edge Devices High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil. The most common types are fixed slots, movable slats, and leading edge flaps.

Fixed slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface and delay airflow separation at higher angles of attack. The slot does not increase the wing camber, but allows a higher maximum coefficient of lift because the stall is delayed until the wing reaches a greater angle of attack. Movable slats consist of leading edge segments, which move on tracks. At low angles of attack, each slat is held flush against the wings leading edge by the high pressure that forms at the wings leading edge. As the angle of attack increases, the high-pressure area moves aft below the lower surface of the wing, allowing the slats to move forward. Some slats, however, are pilot operated and can be deployed at any angle of attack. Opening a slat allows the air below the wing to flow over the wings upper surface, delaying airflow separation.

Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used to increase both CLmax and the camber of the wings. This type of leading edge device is frequently used in conjunction with trailing edge flaps and can reduce the nose-down pitching movement produced by the latter. As is true with trailing edge flaps, a small increment of leading edge flaps increases lift to a much greater extent than drag. As greater amounts of flaps are extended, drag increases at a greater rate than lift. Spoilers:

On some airplanes, high-drag devices called spoilers are deployed from the wings to spoil the smooth airflow, reducing lift and increasing drag. Spoilers are used for roll control on some aircraft, one of the advantages being the elimination of adverse yaw. To turn right, for example, the spoiler on the right wing is raised, destroying some of the lift and creating more drag on the right. The right wing drops, and the airplane banks and yaws to the right. Deploying spoilers on both wings at the same time allows the aircraft to descend without gaining speed. Spoilers are also deployed to help shorten ground roll after landing. By destroying lift, they transfer weight to the wheels, improving braking effectiveness.

6.1.3 Empennage
The correct name for the tail section of an airplane is empennage. The empennage includes the entire tail group, consisting of fixed surfaces such as the vertical stabilizer and the horizontal stabilizer. The movable surfaces include the rudder, the elevator, and one or more trim tabs.

A second type of empennage design does not require an elevator. Instead, it incorporates a one-piece horizontal stabilizer that pivots from a central hinge point. This type of design is called a stabilator, and is moved using the control wheel, just as you would the elevator. For example, when you pull back on the control wheel, the stabilator pivots so the trailing edge moves up. This increases the aerodynamic tail load and causes the nose of the airplane to move up. Stabilators have an antiservo tab extending across their trailing edge. The antiservo tab moves in the same direction as the trailing edge of the stabilator. The antiservo tab also functions as a trim tab to relieve control pressures and helps maintain the stabilator in the desired position. The rudder is attached to the back of the vertical stabilizer. During flight, it is used to move the airplanes nose left and right. The rudder is used in combination with the ailerons for turns during flight. The elevator, which is attached to the back of the horizontal stabilizer, is used to move the nose of the airplane up and down during flight. Trim tabs are small, movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface. These movable trim tabs, which are controlled from the cockpit, reduce control pressures. Trim tabs may be installed on the ailerons, the rudder, and/or the elevator. Elevator The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the ailerons on small airplanes, the elevator is connected to the control column in the cockpit by a series of mechanical linkages. Aft movement of the control column deflects the trailing edge of the elevatorsurface up. This is usually referred to as up elevator. The up-elevator position decreases the camber of the elevator and creates a downward aerodynamic force, which is greater than the normal tail-down force that exists in straight-and-level flight. The overall effect causes the tail of the airplane to

move down and the nose to pitch up. The pitching moment occurs about the center of gravity (CG). The strength of the pitching moment is determined by the distance between the CG and the horizontal tail surface, as well as by the aerodynamic effectiveness of the horizontal tail surface. Moving the control column forward has the opposite effect. In this case, elevator camber increases, creating more lift (less tail-down force) on the horizontal stabilizer/elevator. This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose down. Again, the pitching moment occurs about the CG. As mentioned earlier in the coverage on stability, power, thrustline, and the position of the horizontal tail surfaces on the empennage are factors in how effective the elevator is in controlling pitch. For example, the horizontal tail surfaces may be attached near the lower part of the vertical stabilizer, at the midpoint, or at the high point, as in the T-tail design. Rudder The rudder controls movement of the airplane about its vertical axis. This motion is called yaw. Like the other primary control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface, in this case, to the vertical stabilizer, or fin. Moving the left or right rudder pedal controls the rudder. When the rudder is deflected into the airflow, a horizontal force is exerted in the opposite direction. By pushing the left pedal, the rudder moves left. This alters the airflow around the vertical stabilizer/rudder, and creates a sideward lift that moves the tail to the right and yaws the nose of the airplane to the left. Rudder effectiveness increases with speed, so large deflections at low speeds and small deflections at high speeds may be required to provide the desired reaction. In propeller-driven aircraft, any slipstream flowing over the rudder increases its effectiveness.

6.2 Principles of Flight

In order to understand the operation of the major components and subcomponents of an aircraft, it is important to understand basic aerodynamic concepts. The following defines these forces in relation to straight-and-level, unaccelerated flight. Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/ propeller. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a general rule, it is said to act parallel to the longitudinal axis. However, this is not always the case as will be explained later. Drag is a rearward, retarding force, and is caused by disruption of airflow by the wing, fuselage, and other protruding objects. Drag opposes thrust, and acts rearward parallel to the relative wind. Weight is the combined load of the airplane itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the airplane downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift, and acts vertically downward through the airplanes center of gravity. Lift opposes the do wnward force of weight, is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the wing, and acts perpendicular to the flightpath through the wings center of lift.

In steady flight, the sum of these opposing forces is equal to zero. There can be no unbalanced forces in steady, straight flight (Newtons Third Law). This is true whether flying level or when climbing or escending. This is not the same thing as saying that the four forces are all equal. It simply means that the opposing forces are equal to, and thereby cancel the effects of, each other. Often the relationship between the four forces has been erroneously explained or illustrated in such a way that this point is obscured. Consider figure shown, for example. In the upper illustration the force vectors of thrust, drag, lift, and weight appear to be equal in value. The usual explanation states (without stipulating that thrust and drag do not equal weight and lift) that thrust equals drag and lift equals weight as shown in the lower illustration. This basically true statement must be understood or it can be misleading. It should be understood that in straight, level, unaccelerated flight, it is true that the opposing lift/weight forces are equal, but they are also greater than the opposing forces of thrust/drag that are equal only to each other; not to lift/weight. To be correct about it, it must be said that in steady flight: The sum of all upward forces (not just lift) equals the sum of all downward forces (not just weight). The sum of all forward forces (not just thrust) equals the sum of all backward forces (not just drag).

Pitch-Roll-Yaw

Pitch: Is rotation around the lateral or transverse axisan axis running from the pilot's left to right in piloted aircraft, and parallel to the wings of a winged aircraft; thus the nose pitches up and the tail down, or vice-versa. Longitudinal control of an aeroplane is nearly always provided by ELEVATORS attached to the rear of the tail plane. the principle is best illustrated by the old fashioned system in which the elevators were connected by control wires and levers to the control column in the pilot's cockpit. The control is instinctive i.e. when the column is pushed forward, the elevators are lowered and the upward force on the tail is increased, thus causing the nose of the aeroplane to drop. Roll: Is rotation around the longitudinal axisan axis drawn through the body of the vehicle from tail to nose in the normal direction of flight, or the direction the pilot faces. The roll angle is also known as bank angle on a fixed wing aircraft, which "banks" to change the horizontal direction of flight. The usual method of obtaining lateral control is by means of AILERONS hinged at the rear of each main plane near the wing tips. the ailerons are connected to the control column by a complete system of control wires, by a rigid system of rods, by torque tubes inside the wings, or again by some power operated system. This time it is a sideways movement of the control column which moves the ailerons and does so in such a way that once again the control is instinctive, i.e, if the control column is moved to the left the right hand ailerons will go down, increasing the lift on the right hand wings, thus banking the aeroplane to the left; at the same time the left ailerons will have been raised, decreasing the lift on the left wing and thus adding to the effect. Some- times the control column has no sideways movement, and lateral control is effected by a type of handlebars, or by a wheel very similar to steering wheel on a car. Yaw: Is rotation about the vertical axisan axis drawn from top to bottom, and perpendicular to the other two axes. Directional control is by RUDDER, which has very much the same effect as on ship. The rudder is connected by wires or rods or by a power operated system to a rudder bar or rudder pedals on the floor of the cockpit. In this instance it is not wise to stress the point that the control movement is instinctive, because some people claim that it works the wrong way and should be altered to make it instinctive. if the left foot is pushed forward, the rudder moves to the left and the aeroplane turns to the left. it all sounds instinctive enough, but it is exactly the opposite to what happens on a bicycle when the hadlebars are move in the same way as the rudder bar.

6.1.4Landing Gear
The landing gear is the principle support of the airplane when parked, taxiing, taking off, or when landing. The most common type of landing gear consists of wheels, but airplanes can also be equipped with floats for water operations, or skis for landing on snow. The landing gear consists of three wheelstwo main wheels and a third wheel positioned either at the front or rear of the airplane. Landing gear employing a rearmounted wheel is called conventional landing gear. Airplanes with conventional landing gear are sometimes referred to as tailwheel airplanes. When the third wheel is located on the nose, it is called a nosewheel, and the design is referred to as a tricycle gear. A steerable nosewheel or tailwheel permits the airplane to be controlled throughout all operations while on the ground.

6.1.5 Power Plant

The powerplant usually includes both the engine and the propeller. The primary function of the engine is to provide the power to turn the propeller. It also generates electrical power, provides a vacuum source for some flight instruments, and in most single-engine airplanes, provides a source of heat for the pilot and passengers. The engine is covered by a cowling, or in the case of some airplanes, surrounded by a nacelle. The purpose of the cowling or nacelle is to streamline the flow of air around the engine and to help cool the engine by ducting air around the cylinders. The propeller, mounted on the front of the engine, translates the rotating force of the engine into a forward acting force called thrust that helps move the airplane through the air.

6.2 Design Configuration

6.2.1 Conventional Configurations: These can be classified as Cantilevered monoplane wing. Separate horizontal and vertical tail surfaces. Control via ailerons, elevators and rudder. Discrete fuselage to provide volume and continuity to airframe. Retractable tricycle landing gear. Minimum number of power plants needed to meet power and operational requirements. Within the category of conventional aircraft there are many variations from the standard to be considered: Power Plant Location nose, wing podded, rear fuselage podded, internal. Intake Location nose, side, ventral, dorsal. Wing Vertical Location high, low, mid. Tail Unit Arrangements variable incidence, allmoving, T-tail, multi-finned, butterfly. Tricycle Landing Gear Configuration numbers of legs, bogeys and wheels. a. Power Plant Location Nose-Mounted Most logical position for any single tractor propeller engine aircraft. Advantages include symmetry of layout, good propeller clearance, access and maintainability. Wing-Mounted (Outer Wing)

 Many uses: Large aircraft with propellers, turbojets or turbofans. For jets/fans, these will be podded and mounted onto under-wing pylons. For props, these will be mounted directly onto the wing structure. Advantages include: Versatility use of alternative engines. Compact overall layout. Inertial relief reducing required wing structural mass. Ease of access for maintenance. Also several drawbacks and necessary considerations: Ground clearance may be a problem in which case high wings may be used (with tall landing gear) or possibly top-wing mounting (e.g. BAe 748) with aerodynamic penalty. Spanwise location should depend on prop diameter or statistical analysis of fan burst trajectory and impact on neighbour. Typical values are 30% and 55% semi-span for a 4-engine design; large values give big engine-out yaw problems and larger rudder sizes. Over Wing-Mounted Podded engines Placed above the wings Coanda effect allowing a lower minimum flight speed and decreasing the amount of runway needed for takeoff BAe 748 Shorts SD360 and landing. Wing-Mounted (Inner Wing) Some aircraft have housed the powerplants in the wing root area with significant structural disadvantages. Rear Fuselage-Podded Used on many moderate sized transport aircraft of the past and also many modern small business jet aircraft. Advantages Reduced engine-out yaw smaller rudder size. Disadvantages Rearwards movement of CG stability problems. Structural acoustic fatigue. Wing Podded Vs Fuselage Podded Wing Podded Fuselage Podded Ground clearance Possible problem Good Internal Noise Fair Good Acoustic fatigue Possible problem for wings Possible problem for Fuselage & Flaps Crash safety Good Possible problem Propulsive Good OK if well positioned Efficiency Longitudinal Good Problems due aft CG & Short tail stability arm Tip Stall Good Possible problem Asymmetric Poor Good Thrust Weight Good Poor

Engine Good High off Ground maintenance Wing Problems form Cut outs Very Good aerodynamic efficiency Fuel feeds to Good Ducts and Lines through cabin engine & wing anti icing Internally Housed Used on many single and twin turbojet/turbofan engine aircraft such as military trainers and fighters. Advantages Compact layout. Reduced drag. Disadvantages Engine removal and maintenance problems. Structural acoustic fatigue due to jet efflux. Jet pipe length minimized by moving engine rearwards but this affects CG, stability and control. b. Intake Location Nose Intake Used on many early jet fighters with mid-fuselage mounted engines. Requires use of long inlet ducts and jet pipes gives low flow distortion but high total pressure losses. No need for boundary layer diverters. Occupies large amount of internal volume. Only small radome may be housed in shock cone centre-body. Side Intake (Below Wing) Used on the majority of modern high-wing strike and combat aircraft designs. Leaves the nose area free for radar equipment installation. The wing is often extended above the intakes to improve high- performance. Flow diverters are needed to accommodate fuselage boundary layer growth. Side Intake (Above Wing) Used on many low-wing design trainer and combat aircraft. Wings may be used to shield the intakes and reduce the manoeuvring a. Any sharps bends have to be avoided to prevent flow distortions. Short intake lengths are possible with low overall volume requirements. Ventral Intake Situated on underside of fuselage - an increasingly common position for high performance combat aircraft. Gives very good high-a manoeuvrability. Prone to FOD and debris ingestion. Complicates nose wheel positioning/stowage. Restricts carriage of under-fuselage stores. Low flow distortion and pressure losses into intake.

Dorsal Intake Situated on top-side of fuselage. Only tends to be used on 3-engine airliners with 3rd engine buried in the rear fuselage/fin area with a few exceptions. Gives poor performance at high-a due to separated flow ahead of intake.

c. Vertical Wing Location High Wing The easiest planes to fly are typically ones that have a high wing, or a wing that is on top or above the plane's fuselage. Wing dihedrals (bend or change of angle in wing relative to fuselage) or polyhedrals are also common. Most trainers and park flyers have this configuration. These planes hold most of their weight under the canopy of the wing structure and tend to react more like a glider. For this reason, they are very stable and easy to fly. If a high wing plane is out of control, stability can often be regained by returning the controls to a neutral position, allowing the plane to naturally fall back into a gliding position. High wings are typical of many vintage private planes, such as the Piper Cub and the Cessna 170. Gives an efficient spanwise lift distribution leading to low lift-induced drag. Improves lateral static stability. Preferred for most freight and military transport aircraft: Low floor line for easy loading & unloading. Good all-round vehicular access when on ground. Wing fuel load away from ground when landing with failed landing gear. Good ground clearance for powerplants, especially props. Low Wing This .60 cubic inch/10cc glow-powered Vinh Quang Model Mudry CAP 10 is a fully aerobatic, low-wing, "sport scale" model plane with slight dihedral Low wing planes offer a higher level of flying difficulty because the weight of the plane sits on top of the wing structure, making the balance a bit top heavy. Most wing configurations provide a slight dihedral to provide a bit more balance during flight. The weight distribution and wing position of a low wing plane provides a good balance of stability and maneuverability. The plane's moment of inertia about the rotation axis is lower because it is closer to the wing, therefore rolls require much less torque and are more rapid than a high wing plane. Low wings are typical of World War II war planes and many newer passenger planes and commercial jets. Improves lateral manoeuvrability. Preferred for most passenger transport aircraft: Wing structure conveniently passes below floor. Volume free fore and aft of wing structure for cargo holds luggage and landing gear stowage. Minimizes landing gear length and mass.

 Wing provides buoyancy when ditching into water and also a platform for emergency evacuation. Mid-wing Mid-wing planes are usually considered the most difficult to fly. The wings are usually located right in the vertical middle of the fuselage, near the bulk mass of the aircraft. Very little leverage is needed to turn and rotate the plane's weight. Mid-wings are often straight without any dihedral providing an almost symmetrical aerodynamic structure. This allows the plane to be relatively balanced whether right-side-up, upside-down, or any other position. This is great for military jets, sport planes and aerobatic planes, but less advantageous for the learning pilot. Because of this symmetry, the plane does not really have any natural or stable flying position, like the high wing planes, and will not automatically return to a stable gliding position.

d. Tail Unit (Emphennage) Conventional Layout Approximately 70% of aircraft in service have a conventional arrangement comprising separate fixed horizontal stabiliser and vertical fin surfaces for stability and moving elevator and rudder sections attached to fixed surfaces for control. This is the simplest solution & provides optimum overall performance in the majority of cases Variable Incidence Tailplane Here the forward (main) section of the horizontal surface is not fixed but is capable of rotation through a small range of angles of attack. As such, it is generally used to adjust pitch trim rather than using the conventional elevators. It is especially useful for countering the effects of significant pitching moment increments caused by deployment of powerful high lift devices. Elevators are still used for pitch control. All-Moving (Slab) Tailplane Whole of the horizontal tailplane surface is used for both pitch control and trim (with no separate hinged elevator). This offers significant advantages at transonic and supersonic speeds when effectiveness of conventional trailing edge surfaces is dramatically reduced. Universally adopted for supersonic fighter designs. Most also use differential movement of opposite sides to improve roll rate (then known as tailerons). Powered controls are necessary due to the large control force requirements. T-Tail Horizontal tailplane mounted on top of fin. Often used on large high-mounted swept-wing designs and also smaller low-wing aircraft. Advantages

 Provides substantial end-plating effect to fin, improving its effectiveness and reducing the fin size requirement. Lifts the horizontal tail clear of any propwash & the wing wake during cruise flight, therefore reducing buffet and fatigue. Allows engines to be mounted on the aft-fuselage, if required. Disadvantages Gives a large mass penalty to the empennage due to the higher loading and aeroelastic effects. Increased likelihood of deep stall puts tail in wake of stalled wing, making recovery difficult or even impossible.. Multi-Finned If fin-sizing exercise results in large single fin dimensions then sometimes preferable to use two (or more) smaller fins instead. Allowed Constellation to operate from existing hangars. Also produces desirable end-plating effect to horizontal tailplane, reducing its size requirements. Fins have to be positioned far enough apart so that undesirable mutual aerodynamic interference effects are not too severe. If fins are positioned in slipstream of propellers rudder performance is improved at low speeds. Difficult to avoid fin stall at high sideslip angles. Not generally used nowadays for single-boom layout transport aircraft. Twin Fin Fighter Aircraft Twin fins nowadays more associated with supersonic fighters. More compatible with twin-engine aircraft (F14/F15/F18) than single (F16) due to engine-out sizing considerations. Special benefit of supersonic application is that interference effect disappears providing fin Mach lines do not intersect. Can also provide infrared shielding of engine exhaust to improve stealth, especially if canted (F22). Resultant reduced fin height improves aeroelastic behaviour. Butterfly Tail In this case the conventional tail surfaces are combined into a pair of inclined surfaces. The separate roles of the tailplane/elevator and fin/rudder are combined. Advantages include: Less interference drag; smaller total surface area; improved stealth characteristics. Disadvantages include: Cross-coupling of stability/control characteristics; handling difficulties; need for fully automatic flight control system. Horizontal Positioning Surfaces should generally be positioned as far aft as possible to maximize the tail moment arm. Restrictions on this may be caused by engine-induced structural fatigue (e.g. F-5).

e. Landing Gear layout Tricycle Gear Configuration The most conventional, comprising: Pair of main legs behind aircraft CG. Single nose leg ahead of CG. Each leg incorporates: Shock absorber to dissipate vertical landing energy. Single or two side-by-side wheels or multiple bogie arrangement. Only main wheels are generally fitted with brakes. Only the nose wheel is usually steered for ground manoeuvring. For effective steering, nose leg should support between 6 and 10% of the aircraft mass. Provision must be made for attachment and stowage of landing gear units. Lateral positioning (track) dictated by need to prevent overturning during ground manoeuvring mainly a function of height of CG, track distance & shock absorber characteristics. Tricycle Gear Configuration Number of Wheels As the aircraft mass increases, operations from runways of given strength dictate need for more wheels to spread the load many possible variants: Two-axle bogie Three-axle bogie Three or four main legs Multiple legs on single axes Two-Axle Bogie The main legs are split into two-axle bogies, with usually two wheels per axle. Such as arrangement is generally necessary if the aircraft mass is between about 90 and 200 tonnes. It is common to many civil and military transport aircraft types. Three-Axle Bogie For very large aircraft (e.g. > 210 tonnes), the load has to be spread even further one option is to use a 3-axle bogie arrangement. Three Main Legs Some large aircraft use an additional main leg to spread the load, e.g. Airbus A340: 2-wheel nose gear and 3 main gear, each of double-wheel 2-bogie 14 wheels in total. Four Main Legs This will generally be the case for very large civil transports (> 300 tonnes) with low wing designs (e.g. Boeing 747). It poses significant problems for airframe attachment & stowage. Multiple Main Legs with Single Axles Good option for heavy high wing military transports with retraction into fuselage blisters.

Tail Wheel Configuration Here the two main wheels are located forward of the CG and a tail wheel or skid provides the third support point. This is a simpler, lighter and cheaper design than a tricycle layout but has significant disadvantages: Difficult ground manoeuvring and take-off/landing due to inhibited visibility. This was the norm for many early aircraft but its application is nowadays limited to simple light aircraft where emphasis is on simplicity and low cost often with fixed (rather than retractable) legs. f. UnConventional Configuration Biplane The norm for the first 30 years of aviation. Early aerofoils were very thin requiring external bracing so that biplanes gave best structural efficiency. Many penalties of use, especially at higher speeds increased total mass, drag and aerodynamic interference. Aerodynamics and materials advances have led to increased wing loadings (W/S) so that biplanes are mostly redundant nowadays main exception is aerobatics aircraft where low W/S is an advantage and specialized aircraft such as crop-sprayers. Variable Sweep (Swing-Wing) Design Problem: High sweep usually needed for transonic/supersonic speed designs but this affects low speed performance. Possible solution is to use variable sweep wings. This gives a better matched performance over a wide speed range and offers an aircraft multi-role capabilities over subsonic and supersonic speed ranges. Variable Sweep - Disadvantages Increased mass over conventional design due to heavy actuation system. Increased system complexity and costs. Increased drag due to interaction between fixed and moving parts of the wing. Trim and stability/control problems due to movements of aerodynamic centre and CG. Canard Layout The conventional aft horizontal tailplane is replaced by a foreplane (or canard) while the main wing is then moved rearwards for stability purposes. Two main categories: Lifting canard canard provides substantial lift as well as longitudinal trim and control. Control canard - longitudinal trim and control only. This is not a new idea the original Wright Flyer was a control canard configuration. Canard Layout Configurational Advantages Negligible trim drag penalty, usually a download on the rear tail surface on a conventional layout.

 More rapid pitching manoeuvre response as initial change is in required direction. Possible layout advantage (e.g. aft-located wing passes behind thecabin). Better provision for escape from pitch-up (associated with tipstall on highly swept wings). Canard Layout Configurational Disadvantages Airflow interference from the canard over the main wing surface. Increased pitching moment effect with wing flap deployment due to large moment arm so sophisticated high lift devices may not be used with consequent low-speed performance penalty. Canard with Forward Sweep Rearward sweep usually preferable as it gives better compromise of aerodynamic characteristics especially stability/control. Forward swept wings also more prone to aeroleastic divergence overcome with associated mass penalty. Torsionally very stiff wing would be required to resist twisting Method could give overall layout advantages, e.g. by allowing wing carry-through structure to pass through rear of aircraft and avoid main section. Twin-Boom Layout Aircraft Several possible reasons for being adopted: Allows engine to be mounted close to CG particularly pusherprop types & early jets. Over-riding requirement for aircraft to have unrestricted access to rear of freight hold. Visibility for rear gunner/bomber crew. Results in use of twin fins. Disadvantages include: increased wing mass, increased interference drag and less usable volume. Span-Loaders Closely related to flying wing designs whereby the payload held in main wing box structure. Small central fuselage pod sometimes used to house flight deck and central services. Advantages Spreads the payload across the wing, rather than the fuselage. This gives inertial relief to the wing structure. Most of aircraft then comprises wing (with higher lift/drag than conventional fuselage). Gives typical 10% reduction in take-off mass. Disadvantages Difficult emergency passenger evacuation procedures. Structural layout problems. Fuel location. Pressurization of wing section. Increased moments of inertia leading to poor roll rates. Complicated flight control system.

Flying Wing (Blended Wing-Body BWB) Layout Similar to spanloaders optimum aerodynamic solution sought - wing is most efficient means of lift generation so fuselage is dispensed with altogether. Advantages As for spanloader inertial relief of wing gives lower wing structure mass and lower costs. Potential for increased passenger cabin volume and improved comfort levels. Major opportunity for using laminar flow technology easier to apply to wing than a fuselage. BWB Aircraft - Disadvantages Passenger wariness of unconventional (more feasible to military & cargo transports). Unfamiliar structural layout & design. Complex aerodynamic interference effects. g. Special Configurational Issues An aircrafts specifications and requirements may include some special provision which could then have a dominant influence over the resultant configuration. These include: Short Take-Off & Vertical Landing (STOVL). Stealth. Waterborne Operations. STOL & STOVL Aircraft Short Take-Off (& Vertical) Landing Aircraft. Two classes of military aircraft sometimes have a need for STOL or STOVL capabilities. Freight. Combat Military Freight STOL Airlifters Often required to operate to and from airstrips of short length and poor surface strength. No major effect upon configuration selection (unless tilt-rotor/wing technology adopted) but increased emphasis on: High installed thrust. Complex high lift devices and wing technology. Low tyre pressures. Several civil variants also developed with perceived need. STOVL Combat Aircraft For vertical landing the available vertical thrust component must exceed the landing weight. Logical to also use this component for short take-off. STOVL thrust component provided by downward deflection of exhaust gases of forward flight propulsion unit(s). Impractical to locate this thrust component immediately below CG at all times so additional thrust provision needed for balance. Three standard methods available for providing vertical thrust component: Vectored bypass flow.

 Separate vertical lift engine. Remotely driven lift engines (using main powerplant as energy source). All methods require separate low-speed control capability, usually using reaction jets supplied with bleed air from main engine compressor. Stealth Increasingly important for modern combat aircraft designs. Final configuration depends heavily on overall priority of stealth against performance. Stealth General Observations Foreplanes best avoided. Internal powerplants & weapons. Intakes with long curved ducts. Exhausts must be shielded. Avoid surfaces positioned at right angles to each other (e.g. use inclined fins). Minimize discontinuities in shape/surface. Surface edges parallel to each other. Difficulties with cockpit transparencies use of unmanned vehicles advantageous. Waterborne Aircraft Very common in the early days of aviation. Can operate from anywhere with a large stretch of reasonably calm water. Became less popular due to: More airfields available after WW2. Trend for using higher wing loadings Results in higher take-off & landing speeds and high water resistance forces. Use nowadays restricted to small aircraft operating in coastal regions or in remote locations with many lakes & rivers. Two basic categories float planes & flying boats. Float Planes Conventional landing gear replaced by large floats. Invariably propeller-driven. Usually direct conversions from landbased types. Usually only applicable to small aircraft (12 tonnes max). Air drag of floats is high and gives large tail download trim requirement. Flying Boats Usually larger than float planes. Fuselage used as a hull for waterborne operations. Wing tip floats or fuselage sponsons used to provide waterborne roll stability. Some types also have conventional retractable landing gear and are then amphibious.