Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

H2 - Validating scientific theories Evolution is a theory and cannot be proven Theories change due to new technology and evidence - science is tentative and theories are provisional. Validation occurs when a) scientists propose plausible explanations and then look for testable evidence to support of disprove ideas. b) a number of predictions are made and tested by experimentation or irrefutable evidence.

Evolution - Selection, inheritance and change. "The change in a population over time" A species is a group of similar organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Significant genetic differences prevent interbreeding. The small genetic differences that do exist in a species are essential to survival and evolution. Charles Darwin's Natural Selection The mechanism by which evolution takes place. It acts on existing variation. Darwin had no idea about chromosomes or DNA and so this theory is strengthened now. Variation exists naturally within populations Organisms have huge reproductive potential Organisms struggle for survival in their environment Selective pressure - Change in environment which causes only the better suited organisms to survive. The best adapted organisms, those with the best characteristics, survive and pass on these characteristics to offspring, who in turn are able to better survive. The outcome of Natural Selection Macro-evolution: Takes place of millions of years and results in new species. Example - Evolution of the red wolf, jackal and dog from a common ancestor. Micro-evolution: Shorter periods of time and results in changes within a population but does not produce new species. Example - Different breeds of dogs Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals Changes in physical conditions in the environment Australia's environment has changed to be: Increasingly hot and dry --> Vegetation from rainforest to wood and grassland --> Change in animal life Drying of lakes --> Plants evolved to conserve water (e.g. water holding frog) Example: Before the change in climate, kangaroos were small and omnivorous, had unspecialised teeth and ate from the forest floor. Aridity and grass became the dominant vegetation which acted as a selective pressure and so larger kangaroos with teeth more suitable for grass were able to better survive. Eventually today's kangaroo developed with high-crested molars to efficiently grind low nutrition grass into a more digestible paste. Slicing pre-molars were reduced.

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Changes in chemical conditions in the environment Australia's environment has changed chemically also: First life forms were anoxic (without oxygen), then photosynthetic bacteria appeared and began producing oxygen as a by-product which allowed for development of larger, oxygen using organisms. Changes occur on a micro level as well, for example the use of DDT leading to resistance. Example: The cattle tick was first controlled using arsenic-based cattle dip. In the beginning it killed many ticks, however ticks with resistance survived and passed the trait onto their offspring leading to a resistant population. DDT was then used and the same result occurred. Competition for resources As a result of these environmental changes, resources may become limited and competition will arise. This selective pressure will cause only organisms that are best adapted to survive. They will have favourable variations that will be passed on to offspring.

Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an environmental change can lead to changes in a species Peppered moths in England Physical change: In England before the mid 19th century, most moths of the species were light in colour and would easily blend into the trees as protection from predators. During the industrial Revolution, woodlands near industrial areas became blackened with soot. This meant white moths were more easily predated by birds but the black ones had a selective advantage and survived. They passed on this characteristic to offspring and so the black peppered moth became more abundant. DDT to control mosquitoes Chemical change: DDT was a chemical used wide scale to kill mosquitoes. Initially was very effective but effectiveness quickly declined. Few mosquitoes which survived the first spraying had a natural resistance to DDT and passed this on to their offspring --> Population changed from mainly susceptible to mainly resistant due to selection by DDT in the environment Describe using specific examples how the theory of evolution is supported by the following areas of study Palaeontology - Transitional species Palaeontology is the study of fossils. Fossils provide evidence of the existence of past organisms. Fossils are undisturbed rock formations and have showing a similar sequence showing the development of organisms today. The evidence it provides for evolution is due to "transitional species" - One showing characteristics of species after and prior.

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Example: Fish to amphibians - Tiktaalik roseae This fossil had traits of both fish and amphibians Scales and gills of a fish Limbs intermediate between fish and tetrapods - Bones in their fins that may have allowed them to drag themselves over land between mud ponds as the land dried out. Mobile neck and lungs of a tetrapod This shows the evolutionary pathway between fish and amphibians. Example: Reptiles to birds - Archaeopteryx Like reptiles: long tail, claws, no keel, solid bones, teeth Like birds: wish-bone, feathers This flying dinosaur from the late Jurassic supports the theory that birds developed from reptiles

Biogeography - The geographical distribution of species Darwin and Wallace's theory proposes that for a new species to arise, a group of individuals must become isolated. They then evolve to a degree where they could not produce fertile offspring with the pre-existing species. Since isolation is necessary for a new species to arise, the new species should resemble species with which they shared a habitat. Example: Birdwing butterflies are found throughout the western pacific region. Those is Papua New Guinea and Irianjaya show genetic variation to suit their environment. This shows that as the populations became isolated, they evolved to suit their changing environment. Comparative Embryology The study of embryos of different organisms, looking for similarities and differences between them Similarities between vertebrate embryos suggest a common ancestor Fish, amphibians, birds and mammals all show presence of gill slits during embryonic life, however these only develop into gills in fish. During development all vertebrates have paired pharyngeal pouches. In fish and amphibian larvae the pouches become gills. In humans the first pair of pouches become a cavity of middle ear and auditory tube. Second pair becomes tonsils. Fish therefore must be ancestral to other vertebrate groups.

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Comparative anatomy Structures in common are evidence of similar inherited characteristics from common ancestors Structural homology (similar structure). Example: the pentadactyl limb Most land vertebrates show same pentadactyl (five-digits) limb pattern in arm and leg bones Mammalian forelimbs are said to be homologous structures In bats, the limb is modified to form a wing with the fingers extended and skin stretched between each finger. Whales have within their single paddle-like fin a fully formed pentadactyl limb. Bones are of relative size between organisms Inherited this from aquatic ancestors, the lobe-finned fish Shows that natural selection has kept the gene for this trait and differences are suited to the environment of the organism. Biochemistry Involves determining sequences of chemicals such as amino acids or bases in DNA. Similarities show how closely linked organisms are and how far back they diverged. Differences show the changes that have arisen due to evolution. Use available evidence to analyse using a named example how advances in technology have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships DNA-DNA Hybridisation: chemical hybridisation is used to compare DNA molecules from different species i. DNA from a species is separated into 2 strands using heat ii. Single strands formed are mixed with single strands from another species iii. Two different strands will join to form a hybrid molecule. However, not all pairs of bases will match. A high degree of pairing will occur if two DNA sequences are similar. A low degree of pairing will occur if two DNA sequences are very different iv. Degree of pairing can be estimated by measuring the temperature at which hybrid strands separate. The more bonds formed, the higher the temperature needed to separate the strands Species which diverged more recently from a common ancestor will be expected to show a higher degree of hybridisation Hybridisation studies show that humans are most closely related to chimpanzees, followed by gorillas and then orang-utans, which were the first to diverge from a common ancestor

Amino acid sequencing: Amino acid sequencing looks at the sequence of amino acids that makes up a protein. The proteins cytochrome c and haemoglobin revealed identical sequences in chimpanzees and humans. Similarities imply they are related and shared a common ancestor. Number of differences is proportional to the length of time since they separated.

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Result: Humans and chimpanzees are now classified in the same family while before they were not. This also acts as proof for evolution, showing they have descended from a common ancestor. Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical development of theories of evolution and use available evidence to assess social and political influences on these developments Historical Developments of Theories: Erasmus Darwin: First suggested that all life came from a single source John Baptiste de Lamarck (early 1800s): Proposed the idea of use and disuse of body parts causing inheritance of acquired characteristics Proposed two driving forces: A change in animals from simple to complex and adaptation of animals to their local environment. Inherent drive towards higher forms Helped make Darwins ideas more acceptable Alfred Russel Wallace: Came to same conclusions as Darwin; evolution by natural selection. Published his paper along with Darwins after being convinced to do so despite social pressures. Charles Darwin (1859): Published On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection detailing evidence for evolution by natural selection. Gregor Mendel: Developed the particulate model of inheritance, the means by which natural selection could occur Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldridge: Proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium in 1972. Social and Political Influences: Predominant view in western cultures was creationism Each species had been created in its present form by God in six days Earth is 6000 years old, and species have not changed in this time Humans have a special place in the world; evolution reduces humans to same level as other organisms Darwins theory of evolution was rejected by many religious people Idea that humans are descended from apes caused social/political outrage Evolution threatened the power of religious institutions that had long held political/social power 1920s: Protestant traditionalists campaigned against ant biblical ideas of evolution. Several states in USA banned teaching evolution in public schools 1925 Scopes trial: A teacher was prosecuted for teaching the theory of evolution as fact Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation accounts for divergent evolution and convergent evolution Convergent evolution: Natural selection can result in similar adaptations in unrelated species that live in similar environments. The same variations are favourable due to same selection pressures in both environments Example: Seals and dolphins (mammals) and sharks (cartilaginous fish) all live in the open ocean. Have limbs modified as flippers, streamlined bodies, and eat fish. Seals and dolphins, belonging to different orders of mammals, are able to stay under water longer than most other mammals, and have thick layer of fat under skin to conserve body heat

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Divergent evolution: Selection pressures in different environments cause populations of a single species to present different dominant variations. Ultimately, the two populations might be so different that they can no longer interbreed, and hence form new species Example: Darwin described 13 species of finches on the Galapagos Islands He proposed each originated from the population that first reached the islands Habitat and diets were different, and thus they had different body sizes and beak sizes/shapes to suit.

Adaptive radiation - describes the evolutionary variation in a species from a common ancestor.

Punctuated equilibrium Gradualism - Populations of organisms change each generation based on favourable variations that are inherited. Punctuated equilibrium - Evolution occurs in short bursts of rapid change followed by long periods of stability (or stasis) within populations. Many fossilised remains show millions of years going by without any noticeable evolutionary change to most species. Soft-bodied organisms dominated the seas for hundreds of millions of years, then in a period of a few million years they were replaced by organisms with shells and skeletons. Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel Before Mendel it was though that traits were 'blended' and were passed through the blood. Self pollinated tall pea plants (TT) for 3-4 generations to produce a pure line of all tall plants (Homozygous) Self pollinated short pea plants (tt) for 3-4 gens to produce a pure line of all short plants (Homozygous) Crossed TT and tt. The result was all tall plants. When he crossed two of the offspring the result was a 3:1 ratio of tall to short. He concluded that there were two factors for a character (tall and short in this case) and one was dominant, masking the other.

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to his success Why peas? Easy to breed and grow quickly so many generations could be easily produced Male and female organs in the same plant Fertilization could easily be controlled Distinctive characteristics (alleles) that he could look at. These included pod and seed colour and shape, height A large number of characteristics were studied but only one at a time which was the controlled variable. Independent variable was the characteristic such as height and the dependent was the resulting appearance of offspring. Reduced possibility of experimental error: Each experiment was started with pure breeding lines to ensure variable were accurately controlled - Bags were placed over plants to ensure self pollination. Avoided unwanted pollination. Removed anthers to prevent self pollination when crossing plants Large sample sizes and many repetitions of genetic crosses. Exact numbers and statistical patterns were used to identify patterns and trends to use as a basis for valid conclusions. Mathematical data from first experiments was used to form new hypotheses which were then shown to be correct. Established generalisations and patterns that became laws.

Controlled Variables

Ensured Accuracy

Valid and Reliable Mathematical analysis Justified Inferences and Conclusions

Describe the outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using Mendels explanations Monohybrid cross - A cross between two plants and involves one factor only. Experiments such as Mendel's looking at pea plant height. F1 or first filial generation - 100% tall (Tt). F2 or second filial generation - 1:3 short to tall (TT, Tt, Tt, tt) Each plant had two inherited factors for each trait. Plants with identical factors were called true breeding (homozygous). Plants with different factors were called hybrids (heterozygous). Each factor was a discrete particle that retained its identity across generations (challenging the blending model) Mendels 1st law, the Law of Segregation: factors for the same characteristic occur in pairs in an individual. These pairs separate at gamete formation, so that a gamete contains only one factor for each characteristic Mendels 2nd law, the Law of Independent Assortment: each pair of factors sorts out independently of other pairs at gamete formation. This means that either factor of a pair can combine with either factor of another pair

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid crosses Homozygous: having two identical forms (alleles) of the gene for a particular characteristic Heterozygous: having two different forms (alleles) of the gene for a particular characteristic Heterozygous offspring are hybrids: offspring of two different parents

Generation 2: Tt x Tt (heterozygous tall x heterozygous tall) 1 TT : 2 Tt : 1 tt (1 homozygous tall: 2 heterozygous tall: 1 homozygous short) Distinguish between the terms allele and gene using examples A gene is a unit of heredity. Genes determine characteristics such as plant height. An allele is a different variation of the same gene. For example the gene for pea height could be either tall or short. Example: A plant heterozygous for tallness has one allele for tallness and one for shortness. A plant homozygous for tallness has identical alleles in its gene pair Genotype: actual alleles an organism possesses for a characteristic Phenotype: outward appearance of an organism; the expressed or presented traits as a result of an organisms genotype

Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype using examples The genotype (genetic makeup) of an organism determines the phenotype (physical appearance). In heterozygoues organisms, alleles are different however only one is expressed as the phenotype - This is the dominant allele. The other allele that is masked is recessive. In homozygous organisms, both alleles are the same and therefore reflect the phenotype. Example: A heterozygous pea plant (Tt) would be tall, because that is the dominant gene. A homozygous pea plant (TT) would be tall and it has two of the same dominant allele. Note: Environment can also affect phenotype. For example height of a person is determined by genotype as well as nutrition and living conditions. Outline reasons why the importance of Mendel's work was not recognised until some time after it was published Presented his papers to a very small group of scientists in a small town --> Research not well known or widely published. Work was different from biological work of the time. He used mathematical data and statistics. As a result many may not have understood his work and thought it was based on very little prior knowledge. Had no established reputation as a scientist and no prior significant research so his standing and results were doubted.

Biology HSC Blueprint of Life

Describe an example of hybridisation within a species and explain the purpose of this hybridisation Plant breeders carried out systematic crosses between different varieties of one species to form hybrids that had new combinations of desirable characteristics Hybridisation: the crossing of different varieties of one species to produce new varieties with different combinations of characteristics Hybrid vigour: hybrids combine best features of their parents Hybrid plants are higher yielding compared to their true-breeding parents

Wheat hybridisation in Australia: Flour produced from Australian-grown wheats was too poor due to hot weather to be used for baking bread in late 1800s. William Farrer Crossed an early-ripening Indian wheat with a Canadian variety that had good baking properties, then selected one of these, and crossed it with a higher yielding variety to make the new variety Federation Ripened early to avoid hot summer and make wheat better suited to Australia's short growing season. Had high yield Was ideal for mechanical harvesting because it had a strong, short straw Became the most widely grown wheat for 15 years

Family Pedigrees A pattern of inheritance for a dominant trait includes the following features: All affected individuals have at least one affected parent Once a trait disappears from a branch it does not reappear Both males and females can be affected - approx even number in large samples. Some dominant traits include: Huntington disease - A degenerative brain disorder Alzheimer's disease Neurofibromatosis - Elephant man disease Elevated blood cholesterol

A pattern of inheritance for a recessive trait includes the following features: Two unaffected parents can have an affected child. The trait can 'skip' generations. All children of two parents with the condition must show the condition Both males and females can be affected - approx even number in large samples.

Some recessive traits include: Albinism Cystic Fibrosis Red hair colour