Tengan, C., Et Al

Scottish Journal of Arts, Social Sciences and Scientific Studies - ISSN 2047-1278
http://scottishjournal.co.uk

108

SCOTTISH JOURNAL OF
ARTS, SOCIAL SCIENCES
AND
SCIENTIFIC STUDIES

VOLUME 14, ISSUE II
August, 2013

Articles
Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (Siwes) and Graduate Employability
in Nigeria: A Study Of the South East Geo-Political Zone ........................................ 110
I zueke, Edwin M , Ph.D ......................................................................................................... 110
Nzekwe, I feoma I .................................................................................................................... 110
Political Thuggery among the Youths of Uvir Community in Guma Local
Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria .................................................................. 127
Folashade b. Okeshola ........................................................................................................... 127
J oy m. Tsegda ......................................................................................................................... 127
The Effect of Ground Types on Radio Coverage of Broadcast Antennas ................ 138
Fulya Callialp Kunter
*
........................................................................................................... 138
Gender Stereotyping and Women Career Development in Nigeria ......................... 151
Dr Olajubutu .......................................................................................................................... 151
Compensating Human Capital in Organisations: The General Concerns about
Paying Top Executives Excessively .............................................................................. 158
Dr. Angeline Tay .................................................................................................................... 158
Mr. Pankajkumar A/L Bipinchandra .................................................................................... 158
Comparative Analysis of Barriers to E-Procurement among Quantity Surveyors in
UK and Nigeria ............................................................................................................... 175
Wasiu Adeniran Bello ............................................................................................................ 175
Rueben O. A. I yagba .............................................................................................................. 175


109
Assessing the Impact of Pre-Construction Conference (Pcc) On the Success of
District/Municipal Assembly Projects in Ghana ......................................................... 188
Tengan Callistus ..................................................................................................................... 188
Duodu Bismark ...................................................................................................................... 188
Kissi Ernest ............................................................................................................................. 188
Nani Gabriel ........................................................................................................................... 188
Ceramic Association of Nigeria (Ceran): The Journey Thus Far. ............................ 196
I .B. Kashim ............................................................................................................................. 196
Strengthening National Primary Schools in Malaysia ............................................... 211
I khsan Othman ....................................................................................................................... 211
Amir Hasan Dawi ................................................................................................................... 211
Mohamad Sidik Ariffin .......................................................................................................... 211


110

Students Industrial Work
Experience Scheme (Siwes) and
Graduate Employability in Nigeria: A
Study Of the South East Geo-Political
Zone

I zueke, Edwin M , Ph.D
Department of Public Administration and Local Government,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka
Email:eddyizueke@unn.edu.ng

Nzekwe, I feoma I
Department of Public Administration and Local Government,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

Abstract
The research investigated the effectiveness of the implementation of Students Industrial Work
Experience Scheme (SIWES) as a policy measure to bridge the gap between theory and
practice as its exists in the world of work, and offer graduates employability skills; the extent of
cooperation between the universities and placement organizations in the implementation of the
SIWES; and what factors contended against the implementation of SIWES. Descriptive survey
research design was adopted in carrying out the research. The data for the study were collected
using primary and secondary sources. The data generated were analyzed using descriptive and
inferential statistics the hypotheses were tested using t-test inferential tool. The findings show
that the implementation of SIWES policy in Nigeria was ineffective. The study further revealed
that there was no significant cooperation between the universities and placement organizations
in the implementation of SIWES. Lastly, the study revealed that the ineffective implementation
of SIWES was worsened by over reliance on paper qualifications especially by government
employers. We recommend more effective strategies in the implementation of the policy such
as adequate funding, and strengthening the teaching of employability skills in SIWES. Greater
cooperation between universities and employment organizations in designing academic
curricula, and less emphasis on paper qualifications by government employers is highly
recommended.


111

Key words: Employability skills, Unemployable graduate, skills mismatch and unemployment

1.0 Introduction
The current interest on employability arose out of:
- The changing nature of public employment policy, with increasing emphasis
being given to skill-based solutions to economic competition
- The high rate of technological innovations and their adaptations
The possession of employability skills is a big source of unemployment reduction in a
country. The concept of employability, as used within the more general context of employment
policy, has tended to reflect acknowledgment of the need for individuals to possess transferable
skills in order to operate effectively within an increasingly flexible (and insecure) labour
market (Garavan, et al, 2001)
Following from this objective, and the growing concern of our industrialists, that
graduates of our institutions of higher learning lack adequate practical background studies
preparatory for employment empowered by Decree 47 the ITF introduced Students Industrial
Work Experience Scheme in 1973, as a policy measure to bridge the gap between theory and
practice. It is implemented as a training programme. The policy on student Industrial Work
Experience Scheme was introduced with the aim of making the training programme an
effective instrument of productivity, skilled work and employment promotion. Therefore,
SIWES is a purposive course of action adopted by governmental organizations: National
Universities Commission (NUC) and Industrial Training Fund (ITF).
SIWES is a skill-training and acquisition programme designed to expose and
prepare students of higher institutions for work situations, as they exist in the world of work. It
is aimed at bridging the gap between theory learnt in school and practice, as they exist in
industries and other work situations. The policy was planned as a cooperation and inter-
relationship between institutions of higher learning and industry/commerce in the country to
make graduates employable and offer them employability skills( Osinem and Nwoji :2005).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The SIWES has been on since 1973 with students participating, yet Nigerian graduates
of higher institutions are being rated low and unemployable by industrial organizations. A
minister of Science and Technology under President Obasanjo, Professor Isoun (2006),
lamented that no fewer than 60 percent of the nations graduates were either unemployable or
needed re-training to make them relevant in todays emerging technologies. Olunike (2011)
quoted the Vice President, Nigerian Graduate Advancement Programme, Alfred Oyidiya as
saying that the problem with unemployment in Nigeria was not availability of jobs, but the
alarming rate of unemployable Nigerian graduates in the labour market. In his own perception
of the situation, Chairman of the House of Representatives Committee on Youth and Social
Development, Mr. Depo Oyedokun (2009) observed that Of the over 40 million unemployed
youths in the country, 23 million are unemployable and therefore susceptible to crime.
Dabelen, et al (2000), from the study carried out on labour statistics noted that the
unemployment rate for university graduates was 25 percent and that their prospects for
employment have worsened over time. They observed that graduate skills have steadily
deteriorated especially in communication and applied technical skills. They further stated that
in many cases, employers compensate for insufficient academic preparation by organizing
remedial courses for new employees. This increases the firms operating costs, and reduces
their profitability and competitiveness.


112

The result of a study carried out on graduate turnout, skills and graduate unemployment
in Nigeria by Akinyemi, Ofem and Omore (2010) shows that Nigerian graduates largely, lack
basic employability skills that are needed in the modern workplace. There is skills mismatch.
Adeyemo, et al (2010), observed from a survey they carried out on graduate employability in
Nigeria, that there was a mismatch between university outputs and labour market demands.
Akanmu (2011) noted that high unemployment rate in Nigeria was as result of declining
employability among graduates of higher institutions and declining trust by industry in the
quality of graduates and local university certification. The Nigerian Institute of Personnel
Management, NIPM (2000) noted that the quality of graduates in Nigeria is on a rapid decline
especially in respect of valuable skills including; communication, technical abilities, human
interaction, social, conceptual and analytical capacity. To collaborate this, the Nigerian
Employers Consultative Associative, NECA (2000) asserted that companies were not recruiting
but adopting employment protection strategies due to the very poor quality graduates who do
not meet the demands of industry.
It has also been observed that industrial organizations like oil companies, banks,
telecommunications, etc, send their newly employed graduates for re-training before utilizing
them. Akamu (2011) noted that anyone who sets up a factory or a construction project in
Nigeria, imports a platoon of Indian, Israeli, Chinese, Korean or German Technicians to run the
project. Hence, this phenomenon of unemployable graduates contributes immensely to the high
rate of graduate unemployment in the country. On the other hand, some of the graduates, who
studied engineering and other technical courses, as a last resort, end up as teachers in secondary
schools. This is underemployment, an aspect of unemployment.
To this end, the crux of the matter is why is there high level of graduate who are
unemployable arising from skills mismatch in Nigeria, despite the fact that the summary of the
objectives of SIWES is to enable students of higher institutions acquire necessary skills to be
employable after graduation.
1.4 Research Questions
The following questions were posed:
I. Is there any significant cooperation between the universities and placement
organizations in the implementation of SIWES?
II. Is there any significant difference in the mean ratings of students and lecturers
on effective implementation of SIWES policy?
III. Does SIWES offer graduates employability skills?
IV. What are the factors constraining the effective implementation of SIWES in
Nigeria.
1.5 Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses guided the study
H0
1
: There is no significant difference in the ratings of lecturers and
managers/employers on the extent of cooperation between universities and
placement organizations in the implementation of SIWES policy.
H0
2
: There is no significant difference in the ratings of the students and lecturers on
the ineffectiveness of the implementation of SIWES policy in Nigeria


113

1.6 Scope
The study was concerned with only the students in their final years of their programme, who
have gone for SIWES and come back for the completion of their programmes. The study was limited to
selected universities in the South-East geo-political zone.
In these universities, the study was limited to the faculties and departments that are
participating in SIWES. The study also included the managers/employers of both public and
private organizations in the geopolitical zone.
2.0 Methodology
2.1 Research Design
The study was descriptive survey with researcher-designed questionnaire for data
collection. Survey research method was considered appropriate since the study was an
assessment of an on-going programme. In the view of Osuala(1993), survey method is
appropriate for conducting a study of an on-going process
Questionnaires were designed in line with the objectives of the study. The questionnaires for
the lecturers, students were different. However, some questions were for both lecturers and students,
managers and students, and lecturers and managers.
In order to ensure accuracy of report and first hand information, the researcher
embarked on face-to-face interview with the managers of some placement organizations who
gave the researcher their own perception of the issue at stake. The coordinators of SIWES in
the five universities were also interviewed.
2.2 The Study Area
The study covered the five states in the South East Geo-political zone of Nigeria
namely, Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo. The choice of this zone was motivated by the
fact that this area is well known for their efforts in acquiring education. The selected
universities and organizations are located in this zone. The study covers faculties and
departments that are participating in SIWES. The industrial and service organizations covered
were those that have the capacity to accept students for SIWES, both public and private.
2.3 Population of the Study
The population of this study includes the lecturers and students in the departments
under study. The target population for the study comprised 10,391 and 2001 students and
lecturers respectively from the departments participating in SIWES in the five universities
under study. The population includes also 10 SIWES coordinators and 1002
managers/employers drawn from the five states in the geopolitical zone.
The study focused on the 10 federal and state universities in the geo-political zone.
Each of the ten universities has a SIWES coordinator, and their population was 10.The
population included all the final year students and lecturers in the departments of universities
that participate in SIWES; and the managers/employers of placement organizations.
2.4 Sampling Technique and Sample Size
Sampling Procedure
In constituting the sample, five universities were selected using simple random
sampling techniques, each from the five states of the geo-political zones. Purposive sampling
techniques were used to select two departments each that participate in SIWES from these
universities.


114

2.5 Sample Size
Taro Yemanes (1967) formular was used to determine the sample size of the
population of students. Yemanes formular:
The formula =
n = N
1 + Ne
2

Sample Size of the Students using the Formular is 400
A simple random sampling method was used to select 40 students from each
department that is participating in SIWES, that was previously selected.
Sample Size of Lecturers:
In selecting the sample size, we applied Nwannas (1994) formular which says that
where the population is a few thousand, 10% of the population or more will do. Therefore, 10%
of 2001 was calculated to give us appropriately 200 lecturers. A simple random sampling
method was used to select 20 lecturers from each of the five universities resulting in a sample
size of 200.
Sample Size of Managers/Employers
The sample size was obtained using Nwannas formular stated above. Therefore, 10%
of 1002 was calculated and it resulted in 100 managers/employers as sample size.
Out of the 10 SIWES Coordinators were interviewed. This represents 40% of the
population.
2.6 Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument used consisted of a set of three questionnaires, one for final year
students, the second for the lecturers and the third for the employers/managers of labour. The
information is put in a weighted scale with numerical values attached to them in the
questionnaire as follows: Strongly Agree (SA) = 4; Agree (A) = 3, No Answer (NA) = 0;
Disagree (D) = 2, Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1.
2.7 Validation of Research Instrument
In this study, in order to ensure the validity of the instrument, we applied both content
and face validity. This was done by ensuring that the entire questions covered the range of
meanings included with the concept (content validity) and that the research instrument relates
to the statement of problems, research questions and hypotheses.
Drafts copies of the questionnaire were given to five lecturers in the departments
understudy and a coordinator of SIWES in the University for Validation. The instrument was
restructured in line with the suggestions and observations made by these experts and
ambiguous questions were eliminated before presenting it to the supervisor for certification.
2.8 Reliability Test of the Instrument
To test the reliability of the research instrument, the initial draft was pilot-tested on a
small sample of the students and lecturers who were not part of the sample of study. The out-
come of the pre-test exercise necessitated the recasting of ambiguous questions, elimination of
irrelevant ones and inclusion of new ones. The reliability of the instrument was determined
using Cronbach-Alpha analysis. The value of Cronbach-Alpha for the instrument used in the
pilot study was 0.74 for students, 0.79 for lecturers and 80 for employers. The Cronbach-Alpha
as an estimate of reliability was adequate at 0.74. Such a reliability value, according to


115

Livingstone (1985), was a fair indication of a good internal consistency and the instrument was
fairly reliable.

2.9 Method of Data Analysis
We employed both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis. This is to ensure
validity and reliability of the study. Frequency and mean score for responses on each question
were calculated to determine the remark. A mean score of 2.50 and above confirms agreement
while a score below 2.50 means disagreed.
The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.. The descriptive
statistics will involve computation of means and standards deviations from the responses of the
respondents to the questionnaire items. The computed mean scores were used in answering the
research questions. The decision rule was to accept any item that has a mean score of 2.50 and
above. The hypotheses will be tested using inferential statistical tool, the t-test.
Finally, the mean ratings of the lecturers and students, students and managers; and
lecturers and managers were compared using t-test at 0.05 (5%) level of significance. The t-
tests were used to test the differences in the responses of the different groups of respondents on
the issues under study.
3.0 Clarification of Concepts
3.1 Graduate Skills Mismatch
This means graduates having inappropriate skills. In other words, job seekers possess
skills that do not match the needs and demands of employers (McGrath, 1999; Kent and Mushi,
1995). Ndubisi (2011) observed that the high rate of unemployment in Nigeria is largely
attributable to the dearth of employable manpower. He further noted that the unemployment
situation in Nigeria is not demand-induced but supply induced.
When graduates are said to be unemployable, it simply means that majority of them
cannot handle the job they go for. Skills mismatch has been defined by Olunike (2010:1)
quoting the Vice-President, Nigerian Graduate Advancement Programme, Mrs. Oyidiya Alfred
as a situation where an individual lacks the basic mental, (even though he has had formal
education), social, practical and developmental skills that will enable him to function
effectively at assigned jobs and handle everyday work challenges. Graduate skills mismatch
has been the major cause of unemployment in Nigeria (Kolapo, 2011). Kolapo said that
recently Professor Soludo, the then Governor of Central Bank of Nigeria noted that seventy
percent of Nigerian graduates were unemployable. This means that they lack basic mental,
social and practical skills that will help them to function effectively in organizations.
The statement by Soludo drew the ire of some Nigerians, who argued that Nigerians
were no less intellectually endowed than their counterparts anywhere in the world. However, a
look at the global economy and globalization, one would see that the economy requires
professionals to run every business to a globally competitive level. The problem is not about
the intellectual prowess of the Nigerian undergraduate or his aptitude, but it is about how the
system in which these attributes are maximized processed the graduate. For an employee
(particularly in the new-look banking industry as well as other vital sectors like oil and gas) to
satisfy his employer as a value-adding worker, his world view must be sophisticated and in tune
with those of his counterparts in other parts of the world. Most graduates classified as
unemployable are timid, could not make clear and clean sentences in response to verbal
questions. They lack problem solving skills, interpersonal skills and analytical skills.


116

3.2 Graduate Employability
Employability refers to a persons capability of gaining initial employment, maintaining
employment and obtaining new employment if required (Hillage and Pollard, 1998). In simple
terms, employability is about being capable of getting and keeping fulfilling work. More
comprehensively, employability is the capability to move self-sufficiently within the labour
market to realize potential through sustainable employment. For individuals, employability
depends on the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) they possess, the way they use those
assets and present them to employers, and the context (e.g. personal circumstances and labour
market environment) within which they seek work.
According to Overtoon (2000:2) employability means, having essential functional and
enabling knowledge, skills and attitudes required by the millennium workplace, necessary for
career success for all levels of education.
Employability skills are those skills necessary for getting, keeping and doing well on a
job. These skills include attitudes, and actions that enable workers to get along with their fellow
workers and supervisors and to make sound, critical decisions (Brown & Hesketh, 2004).
Overtoon (2000:3) added that employability is the ability to obtain new employment if
required, i.e. to be independent in the labour market by being willing and able to manage their
own employment transition between and within organizations.
DEST, (2002) presents the findings of extensive research undertaken by the Business
Council of Australia (BCA) and the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (ACCI) in
2001. The report identified personal attributes required for todays employees, as well as eight
employability skills. The skills are: Communication, Teamwork, Problem solving, Self
management, Technology, Life-long learning skills, initiative and enterprise, planning and
organizing skills.
Theoretical knowledge alone would not usually prepare an educated person for the
world of work. The worker or productive individual must not only be knowledgeable but must
also be versatile in the application of skills to perform defined jobs or work.
A synthesis of various employability skills that researchers have come up with is
presented below.
Skills
(1) Communication: oral & written
(2) ICT, technology and technical skills.
(3) Interpersonal, organizational and team skills.
(4) Subject specific knowledge skills
(5) Character, integrity and high ethical standards
(6) Numeric and mathematical skills
(7) Self-directed, learning, development and entrepreneurship skills
(8) Analytical/critical thinking skills
(9) Problem solving/Decision making skills
4.0 Conceptual Nexus between Graduates Skill and Labour Market Requirement
What Employers Want in Their Graduate Recruits
A number of researchers such as Dabalen, Oni and Adekola (2000) and National
University Commission (2004), have revealed that apart from the qualifications that graduates
possess, there are other attributes (non-academic skill requirements) which employers of labour
require and emphasize. According to them, these attributes include analytical skills, good


117

communication skills, good personal and social skills, technical and managerial skills among
others. Boeteng and Ofori-Sapong (2002), in relating these attributes to experience, stress that
experience requirements are now stated in terms of competencies and skills rather than years.
Employers of labour force are not only interested in those having higher education but also
practical skills appropriate for job fulfillment.
It is a paradox that large numbers of university graduates go jobless for years while
service and industrial organizations complain of lack of skilled workers. Akanmu (2011) noted
that the skills required should meet international standards to enable them work in Lagos,
Accra, New York, Johannesburg, etc.
Akanmu (2011) said that employers want their graduate recruits to be technically
competent and to be well equipped with complementary life skills such as problem solving,
reflective and critical thinking, interpersonal and team skills. Other desirable skills include
effective communication, character, integrity and high level of personal ethics, self-discipline,
organizing skills and abilities to translate ideas into action
. Cooperation between Universities and Organizations in Siwes
The cooperation between universities and employers is called cooperative occupational
education. Cooperative occupational education is a general term used to describe various types
of cooperative plan programmes specifically designed to prepare youth for occupations in
proportion to the distribution of employment and career opportunities. Stadt and Gooch (1977)
describe cooperative occupational education as a programme of occupational education for
persons who, through cooperative arrangement between the school and employers, receive
instruction by alternation of study in school with a job in any occupational field, but these two
experiences must be planned and supervised by the school and employers so that each
contributes to the students education and to his employability. Work periods and school
attendance may be in alternate half-days, full-days, weeks, or other periods of time in fulfilling
the cooperative work-study programme.
SIWES is a collaborative programme between industries and universities with the aim
of exposing students to industrial practical works and generating a pool of indigenous trained
manpower sufficient to meet the needs of the Nigerian economy. Three concepts are commonly
associated with the collaborative programme.
Employability, which can cover getting a graduate job, possession of a
vocational degree, formal work experience, possession of key skills. According
to Nwachukwu (2010:46), employability refers to, a persons capacity of
gaining initial characteristic. According to Overtoom (2000) initial
characteristics are those transferable core skill groups that represent essential
functional and enabling knowledge, skills and attitudes required by the
millennium workplace, necessary for career success for all levels of education.
Work-based learning, which can be defined as learning at work or learning from
work.
Placement learning, which can be defined as a planned period of learning,
normally outside the institutions at which the student is enrolled, where learning
outcomes are an intended part of the programme of study.
SIWES as a collaborative programme are involved in the three concepts.
SIWES programme has evolved over the years. The programme was initially and
essentially meant for students offering engineering and technology oriented courses but has


118

expanded to accommodate other professionally related occupations such as management,
education, etc
Siwes and Skills Acquisition for Students
One of the most important and obvious goals of industrial work experience to the
student is the acquisition of actual real world experience. It gives a full and realistic view of
workplace environment. According to Awe, (2008) lack of direction and unrealistic
expectations, and not lack of intelligence, are some of the major reasons why many careers
dont take-off.
In addition, educational experience can be enhanced through practical work
assignments that expose the student to the work of the employer. This enhances the students
knowledge in the career field. It helps the student to recognize the operation and requirements
of real-life business, thus leading to the development of entrepreneurship, global outlook,
professional ethics, social and cultural understanding (Hong Kong Polytechnic Programme,
2007).
The search for placement is a brilliant way to acquire job search and interviewing skills.
The search helps the student to learn how to market himself for opportunity. It will help the
student to recognize the expectation of employers, thus leading to employability.
SIWES offers students the opportunity to acquire useful skills such as communication,
problem solving, analytical, decision-making, leadership, team work, networking and
interpersonal (empathy, sensitivity and friendship) (Awe, 2008). This is possible because
SIWES will enable the students to know and learn how to work with people. These skills are
employability skills. Arukwe (1990) observed that graduates employment depends on the
knowledge, skills and attitude they posses and the way they use those assets and present them
to employers.
Finally, SIWES helps students to develop practical skills to reflect upon in future
studies. In the same vein gives the student opportunity to come in contact with professionals
that he can rely upon in the development of his career.
Theoretical Framework
The study is based on the system theory. The choice of the system theory for the study
was based on the premise that the systems approach gives room for assessing the output of
SIWES in the light of graduate employability in Nigeria. It is a framework, upon which we
investigated and described the inter-dependence and relatedness of groups or part that work
together to produce result.
System theory was first used in the biological and engineering sciences before it was
adopted by social scientists and organization theorists. Bertalanffy (1956) propounded that
there is a General Systems Theory (GST) that can be applied to general system that exist in
nature or, in a business context, organizational or economic system. Following from this
proposition, Easton (1965), and Kartz and Kahn (1966) adapted system theory to political
science and organizational theories respectively.
From the perspectives of Kartz and Kahn (1966) a social system can be identified by:
1) Tracing the pattern of energy exchange or activity of people as it results in some
output.
2) Ascertaining how the output is translated into energy, which reactivates the
pattern.


119

They referred to organizational functions or objectives not as the conscious purposes of
group leaders or group members but as the outcomes that are the energic source for
maintenance of the same type of output. This model of an energic intput-output system is taken
from the open system theory as promulgated by Von Bertalanfy, as stated earlier.
In order to be able to apply this theory to the problems of social science, it is important
to examine in more detail the tenets and constructs of the theory and the characteristics of open
systems. A system from this frame of reference is composed of regularly interacting or
interrelating structures, groups of activities and institutions which are interacting with their
environment. Nigro and Nigro (1984), said that system framework starts with the proposition
that all social systems have certain characteristics. The major characteristics of a social system
as adapted from Nigro and Nigro (1984) and Katz and Kahn (1966) are as follows:
INPUT: Organizations constantly seek and import energy or resources (inputs) in both
human and material form, and transform these inputs into products and services, using internal
social and technological processes (throughputs).
OUTPUT: Open System export some products into the environment. These outputs may
be human, material or service products. However, they usually become the inputs of other
organizations.
THROUGHPUT: Open systems transform or process the input available to them. The
organization creates a new product, processes materials, trains people, or provides a service.
These activities entail some reorganizations of input. Some work is done in the system. The
throughput is the mechanism, process and place of transformation. Muo and Muo (2007) assert
that of all the parts of a system, the most critical for organizational mechanics is the
transformation process.
FEEDBACK: This comes in the form of information about the environmental responses
to organizational activities (outputs). It is used to keep the system on course with regard to its
goals and to evaluate the performance of the organization and its sub-units. The simplest type
of information input found in all systems is negative feedback. Information feedback of
negative kind enables the system to correct deviations from course.
Application of the Theory to the Study
System theory as explained is concerned with the problems of relationships of structure,
and of interdependence. In this regard, applying system theory, we are concerned with the
relationship and interdependence of the structures and organizations concerned with the
implementation of SIWES.
Implementation of SIWES involves the interaction of structures and organizations that
are interdependence, and which are in constant commerce with the environment. The
universities, placement organizations and the Federal Government (ITF) are in interdependent
relationship in the implementation of SIWES.
The products (outputs) of SIWES are the graduates. The reactions of the public and
employment organizations form the feedback from the environment. The feedback ranges from
the poor rating of graduates to unemployment. It should be noted that the quality of the input
and the effectiveness of the throughput determines the quality of the output.
In this study, the inputs are the students, while the through-put include the industries,
lecturers and schools as shown in figure 3. The quality of the students (inputs) that are sent for
SIWES are determined by the industrial experience of the lecturers and the facilities available
in the school. Then the students are transformed by SIWES through the industries and
placement organizations. Where the students are poorly prepared, the work of the through-put


120

would be enormous. Therefore, the transformation of the students to be useful in the world of
work depends on the effectiveness of the industries in having adequate facilities and personnel,
especially for supervision. The environment comprises the industrial organizations and the
public that interact with the products.
These institutions are interdependence and work together to produce a result. This
implies that any faulty part or non-functional part can upset the whole system and consequently
the products.

Figure 2: Adapted Model of a System from Katz and Kahn (1966)


121

Findings and Discussions
Research Question 1
Is there any significant cooperation between the universities and placement
organizations in the implementation of SIWES?
Table 1 Mean ratings of Managers/Employers and Lecturers on the extent of
Cooperation between Universities and Placement Organizations in the Implementation of
SIWES
S/No Variables Employers
Mean
STD Lecturers
Mean
StD
1. There is a high degree of interaction between our university
and placement organizations in SIWES implementation.
2.85 .73 2.81 .82
2. There are opportunities for lecturers taking sabbatical leave
to work in industries for practical experience instead of
going to another institution to teach.
2.58 .77 2.0 .71
3. Industrial organizations usually give feedback of SIWES
students to their universities.
2.82 .81 2.7 .80
4. The places of placement for students were chosen based on
the students course.
2.66 .86 2.66 1.03
5. Industrial experience is common for lecturers 1.99 .80 1.99 .79
6. Most lecturers have worked in an industry before teaching
in the university.
1.87 .68 1.88 .60
7. Lecturers regularly attend industrial study visits
programmed by their departments.
1.86 .83 1.85 .78
8. Lecturers are regularly involved in industrial projects as
individuals or on Faculty programmes.
2.42 .83 2.10 .76
9. Lecturers regularly attend industrial attachment during
students holidays to update their practical knowledge.
1.96 .55 1.96 .55
10. The relationship of higher institutions and the placement
organizations affect the effectiveness of SIWES.
2.95 .96 3.07 .73
11. Placement organizations and lecturers cooperate in
designing what SIWES students are taught.
1.65 .79 1.7 .72
Total
Source :field work, 2012
The mean ratings of each of the two sub-groups, lecturers and employers on the
variables of cooperation were computed and presented on table 1, using 2.5 as the baseline for
agreement on the positive cooperation. The intensity of the extent of cooperation on each
variable can be seen from the mean ratings. From the mean responses it would be seen that the
respondents disagreed on the majority of items of cooperation.
Similarly, the result of the hypothesis one showed that there is no significant difference
in the mean ratings of lecturers and employers/managers on the extent of cooperation between
universities and placement organizations in the implementation of SIWES policy.
Table 2: t-test for independent samples
Status N Mean Std t Significance
Lecturers 200 24.88 6.92 .62 Not significant
Average 100 25.41 7.26


122

From table 2, it would be seen that the result is a t-test .62 were p > .05. This has been
interpreted to mean no significant difference.
The implication of the findings above is that inadequate cooperation between the
universities and employers in designing what students are taught and in school and SIWES
mean that the students would not be offered the opportunity to acquire employability skills.
Also without adequate exposure of lecturers to latest development in industries, they may be
impacting obsolete knowledge. They will be academic dinosaurs.
Research Question 2
Is there any significant difference in the mean ratings of the students and lecturers on
the ineffective implementation of SIWES?. The hypothesis derived from the above research
question was tested using t-test to compare the mean ratings of the students and lecturers on the
effectiveness of the implementation of SIWES
Table 3: The mean scores of students and lecturers on effectiveness of the Implementation
of SIWES
Variables STUDENTS LECTURERS
mea Std mean STD
1 Students are properly supervised by their lecturers during
SIWES.
2.38 .88 2.85 .72
2. SIWES unit always secure placement for students 1.89 .78 1.19 .84
3. SIWES is adequately and timely funded and allowances are
paid on time.
2.32 .86 2.07 .71
4. Employers readily accept students for SIWES and assign
them to relevant on-the-job training.
2.19 1.22 1.99 .80
5. Every department that are supposed to participate in SIWES
are participating
2.26 1.14 1.88 .62
6. ITF provides a comprehensive and up to date directory of
employers who accept students for SIWES.
2.83 .90 1.85 .78
7 SIWES unit has been established in my school 2.67 .95 2.66 .85
8 The duration of SIWES is enough 2.64 .95 3.07 .74
9. We were given a thorough orientation by our SIWES unit
on the objectives of SIWES before our placement
2.28 1.07 2.10 .76
Total
(Source: Data from the Field Work, 2012)
From table 4 above both lecturers and students disagreed on more of the variables of
the effectiveness of the implementation of SIWES. In all they disagreed on more variables of
effective implementation.
.Table 4:
Status N Mean Std T Significance
Students 395 21.21 7.63
Lecturers 100 20.85 5.85 .58 Not significant
Lecturers
Table 4 shows that there was no significant difference in the mean ratings of both
groups of respondents with a t-test of .58, the mean ratings of students is 21.21 and that of
lecturers is 20.85. The P value is greater than the significant level of the study, .05. Therefore,
both groups were of the view that SIWES has been ineffectively implemented.


123

The implication of the finding is that ineffective implementation of SIWES has not been
able to bridge theory and practice as it exists in the world of work. It has failed to offer students
(graduates) employability skills. This has resulted in skills mismatch. For instance, the poor
funding of SIWES affects the supervision of students on SIWES. Both lecturers and students
complained of the delay in the payment of their allowances.
SIWES is supposed to be a university wide policy covering physical, Biological,
Management, Heath, Agricultural Sciences, Environmental Sciences and Engineering.
However, from the finding of the study the departments and faculties that are supposed to be
participating are not participating, due to poor funding by ITF. It should be this resulted in total
or near lack of practical skills for graduates of the non-participating disciplines.
Research Question 3
Does SIWES adequately expose students to employability skills?
Table 5: Respondents Responses on adequate exposure to Employability Skills in their
Placement Organizations during SIWES
S/No Students Response

STD Rem
1 The work I was exposed to enabled me to acquire some analytical
skills.
2.72 1.05 Agree
2. I was regularly given an independent and initiative demanding
work.
3.04 .82 Agree
3 I have been exposed regularly to team work. 2.42 .93 Disagree
4 SIWES exposed me to how new technologies and machines
heard of and read about in textbooks function.
3.08 .71 Agree
5 I have acquired new manipulative and interpersonal skills. 2.38 .74 Disagree
6. With the experience I acquired from SIWES I can set up my own
business.
2.28 .85 Disagree
7. Students acquire interpersonal skills that promote personal
growth and development after SIWES
2.47 1.04 Disagree
8. Students are exposed to different interview skills 2.36 .88 Disagree
9. SIWES offers the students opportunity to be aware of
employment opportunities
2.38 .98 Disagree
10. SIWES enables students to be realistic about labour market
situations.
2.29 .92 Disagree
Total
(Source: Data from the Field Work, 2012)
Table 5 shows the mean of the responses of the students on adequate exposure to
employability skills in their placement organizations. The table shows that the respondents on
items 1,2 and4 agreed on adequate exposure to employability skills while they disagreed on
items 3,5,6,7,8,9,and10 that they were adequately exposed to employability skills.
This shows that the students were not adequately exposed to most of the employability
skills in their SIWES. The mean ratings were below 2.5 for most of the variables used to test
adequate exposure to employability skills.
The implication is that most of the graduates will be deficient in key employability
skills such as problem solving, self-directed, entrepreneurial development and team work
skills.
X


124

Research Question 4
What factors are constraining the effective implementation of SIWES policy in Nigeria?
From extant literature reviewed, we found out that there was proliferation of
universities leading to inability of few industrial organizations not being able to absorb every
student for SIWES. So many students could not find placement organizations relevant to their
fields for SIWES.
Another major snag was the fact that the departments that are supposed to participate
are not participating. It should be noted that, apart from subject skills, all other aspect of
employability skills are needed equally by every discipline from engineering to humanities.
This is in agreement with the findings of a study by Ssempebwa (1998), that there was no
significant difference between the employment situations of humanities graduates and that of
science graduates. The implication is that lot of graduates, especially from the non-participating
departments will be highly bereft of employability skills.
Ignorance of the fact that they lack employability skills needed in millennium work
place is a factor for graduates not being employable. Olunike(2010) noted that many Nigerian
youths, ignorantly do not know that they are unemployable. He said that they do not go out of
their way to add value to themselves, during and after graduation. This makes them not to see
SIWES as a serious matter. They would rather consider convenience above appropriateness in
the choice of their placements.
Finally, the less attention paid to practical in schools and over reliance on paper
qualifications especially by Nigerian government (the largest employer of labour). This has
reduced the quest for employability skills by student. Students started shunning participating in
SIWES believing that with proper connection they would get employed in government
organizations
Recommendations
We recommend greater and maximum cooperation between universities and industrial
organizations in designing education curriculum and what students are taught in SIWES.
Employers and universities should partner to develop employability content in higher education
curriculum and provide life skills training for students during SIWES. SIWES should be
adequately funded to ensure that every department participates. Finally paper qualification
should not be taken above practical skills in government employment. This will make the
students to be more interested in SIWES to acquire employability skills.


125

References
Adeyemo, S.A. et al (2010) A survey of factors determining the employability of science and
technology graduates of polytechnics and universities in the Nigerian labour market
in Journal of Science and Technology Education Research Vol 1(5) pp 99-106,
October.
Arukwe, N.O. (1990), Employees office skills competencies and employers preference.
Business Education Journal 2 (1) 111-116.
Akinyemi, S. and Ofem, I.B. (2011) Graduate turnout and graduate employment in
Nigeria. www.pagina-aede.org/malaga2011
Awe, J. (2008) The Requirements of internship (Industrial attachment: Jidaw Systems
Limited) www.jidaw.com (Accessed Sept., 1, 2009).
Akanmu, O. (2011) Graduate employment and employability challenges in Nigeria? Being a
Paper Presented at the Association of Common Wealth Universities/British Council
Regional Policy Dialogue on Graduate Employability in Africa, in Accra Ghana on
18
th
January, 2011.
Bertalanffy, L.V. (1956), General system theory General Systems, Yearbook of the Society for the
Advancement of General System Theory pp.1-10.
Boeteng, K. and Ofori-Sarpong, E. (2002) An analytical study of the labour market for tertiary
graduates in Ghana. World Bank/National Council for Tertiary Education, National
Accreditation Board Project, Ghana.
Brown, P. and Hesketh, A (2004) The mismanagement of talent employability and jobs in the
knowledge economy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dabalen, A., Oni, B. and Adekola, A. (2000) Labour market prospects for university graduates in
Nigeria; Washington, D.C. World Bank.
DEST, (2002a) The Employability Skills Framework Common Wealth of Australia, 2007.
http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres.
Easton, D. (1965), A Framework for political analysis, Englewood Cliff, N.J. Prentice Hall
Fanimo, D. (2008) Graduates of Nigerian varsities lose employment appeal. The Guardian,
July
Garavan, T., Morley, M. Gunnigle, P. and Collins, E. (2001), Human capital accumulation:
The role of human resources development. Journal of European Industrial Training,
25(2-4) pp 48-68.
Hillage, J. and Pollard, E. (1998) Employability: developing a framework for policy analysis. DFEE
Research Report RRBS, London
Hong Kong Polytechnic University Programme Booklet 2007.
www.eie.polyu.edu.hk/prog/beng/2008/2007. Retrieved 01-09-2009
http://www.developmentpartnership.org/dpi/downloads/NEEDS/52.pdf. Accessed 12 February,
2010.
Industrial Training Fund (2002), Students industrial work experience scheme: information and
guideline for students industrial work experience scheme. Jos: ITF
Isoun (2006) 50,000 Nigerian engineers unemployable-FG Nigerian Tribune, April 2.
Information and Guideline for SIWES Review 2002..


126

Katz, D. and Kahn, R. (1966), The social psychology of organization. New York: John Willy and Sons
Kent, D.W. and Mushi, P. (1996), The education and training of artisans for the informal
sector in Tanzania. A Report Prepared for the Oversees Development Administration.
UK Serial No 18
Kolapo, Y. (2011) Getting round the half-baked graduate syndrome. Punch, March 11.
Livingstone, S.A. (1985), Reliability of higher education. International Encyclopedia of
Education. Vol. 7 pp 201-210. Oxford.
McGrath, S. (1999), Education and training for the informal sector: reflections on an
International Research Projects in Transformations No. 39.
Muo, M.C. and Muo, IK (2007) Organizational behaviour: A concise introduction. Awka: J Goshen
Publishers.
Nigerian Employers Consultative Association (2005) in Okebukola, Adedipe, Urah (eds) Ibadan:
Heinemann Educational Nig. Plc.
Nigerian Institute of Personnel Management (2000), In Okebukola, Adedipe, Uvah (eds.)
Ibadan: Heinemann Eductional Nig.Plc
Nwachukwu, C. (2010) Millennium workplace employability characteristics required by
electrical/electronics graduates of polytechnics for successful job performance.
International Journal of Educational Research, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 10(1).
Nigro, A. and Nigro, G.L. (1984) Modern public administration, New York: Harper and Row
Publishers.
Nwanna, O.C. (1992) Introduction to research methodology. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books
Olunike, Asaolu (2010) Why Nigerian graduates are unemployable. Punch September, 3
Osinem, E.C. and Nwoji, U.C. (2005). Students industrial work experience in Nigeria: Concepts,
principles and practice. Enugu: Cheston Agency Ltd.
Osuala, E.C. (1993) Introduction to research methodology. Ontisha: Africana-Fep Publishers.
Overtoom, C. (2000), Employability skills: An update ERIC Digest No. 220.
Stadt,R.W.& Gooch,B.G.(1977) .Cooperative education: vocational occupational career,
Indianapolis: Bobb-Merril Comp. Inc
Ssempebwa, J. (1998), Graduate unemployment: Socio-economic factors exonerating university
Training.
Taro, Y. (1967) Statistics: An introductory analysis. 2
nd
Ed. New York: Harper and Row.


127

Political Thuggery among the Youths
of Uvir Community in Guma Local
Government Area of Benue State,
Nigeria

Folashade b. Okeshola
Department of sociology
Ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria

J oy m. Tsegda
Department of sociology
Ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria
E mail: shadeoyz@yahoo.com
Abstract
Thugs have become a means to an end in Nigerian politics. It is a means of sustaining power
and life. Past elections held in Nigeria between 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2011 have witnessed the
use of thugs. Activities of thugs have taken a central stage thereby breeding a feeling of
resentment among members of the public. A careful review of the history of political thuggery
in our country today speaks volumes about blood tasty, ambitious politicians and their
godfathers. We keep on lamenting about thousands who perished during political thuggery in
the country without taken any possible measures to stop the menace. Despite the destruction,
dislocation and havoc caused by this menace, there seems to be no adequate measures taken by
governments at various levels to stop the menace. This paper therefore examines the nature,
causes and effects of political thuggery in Uvir community. At the end measures to address the
problem of political thuggery will be proffered.
Key Words: Democracy, Election, Frustration, Governance, politicians, thuggery, Violence
and Youth


128

Introduction
Nigerian politics is not violent free. Contemporary events across the country have
clearly demonstrated that Nigerian politics has been hijacked by political thugs. Howell (2004),
defined thug politics as the tireless repetition of misleading facts designed to depict an
opponent as personally despicable and in regard to governance as dangerous to physical and
spiritual life of a nation. Thuggery is an act characterized by rudeness, hooliganism, touting,
intimidation, harassment, gangsterism, assassins, criminal, delinquent etc. Political thuggery is
an illegitimate and violent means of seeking political power with a view to subverting nation
opinion for parochial ends through self-imposition. Therefore, political thuggery is simply the
criminalization of politics, when politics is criminalized; it is left in the hands of ruffians, thugs
and hooligans because the good people are scared away.
In the historical antecedence, the Nigerian youth have been known to play important
role in the countrys political space not least in the formation of political parties in the country.
The role of the youths also took on a new dimension, with political parties recruiting and
maintained youth political thugs so as to protect the interest of the parties and the leaders,
which led to the escalation of youth political violence aided and abetted by political thuggery.
Youth political thuggery activities were prevalent in virtually all States, Local Government
Areas and particularly in Uvir community of Guma Local Government Area of Benue State.
Past elections held in Nigeria between 1999, 2003, 2007 and 2011 have witnessed the
use of thugs. Activities of thugs have taken a central stage thereby breeding a feeling of
resentment among members of public. The activities of thugs are not noticeable in only one
party. All political parties are guilty of this. Each political party in trying to wrestle power from
the other or remain in power ahead of the opponents engages in this condemnable act.
Thuggery is not known or experienced in only one part of the country, it is everywhere in the
country, within the nation, different groups exist, formed and maintain by politicians before,
during and after elections with the aim to intimidate, harass, distort and to perpetrate whatever
activities that would give political advantage to party candidate over their opponents.
Research Problem
Since the 60s, no regime can be said to be immune from this syndrome, both military
and civilian governments have been partaking in this dastardly act. Thuggery has been elevated
to a fashionable but regrettable status within the Nigeria polity. The number of thugs a
politician can keep has a determining factor for his electoral machination and outcome.
However, the more thugs a politician has the relevant he become in the society.
Thugs have become a means to an end in Nigerian politics. It is a means of sustaining
power and life, an asset for life sustenance while it brings and sustains power for their barons.
It is an indispensable instrument in the hands of
hungry power seekers. Political thuggery among the youths of Uvir community of
Guma local government area of Benue State has remained an endemic social phenomenon that
affects the political activities of the community over the years. Political violence has claimed
over 200 lives and properties worth millions of naira. Youths in Uvir area have been identified
in various occasions as playing a central role in the violence and an asset that brings money for
youths for his electoral machination and outcome. However, the more thugs a politician has the
relevant he become in the society. The thugs are armed with sophisticated weapons ranging
from guns, cutlasses, charms, arrows etc. with threat to meet at campaign rallies. Assassination
of both parties continued almost on daily basis. As a result, the local government has become a
battle ground where women and children left their respective homes for safety. There were gun
shots, burning of houses, destruction of farm products and properties of party members and
killing. The questions that readily come to mind are: why political thuggery? what is the nature,


129

causes and effects of political thuggery among the youths in Uvir community? What measures
should be adopted to curb this menace?
This paper is an assessment of the effects of political thuggery as political violence in
Uvir community Guma local government of Benue State.
Literature Review
Politics is very central to the principles and practices of democracy all over the world.
Politics is a process by which societies are governed. Fischer (2000) noted that when an
electoral process is perceived as unfair, unresponsive or corrupt, its political legitimacy is
compromised and stakeholders are motivated to go outside of the established norms to achieve
their objectives. This could take the force of a random or organized act or abuse a political
opponent in seeking to determine delay in the electoral process.
Anifowose (1982), defined political thuggery or violence as the use of threat of physical
act carried out by an individuals within a political system against another individual or property
with the intention to cause injury or death to persons and damage political significances of the
existing arrangement for political system.
According to Fredrick (2003), political thuggery is behaviour or attitude against other
people based on anger and frustration which lead to injury or harm, fighting, beating other
people by any means, He noted that destruction of lives and properties and wars are such action
that amount to violence in the society. It is also recognized that threatening other people, denial
of human rights, harassment, intimidation or forcing people and even putting their lives in
danger amount to violence against them particularly more in Uvir community of Guma local
government of Benue State.
Tsegba (2012) defined Political thuggery as an act, behaviour or attitude that can result
in physical or physiological harm to people. According to Leadership Newspaper of 21
st
April,
2008 in Sokoto State the gubernatorial election held in 2007 was cancelled by the Appeal Court
in Kaduna; the supporters of the two leading political parties, People Democratic Party (PDP)
and Democratic People Party ( DPP) embarked on violent attack and counter attacks involving
the use of dangerous weapons such as machetes, knives, swords, etc.
In the 2007 general elections held in April, the National Human Rights Commission
Monitored the conduct of security personnel in each of six (6) geopolitical zones involving
eighteen States of the federation and Federal capital territory. The report indicated that in a
number of States, security personnel were over powered by thugs who snatched ballot boxes in
some polling stations. While in some States, some security personnel were indifferent to
various electoral offences like multiple voting, under aged voting, impersonation and snatching
of ballot boxes. Violence resulted and free for all fight ensued, which made voters run away.
However, this phenomenon of political thuggery is therefore common place and presently
represents a common feature in political election in every part of the country.
Ake (1996), portrayed political thuggery as the handwork of frustrated elites; who
sought platform for their own political and economic advancement. This entails the pursuit of
political motivated goals that are ethnic or religious prism in perspective. He stressed that
political thuggery is in terms of high propensity among political elites to invest in the goals of
controlling the government.
The consequences of political thuggery are numerable depending on the perspective one
look at it. Hence, they range from constituting a major threat to national security, instil fear and
causes low turnout or participation by eligible voters. It thus casts doubt on the credibility of


130

the purported elected leaders before the eyes of the local and international community, it could
affect the government.
During the present political dispensation, the trend of political thuggery and violence
has led to monumental loss of lives and properties of many prominent politicians and their
associate. In Benue State, the issue of political thuggery, intolerance continue to dog Benue
particularly in Guma local government area, which led to many loss of lives of others and
politicians like Steven Ugba aides, Mr Emmanuel Agibo, Emma Achi, Terngu Taaver,
Celestine Agber, Terwase Akume, Teryange Akume etc. (Daily Trust Newspaper, October 27,
and May 20, 2011).
Umar (2007), argued that because of the high premium placed on capturing power at all
cost. The contending parties were hell bent on securing same even where it involves damage
to the countrys social and political fabric. Evidence across the States in the country indicates
that politically inspired and youth executed violence has continued to rise. Youth restiveness in
Niger Delta area involve themselves in kidnapping of foreign and local workers, prominent
politicians and their family members remains quite instructive. Happenings during both local
polls in some States, re elections in State where previous one was voided such as Benue,
Plateau, Balyesa and Adamawa States.
Political thuggery in Uvir community of Guma local government of Benue State is
responsible for the underdevelopment of the area. This is because, whenever there is socio
political instability and youth restiveness, there cannot be proper sustainable development as
we have witnessed in Guma local government area of Benue States.
The theory adopted for this study is Frustration Aggression Theory. The central
assumption of the theory is that, it views violence as a result of the interference with the interest
of a person or group. Politicians either in their individual or collective capacity have personal
interest or ambition, wealth, power, status which they value and hope to achieve or retain. Any
perceived threat to the realization or retention of these values results in frustration and the use
of violence (Nieburg, 1972).
Dollard (1987) opined that much as the bodily constitution permits a display of
aggressive act, it cannot be held solely responsible for aggressive behaviours rather such
tendencies are reactions to frustration. He defined frustration as blocking or the inference of a
goal response which would otherwise have been achieved when an ongoing goal directed
behaviour is blocked or interfered. There arises a drive whose primary goal is that of harm to
some people or object. It is therefore suggested that the most protest means of reducing human
beings is to prevent them from obtaining goals that they seek. Aggression is always a product
of frustration. This captures the explanation of much of the reasons for political violence or
thuggery among the youth of Uvir community of Guma local government area of Benue State.
Politicians are frustrated with life and politics and so want to secure election victory by all
means. On the other hand, the youths are also frustrated as a result of poverty, unemployment,
high level of illiteracy, poor socialization and want to get money by all means. Hence, they
become easy tools of violence and thuggery activities during political activities.
According to Lorenz (1974) human beings have an innate tendency to aggress in the
same way they are compelled to feels hungry, to become tasty, and to become sexually aroused.
In other words, if we interpret this logically, the same way they show violence is the same way
they show their emotional feelings. Anger, like happiness is a natural inclination. You must get
angry when you are compelled to do so.
According to Darwin (2008 ), showing anger serves as a protection when necessary.
The politicians organise and recruit youths into thuggery because they are also compelled to do


131

so. And the youths which accept to be used as thugs are compelled to do so in other to secure
election victory at polls. They show aggression. Aggression or violent behaviour is a product
of socialization or ones upbringing. The application of the tenet of the frustration aggression
best explains why youths are involved in political thuggery in Uvir community of Guma local
government area of Benue State. Because of lack of proper socialization or upbringing of the
youths among other things lead them to violence and thuggery in political activities. Youths are
often times in bad companies of drug addicts and unemployed can be used easily as thugs in
election by the selfish and greedy politicians.
Methodology
Location of the study
The research was conducted in Uvir community of Guma local government area in
Benue State. The State was carved out of the former Benue-plateau State. It is in mid-east
region of Nigeria, with population of about 2.8 million in 1991 census. Tiv, Idoma are spoken
predominantly. There are other ethnic group as well. These include Etulo and Abakwa. Benue
capital is Makurdi. Benue State has 23 local government areas and Guma is one among the
largest.
Guma local government area was created out of Makurdi local government area. Guma
is one hour drive from Makurdi the state capital. Guma local government area has its
headquarter in the towm of Gbajimva. it has ten (10) council wards which uvir is one of them
(Tsegda, 2012).The inhabitant in Guma local government and Uvir council wards are mostly
Tiv people. Guma local government has a total population of 191,599 at the 2006 census; It has
an area of 288.2km. The dominant religions are Christianity and Islam with more people
practicing Christianity in Uvir local government area.
Sampling procedure
Simple random sampling was used for the selection of respondents in this study. This is
necessary in order to give each element in the population equal chance of been selected. A total
of 115 respondents were randomly selected in ten compounds making up the Uvir community
in Guma local government area of Benue State. That is, 11 respondents were chosen in each
compound through systematic random sampling.
Methods of Data Collection
Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used for this study.
Questionnaire was utilized as the instrument for data collection in quantitative, while in-
depth interview was the instrument used for qualitative data. Basically, the questionnaire
consists of socio-demographic data, nature of political thuggery, causes, and effects as well as
suggested solution to political thuggery among youth in Uvir community of Guma local
government area of Benue State. Five (5) key informants (2 traditional rulers, 1police officer,
youth leader and a woman leader) were selected purposively for in-depth interviews.
Methods of Data Analysis
Data gotten through questionnaire was analysed using social science statistical package
(SPSS). Frequency and percentages was adopted for the description of this study. Also, data
collected from the in-depth interviews were transcribed verbatim. The essence of the interview
is to enrich the data from the survey.


132

Results
Nature of Political Thuggery
This section looks at the nature of political thuggery in Uvir community of Guma local
government area of Benue State.
Table 1: Views of Respondents on which election is more prone to Political
Thuggery
Election Frequency Percentage (%)
General election 52 51.0
Bye election 9 8.8
Primary election 41 40.2
Total 102 100.0
It was found that 51% of the respondents agreed that general elections are more prone
to political thuggery, 9% of the respondents are of the opinion that bye elections are more
prone to political thuggery, while 40% of the respondents agreed that primary elections are
more prone to political thuggery. This shows that general elections are more prone to political
thuggery in Uvir community. From the in-depth interview, key informants noted that it is the
primary election that brings violence most in the area.
Table 2: Respondents Information about Political Thuggery
Heard of political thuggery Frequency Percentages (%)
Yes 95 93.1
No 7 6.9
Total 102 100.0
The above table indicates that 93% of the respondents agreed that they have heard of
political thuggery, 7% of the respondents said they have not heard of political thuggery. This
shows that many people in the community heard of political thuggery.
Respondents were asked whether political thuggery was violent or not. Findings reveal
that 82% (84) agreed that it was violent, while only 18% (18) posited that political thuggery
was violent free. We can deduce that political thuggery in Uvir community was violent.
As to the number of casualties due to political thuggery, majority of the respondents
77% (78) stated that political thuggery had claimed lives in the area, while only 24%(24) said
even though there are activities of political thuggery in the area, it did not claim any life. We
can conclude that majority of the respondents agreed that political thuggery had claimed many
lives in Uvir community.
Table 3: Views of Respondents on Weapons Used in Political Thuggery
Weapons Used Frequency Percentages (%)
Sticks 25 24.5
Gun 23 22.5
Matchet 16 15.7
Others ( sword, bow and arrow) 38 37.3
Total 102 100.0
Table 3 shows the type of weapon used in political thuggery. It was found that 25% of
the respondents said that youths used sticks, 23% used gun, while 37% of respondents
mentioned others which include sword, bow and arrow. This shows that youths used different
types of weapon in political thuggery.


133

Also, from the in-depth interviews conducted, all the key informants said that in
political thuggery, youths used cutlasses, bow and arrow, swords, sticks and guns.
Causes of Political Thuggery
This section looks at the causes of political thuggery in Uvir community of Guma local
government area of Benue State.
Table 4: Factors Responsible for Political Thuggery
Factors Responsible Frequency Percentage (%)
Poverty 36 35.3
Poor child upbringing 20 19.6
Illiteracy 30 29.4
Religious extremist 16 15.7
Total 102 100.0
Findings reveal that 35% of the respondents are of the view that poverty may likely be
the main cause of political thuggery. About 20% of respondents said poor child upbringing may
likely be the cause, 30% of the respondents believed that illiteracy may likely be the cause.
Also, 16% said religion extremist may be the cause. This shows that respondents believed that
poverty and illiteracy may likely be the main cause of political thuggery.
Similarly, in the in-depth interview conducted, four (4) of the key informants agreed
that poverty is the cause of political thuggery, while one (1) out of the five informants said poor
child upbringing is responsible for political thuggery.
Effects of Political Thuggery
This section focuses on the effects of political thuggery in Uvir community of Guma
local government area of Benue State.
Table 5: Views of Respondents on whether Political Thuggery Affects the Uvir
Community
Political Thuggery Affect people Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 76 74.5
Not at all 5 4.9
Not sure 4 3.9
Little 13 12.7
All of the above 4 3.9
Total 102 100.0
From the table, 75% of the respondents said yes, that political thuggery bring many
suffering to Uvir community, 4% of the respondents said that they are not sure whether
political thuggery bring suffering to the people,while13% of the respondents were of the view
that political thuggery bring little suffering to the people of Uvir. This shows that majority of
the respondents were of the view that political thuggery bring suffering to the people of Uvir
community.
However, from the in-depth interview conducted with five (5) key informants, it was
stated that political thuggery has negative impact on the community.
Table 6: Other Effects of Political Thuggery
Other Effects Frequency Percentage (%)
Poverty, hunger and pain 54 52.9
Loss of lives 6 5.9


134

Hatred among people 24 23.5
Loss of properties 7 6.9
None 11 10.8
Total 102 100.0
This table was an open question and respondents were to express their view on the other
ways they feels political thuggery affected the people of the community. From their various
views 36% of the respondents said poverty, hunger and pain are the other ways that the menace
brought on the people of Uvir community, 24% responded that political thuggery brought about
hatred/ disunity among the people; while 7% said properties were lost during political thuggery.
From the in-depth interview conducted, three (3) of the key informants said that
political thuggery bring hatred among the people of Uvir community, Two (2) of the
informants said loss of live was other ways that political thuggery has affected the people. On
their views from the table, poverty, hunger and pain constitute the majority of the suffering
brought by political thuggery, but from the in-depth interview, hatred/ disunity among the
people of Uvir community constitute the majority of suffering brought by political thuggery.
This shows a different view between the qualitative and quantitative data.
Table 7: Views of Respondents on the People that Political Thuggery Affects Most during
Political Thuggery
Most people affected Frequency Percentages
Poor 53 52.0
Rich 4 3.9
Youth 45 44.1
Total 102 100.0
Table 7 indicates that 52% of the respondents opined that the poor are the most affected
categories of people by political thuggery, 44% of the respondents said it is the youths that are
mostly affected. This may likely be as a result of the fact that they are jobless. Meanwhile, from
the in-depth interview of the five (5) key informants, most of them said the poor are most
people that are affected during political thuggery with no compensation paid to them to cushing
their suffering.
Measures to Eradicate Political Thuggery by Government
This section focuses on efforts made by the government to eradicate political thuggery
as well as suggestions to reduce political thuggery by respondents.
Table 8 :Measures to taken byGovernment to Eradicate Political Thuggery
Measures Frequency Percentages (%)
Enlightenment campaign 22 21.6
No measures 45 44.1
Creation of jobs 18 17.6

Tota
l
102 100.0
Provision of security 17 16.7
From the above table, 22% of the respondents said there should be enlightenment
campaign by government on the negative effects of political thuggery. About 18% of the
respondents suggested creation of jobs as a sure way of addressing the problem of political
thuggery, while 17% said there is the need for provision of security in the area during election
and after. This will go a long way in maintain law and order in Uvir community. Majority


135

(44%) did not suggest any measure at curbing the problem of political thuggery. However,
from the in-depth interview conducted, all the key informants stated that the government did
not take any measure to stop the political thuggery in Uvir community.
Table 9: Suggested Solutions on Political Thuggery by Respondents
Solutions Frequency Percentages (%)
Job opportunity 34 33.3
Free and fair election 17 16.7
Creating of awareness 20 19.6
Punishment of the offenders 15 14.7
Security provision 16 15.6
Total 102 100.0
From the table, 33% of the respondents suggested that if jobs were created, it will
reduce political thuggery in the community. Furthermore, 17% were of the opinion that if
elections conducted were free and fair, the menace will reduce drastically; 20% were of the
view that creating awareness will help to eradicate political thuggery in the community. This
shows that most of the suggestions by respondents if adopted by government will eradicate or
reduce political thuggery in Uvir community and Nigeria at large.
From the in-depth interview conducted with five (5) key informants it was suggested
that government should advice politicians on the effects of political thuggery, create job
opportunities for their children and there should be a free and fair election. Also, there is need
to create awareness, vigilante groups to engage the youths to be busy and punishment for the
offenders.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Political thuggery among the youths in Uvir community of Guma Local Government
Area of Benue has remained an endemic social phenomenon that has engulfed the political
activities of the community over the years. Youths in the area have been identified in various
occasions as playing a central role in the violence because they were empty vessels that were
readily available to be used and were manipulated by self-centred politicians to cause mayhem
and achieved their selfish aims.
A careful review of the history of political thuggery in our country today speaks
volumes about blood tasty, ambitious politicians and their godfathers. We keep on lamenting
about thousands who perished during political thuggery in the country without taken any
possible measures to stop the menace. Despite the destruction, dislocation and havoc caused by
this menace, there seems to be no adequate measures taken by governments at various levels to
stop the menace. Therefore, the major problem relating to political thuggery should be tackled
in other to avert other crisis.
In view of the above, it is recommended that:
- Youths should focus more on things that will bring development to their various
communities than engaging in political thuggery.
- Government and well to do individuals should create more jobs. This will help in
keeping the youths off the streets and discourage them from been used as thugs by
selfish politicians.
- There should be serious training and re-training and orientation of politicians to know
that politics is not a do or die affairs.
- There should be close consultations and cooperation between the security agents and
the public so that such act of violence will be averted when plan.


136

- Political appointment should be made less attractive by reducing the salary and
allowances, so that people contesting should know that they are going there to serve
not to make money.


137

References
Ake , C.(1996), Governance and Development in Nigeria in Oyediran, O.(ed) Machmillan
Press, Ibadan.
Anifowose, R.(1982), Violent and Politics in Nigeria: The Tiv and Youths Experience. Nok
Publishers International, New York.
Nieburg, H.L. (1972), The Trial Violence and Social Change: The American Political Science
Review Vol.5:873.
Daily Thrust Newspaper. May 20, 2011.
Daily Thrust Newspaper. October 20, 2011.
Darwin, C.(2008),The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Walden University.
Dollard, I.(1987), Frustration Aggression Theory. New York.
Federal Government (2003), Draft on National Youth Policy and Strategic Plan of Action.
National Youths Summit (Working Document).
Fischer, J. (2002), Electoral Conflict and Violent. IFE paper (unpublished).
Frederick, E. (2003), Electoral Violence in Nigeria: Issues and Perspectives. From the History
of Ebira land.
Fischer, J. (2002), Electoral Conflict and Violent. IFE paper (unpublished).
Howel, R. (2004), Political Thuggery in Vogue. http/www.sptimes.com
Leadership Newspaper. April 21, 2008.
Lorenz, K.(1974), Aggression. A Harvest edt. New York.
Muhammed, A.Y.(2005), Youths Violence in Nigerias Fourth Republic. A Seminar paper
presented at the Department of Sociology, University of Ilorin, Kwara State- Nigeria.
National Population Commission 2006.
Rotimi, T.S.(1996), Ethnic Majority and Good Governance in Nigeria. Ibadan Press, Ibadan.
Shankyula, T.S. (2010), Political Thuggery and Elections in Nigeria and the Law
(www.Google.com).
Tsegda, J.M. (2012), Political Thuggery Among the Youths of Uvir Community
in Guma Local Government Area of Benue State (Unpublished).
Umar, M.Z.(2007), Nigeria and the Challenge of Democratic Consolidation


138

The Effect of Ground Types on Radio
Coverage of Broadcast Antennas

Fulya Callialp Kunter
*
Marmara University, Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, 34722, Goztepe,
Istanbul Turkey
Tel: +90 216 4182357, Fax: +90 216 3480293, fulya.kunter@marmara.edu.tr

Abstract
In this paper, we investigate the effects of antenna orientation on the radiation patterns
of electromagnetic waves in the inhabited areas by means of a new developed algorithm. By
the aid of this algorithm, electric field patterns of any type of antenna which coordinates are
known can be simulated at the far-field location on the perfect conducted ground. Then, we
extend this study to dry and wet ground to compare the effects of ground reflections. The
orientation of broadcasting antenna systems is significant due to its effect on electronic devices
and on human health. Through simulation, we find that it is also possible to minimize the
effects of interferences, disturbances, and bioeffects of electromagnetic radiation before placing
the antennas.
Keywords- Antenna radiation patterns, biological effects of radiation, electromagnetic
interference, electromagnetic radiation effects


139

1. Introduction
With the development of wireless communication technology, the evaluation and
estimation of the effective amount of electromagnetic field (EMF) distribution in areas
connected with human activities has grown in importance, in order to satisfy public and
governmental safety regulations [ICNIRP, 1998]. The knowledge of the electromagnetic (EM)
field distribution in the vicinity of cellular systems and broadcasting antenna systems operating
on various frequencies is significant if the systems are to be placed around an inhabited area.
The estimation of the field levels is required before the systems are installed in such area.
Otherwise, when the systems are put into service, the permissible radiation levels established
for human health protection may be exceeded. The paper [Kaluski et. al, 1995] presents an
approximate numerical procedure for estimation of the EM field distribution in the vicinity of
broadcast FM and TV stations. This procedure is used to estimate the total power density as the
sum of partial densities connected with the individual frequencies and individual antenna
systems. The reference [Trinchero et. al, 2000] illustrates the experimental results obtained
during an EM site survey campaign, devoted to monitor of the radio frequency (RF) EM
background in both urban and sub-urban environments. They have used mapping technique to
predict the average public exposition to the radio frequency electromagnetic field. Furthermore,
a method [Tominago et. al, 1995] has been developed for predicting disturbances in TV signal
reception in order to reduce interference caused by undesired emissions from information
technology equipment (ITE). Alain Azoulay [Azoulay, 2000] has developed prediction
software to assess the interference, to avoid interference between collocated services on
transmitting sites.
Over the past decades, to obtain high directivity, narrow beamwidth, low side-lobes,
point-to-point and preferred-coverage pattern characteristics, the theory of antenna array design
has also been studied in depth. Blank [Blank, 1992] described the empirical optimization
algorithm for the optimization of the performance of arbitrary antenna arrays under realistic
conditions. Gupta and Baxter et. al. [Gupta et. al, 2003] presented the coupling matrix concept
for predicting the radiation patterns of elements of an antenna array. The effects of the antenna
field pattern and the antenna orientation on the fading correlation in 3D scattering environment
is studied in 2007 [Gong et. al, 2007]. Moreover, to avoid noise sources, improve system gain
and security, save energy by directing signals only towards the intended direction, a simple
radiation pattern reconfigurable printed dipole antenna was investigated [Jiawei et. al, 2009]. It
is also shown in [Ridvan et. al, 2011] that using genetic algorithm it is possible to design a non-
uniform array that approximates the beamwidth of a uniform array and having smaller side-
lobe level with linear antennas. In addition, a significant number of studies have been carried
out to date to explore the relationship between exposure to radio frequency radiation (RFR) and
illness including cancer. These studies describe various experimental investigations with
laboratory animals, tissue preparations, and cells, with detailed information on the bioeffects of
RFR [Habash, 2002].
In the present paper, an algorithm simulating electric field patterns of various antennas
at different locations on ground, including ground reflections is developed. There are not many
researchers presently on this subject except electric field pattern simulations on single type of
antennas in an array, excluding ground reflections. This study is the first in its field. However,
to get the exact results, other reflections from buildings or from any objects next to the
transmitters have to be taken into consideration. Using this study, interferences, disturbances of
electromagnetic, and bioeffects of radio frequency radiation can be controlled, and the
electromagnetic field strength can be calculated to see whether it is in the limit values or not. In
this study, the antenna types are limited with broadcast antennas, however the method is also
applicable to other types of antennas.


140

2. Problem Formulation
Before simulating the electric field radiation patterns of broadcast antennas (linear,
helical and horn antennas) located at different positions, the E-field components of each
antenna have to be re-calculated. The reason for recalculation is that the existing formulas in
the literature are only for the antennas which are located at the origin.
2.1 Linear Wire Antennas
The radiation characteristics of a center-fed thin straight antenna having a length
comparable to a wavelength are a linear dipole antenna.
Figure 1. Finite dipole geometry for far field approximations
This distribution assumes that the current vanishes at the end points (
2 / 1 = ' z
). The
illustration of finite length dipole antenna is in Figure 1. Experimentally it has been verified
that the current in a center-fed wire antenna has sinusoidal form with nulls at the end points.
The finite dipole antenna of Figure 1 is subdivided into a number of infinitesimal dipoles of
length
z' V
. As the number of subdivisions is increased, each infinitesimal dipole approaches a
length
z d '
. For an infinitesimal dipole of length
z d '
positioned along the z-axes at
z'
, the
electric components using the far-field approximations can be written as [Balanis, 1982],

(
(
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
+
}
u
u
t
q
u u
sin
2
cos cos
2
cos
2
0
2 /
2 /
kl kl
r
e I
j dE E
jkr l
l
(1)
To analyze the radiation characteristics of a linear dipole of any length of any
coordinates
cos ' r r R =
has to be used, where the angle between the source and the
observation point is , and
' r
is the distance from the origin to the source. Using the far-field
approximations, direct Eu on infinite ground can be obtained for linear antennas as:


141

(

~
+
u
u
t
q
u
| u | u
u
sin
) . cos( ) . sin( . cos
.
4
cos . .
) sin sin cos sin ( 0
l k l k j e
e
r
e I
j E
l jk
y x jk
jkr
d
(2)
The reflected Eu is then

u
u u
cos . 2 .
.
z jk d r
e E E
= (3)
Total electric field is:

u
u u u
cos . 2 .
.
z jk d d
e E E E
+ =
(4)
2.1 Horn Antenna
One of the simplest and probably the most widely used microwave antenna is the horn.
The horn is widely used as a feed element for large radio astronomy, satellite tracking, and
communication dishes found installed throughout the world. In addition to its utility as a feed
for reflectors and lenses, it is a common element of phased arrays and serves as a universal
standard for calibration and gain measurements of other high-gain antennas. Its widespread
applicability stems from its simplicity in construction, ease of excitation, versatility, large gain,
and preferred overall performance.
The E-plane sectoral horn is one whose opening is flared in the direction of the E-field,
and it is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. E-plane horn and coordinate system
The horn can be treated as an aperture antenna. Its radiation characteristics can be
developed by using aperture antennas formulas. To find the fields radiated by the horn, only
the tangential components of the E-field over a closed surface must be known. The Eu field can
be written as [Balanis, 1992]
) (
4
u | u
q
t
N L
r
jke
E
jkr
+ ~
(5)
The N
u
, and L
|
in E
u
field equations are
| |
}}
+ =
S
jkr
z y x
ds e J J J N ' sin sin cos cos cos
cos '
u
u | u | u (6)
| |
}}
+
+ =
S
jkr
y x
ds e M M L ' cos sin
cos '
|
| | (7)
The closed surface is chosen to coincide with an infinite plane passing through the
mouth of the horn. The electric and magnetic current densities are


142

=
=
) ' (
1
) ' ( 1
) ' cos(
) ' cos(
y jk
x
y jk
y
e x
a
E M
e x
a
E
J
o
o
t
t
q
2 / ' 2 /
2 / ' 2 /
1 1
b y b
a x a
s s
s s
(8)
where E1 is a constant, a is a2-a1. The primes are used to indicate the fields at the
aperture of the horn.
The all formulas given above have to be re-calculated due to the horn antenna which are
located randomly. Before calculating the E-field, Nu, and L| have to be solved. Thus the
simplified Nu is

| |
) , ( .
.
.
.
) cos( ) . sin( . .
sin . cos
2 1
) . 2 /( . ) sin . sin ( 1
2 2
.
1
1
2
2
1
t t F e
k
x x e E
N
k k j
a
a
x
| u
u
t
|
| | |
| u
q
(
(
+
+
=
(9)
where
a
t
| = and | u cos . sin . jk =

} }
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
1
2 2
2 1
2
sin
2
cos ) , (
t
t
t
t
dt t j dt t t t F
t t
(10)

( )
( )
1 2
1
2
1 1
1
1
. sin sin . .
1
. sin sin . .
1
| u
t
| u
t
k b k
k
t
k b k
k
t
=
=
(11)

u
q
u |
cos
1
. .N L = (12)
Then Eu can be calculated by the help of Eq. (5),

|
.
|
\
| +
=
u
u
q
t
u u
cos
cos 1
. . .
4
N e
r
jk
E
jkr
(13)
In the simulations of E-plane Eu is used, direct and reflect Eu are as follows:
( ) ) t , F(t . . sin . sin . cos 1 . .
4
.
'
2
'
1 1 2
. sin
2
1 1
1
2
(
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
a
a
a
a
e
r
e E k a
j E
jk
jkr
d
t t
u
t
t
u
u
(14)
where
'
1
t
and
'
2
t
are

( )
( ) u
t
u
t
sin b
.
t
sin b
.
t
1 2
1
'
2
1 1
1
'
1
=
=
k
k
(15)

u
u u
cos . 2 .
.
z jk d r
e E E

= (16)

u
u u u
cos . 2 .
.
z jk d d
e E E E

+ = (17)


143

2.2 Helical Antenna
Another basic, simple, and practical configuration of an EM radiator is that of a
conducting wire wound in the form of a screw thread forming a helix. In most cases the helix is
used with a ground plane. In addition, the helix is usually connected to the center conductor of
a coaxial transmission line at the feed point with the outer conductor of the line attached to the
ground plane.
The far-zone electric field radiated by a short dipole of length S and by constant current
I0, is direct Eu.
u
t
q
u
sin
4
0
r
Se kI
j E
jkr
= (18)
The reflected
r
E
u
and the total electric field are the same as Eq.(3) and Eq.(4),
respectively.
3. Simulation Results
A new algorithm is developed including the generalized E-field formulas, which
facilitates the calculation of electric field strengths of a group of broadcast antennas. The inputs
to the algorithm are categorized as follows: type of broadcast antenna (linear wire, horn or
helical); transmitters technical parameters; the location coordinates of antennas; antenna
deployment details (antennas heights, scanning angles, etc.).
3.1 Broadcast Antennas in Different Locations for Perfect Ground
The simulation of this new algorithm is done with twelve antennas including five linear
wire, three horn, and four helical antennas, assuming that reflection coefficient is unity. To
examine the effects of each electric radiation patterns on the total radiation patterns; the direct
electric field patterns of each kind and the total electric field pattern is represented, separately.
A pilot study is conducted with the coordinate values given in Table 1 for each of the
three broadcast antennas. The frequency is assumed to be 100 MHz for each simulation. The
far-field distances are calculated for each broadcast antennas. For horn and helical antennas
dfar field=2D2/ and for linear wire antenna far-field criteria is 30 [Saunders, 2001].
The total electric field patterns of twelve broadcast antennas are illustrated in Figure 3.
The left figure shows the total of electric patterns of linear wire, horn and helical antennas on
the same polar diagram, separately to point out their effects on the total field pattern. When
examining the total electric field pattern in the right figure, it is so clearly seen that linear wire
antennas dominate the total electric field strength. It is because the number of the linear wire
antennas is much higher than the others.
Figure 4 indicates the three dimensional illustration of the total electric field strength of
twelve broadcast antennas with coordinates given by Table 1, with changing the location of the
observation point in the range of 70m to 100m in x- and y- coordinates. Zenith and azimuthal
angles are taken t/6, and the distance between the origin and the observation point is calculated
by
1 x r
2 2
+ + = y
.


144

Table 1. The coordinates of the three broadcast antennas
N=12 Linear Wire Antenna (n=5) Horn Antenna (n=3) Helical Antenna (n=4)
X Y z z a
min
a
max
b
1
b
2
X y z S
1. -1 1 3 1 -0,5 0,5 1 2 1 2 3 0,5
2. 0 0 2 0 1 3 -1 1 -1 0 1 0,5
3. -2 0 1 2 3 5 0 3 0 1 2 0,3
4. 2 -1 0,5 1 2 0 0,4
5. 1 3 2,5
Figure 3. The total electric field patterns of 12 broadcast antennas on perfect conductor

Figure 4. Three dimensional illustrations of broadcast antennas on perfect
conductor


145

Figure 5. Electric field values in accordance with distance in logarithmic scale
Each of the electric field values including the total electric field in accordance with
distance in logarithmic scale is depicted in Figure 5. This figure clearly shows that as the
distance of reference point increases, the effects of each electric field are decreasing.
3.2 Broadband Antennas in Different Locations for Lossy Ground
In general, the ground is a lossy medium (o=0) whose effective conductivity increases
with frequency. Therefore it should be expected to act as a very good conductor above a certain
frequency, depending primarily upon its moisture content. Any energy from the radiating
element directed toward the ground undergoes a reflection. The amount of reflected energy and
its direction are controlled by the geometry and constitutive parameters of the ground. For that
reason, the simulations done in the preceding sections will be repeated for dry ground and for
wet ground to examine the difference of the reflected electric field strengths.
For the dry ground, complex dielectric permittivity is cc=12+j3. The simulation results
are shown in Figure 6, for the antennas of linear wire, horn, and helical, respectively. To make
comparisons between other simulations, the average power is 10 kW, and the distance between
the source and the observation point is 100 m, which are the same values with preceding
simulation.
The simulation results shows that there is a slightly difference between the total electric
fields of broadcast antennas on dry ground and on perfect plane. The total electric fields of five
linear wire, three horn and four helical antennas on infinite conductor plane are 78.873 V/m,
53.811 V/m, 18.067 V/m, respectively, whereas on dry ground the corresponding values are
changed to 69.021 V/m, 48.462 V/m, and 16.563 V/m, respectively.
Figure 6. The total electric field patterns of 12 broadcast antennas on dry ground


146

In Figure 6, the left figure illustrates the total electric field patterns of linear wire, horn,
and helical antennas in the same polar diagram. The right figure shows the total electric field
pattern of all simulated broadcast antennas located on dry ground, which has the value of
77.320 V/m, whereas it is 83.396 V/m on perfect ground simulations.
The same simulations are done for the wet ground. Complex dielectric permittivity is
cc=80+j1.5 which is higher than the dry grounds. Incidence angle is t/3, where the
transmission angle is calculated for the simulation program. The simulation results are shown
in Figure 7, for the antennas of linear wire, horn, and helical, respectively.
The simulation results show that there is a slightly difference between the total electric
fields of broadcast antennas on infinite conductor plane and on dry ground and on wet ground.
The total electric fields of five linear wire, three horn and four helical antennas on perfect
conductor plane are 78.873 V/m, 53.811 V/m, 18.067 V/m, respectively, whereas on dry
ground the corresponding values are changed to 69.021 V/m, 48.462 V/m, 16.563 V/m, and on
wet ground they are 74.357 V/m, 51.790 V/m and 17.459 V/m.
In Figure 7, the left figure illustrates the total electric field patterns of linear wire, horn,
and helical antennas in the same polar diagram. The right figure indicates the total electric field
pattern of all simulated broadcast antennas located on wet ground, which has the value of
80.571 V/m, whereas it is 83.396 V/m on perfect ground simulations.
Figure 7. The total electric field patterns of 12 broadcast antennas on wet ground
The ground effects on electric radiation patterns in accordance with distance are shown
clearly in Figure 8. By changing the ground properties, only the reflected electric field strength
value changes. Although there is not a sharp difference between the three grounds, the more
approximated result to the perfect conductor is get with simulations done on wet ground.
Figure 8. Electric field values in accordance with distance in logarithmic scale
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
10
-3
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
Distance (m)
R
e
f
l
e
c
t
e
d

E
l
e
c
t
r
i
c

F
i
e
l
d

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
d
B
)
Perfect Conductor
Wet Ground
Dry Ground


147

3.3 Bioeffects of Antenna Farm
In 1996 WHO started the International Electromagnetic Field Project which has the
aim; to review the scientific literature on biological effects of EM field and publish standards
according to these reviews [WHO, 2011]. In the scope of this project the scientific committee
of ICNIRP (International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection) prepared a
guideline at 0-300 GHz range for general public and occupational exposure [ICNIRP, 1998].
On July 2001, Turkey published a regulation by Telecommunication Authority (TA), which has
standard values for one transmitter and total environment. One transmitter standards are less
than the ICNIRP 1998 general public standards (1/4 of ICNIRP standards) and total
environment standards are the same with ICNIRP 1998 standards of general public. The total
environment standard is for TA is 28 V/m in the 10 MHz 400 MHz frequency range.
Table 2. Technical data of Dededoruk Hill,Ankara
Radio Transmitter x(m) y(m) z(m) ERP(kW) Channel Frequency (MHz)
Radio 7 0 0 65 15 104.6
Radio Karadeniz -2 5 75 15 98.2
zel FM 1 30 70 12 103.2
Moral FM 8 25 65 15 105
F G -3 26 85 15 93.7
Mjde FM 2 12 80 15 89.6
Radio Play 15 8 60 10 97.5
tken Radio 20 -5 60 6 91.8
Tatlses 5 32 45 17 97.7
Yurt FM -10 15 75 12 104.6
Media FM 6 24 80 20 93.9
Radio Light 1 32 70 10 103.6
Ak Radio 12 10 75 14 94.9
Akra FM 4 -8 75 20 107.6
Radio Bravo -6 18 60 8,5 100.8
Dolunay FM 5 25 40 6 108
mparator 9 35 55 20 104.2
Soft FM 13 15 65 10 90.5
Marmara FM -10 2 50 10 105.3
Table 3. Technical data of Buyuk Camlica, Istanbul
Radio Transmitter x(m) y(m) z(m) ERP (kW) Channel Frequency (MHz)
Radio 7 0 1 80 0.1 89.8
Radio Viva 1 1 15 75 5 98.2
Radio Viva 2 -2 18 75 5 103.7
Radio Klas 3 25 55 5 97.4
Kiss FM 10 20 75 5 99.75
Super FM 12 16 70 1 90.8
Radio D 1 40 60 5 104.0
Mozaik Radio 8 50 20 5 96.3
NTV Radio 15 30 50 5 104.7
Number One 11 27 55 10 101.5
BRT FM 2 26 30 10 106.3
TRT Radio Haber -1 30 70 5 103.7
TRT Radio 3 -3 45 70 1 102.8
TRT FM 20 35 70 1 103.6


148

The estimation of radiation hazards from crowded transmitting antennas at different
coordinates is very simple with the developed algorithm in this study; knowing the permissible
exposure limits (PEL) [ICNIRP, 1998], the distance from the antenna at which the radiation is
reduced to below the PEL can easily be found. As an application of this study, Yenimahalle
Sentepe Dededoruk Hill, Ankara and Buyuk Camlica, Istanbul, where radio transmitters are
sited very close to public, are selected as pilot regions for calculations of RFR whose data are
received from Radio and Television Top Committee. Transmitters data are given in Table 2
and Table 3, respectively.
Two different electric field strength simulations have been performed by moving the
receiver (receiving antenna, object etc.) on infinite conductor plane away from transmitters in
200 m range, and compared with the standard. First of all, it is done at different coordinates and
observed that, the safety regions for Ankara and Istanbul are 18 m and 70 m away from the
transmitters. Secondly, the radio transmitters are located at same location, and these safety
regions changed to 38 m and 30 m, respectively. Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the simulation
results comparing with ICNIRP standard.

Figure 9. Electric field comparison at different coordinates

Figure 10. Electric field comparison at same coordinate
4. Conclusion
This study focuses mainly on the radiation patterns of EM waves which is the most
important parameter that the broadcasters have to take into consideration for a good quality of
reception and transmission on their site. It has explored several mathematical calculations to
simulate the electric radiation patterns of antennas which are located variously using Matlab


149

6.0. In the literature, the formulas of E-field components of variety of antennas are calculated
when the antennas are positioned at origin, or in arrays along the z-axis. However in real world,
antennas are positioned at different locations where the public expose to radio frequency
radiations. For these areas, to know the EMF patterns is the most important issue. Not only,
because of hazardous biological effects on human-beings, but also for strong interference cases
where collocation of radio broadcast transmitters (FM and TV) and cellular mobile radio could
exist on the same site.
In this study, it is also pointed out that not only the electric field strength is dealt with
locations of antennas, but it is also dealt with the properties of ground they are located. The
change of electric field on dry ground is approximately 7.28 % and on wet ground it is 3.38 %
versus infinite conductor ground. Reflected electric fields of each kind on various grounds are
given in Table 4 with the total electric fields. It has to be noted that direct field strength value is
the same for each cases. Simulation results of bioeffects of antenna farm in Ankara and in
Istanbul indicate that the safety regions are mainly dealt with transmitters height and location
coordinates. It can easily observed from figures that at some ranges the electric field strength
exceeds ICNIRP safety limits.
To summarize, this study seems more and more useful as the number of transmitters
and receivers in various frequency bands increase every day and as the demand for new radio
services is always stronger. All in all, the techniques that were developed for predicting EM
radiation patterns have important practical aspects on being informed of the bioeffects of RFR
on human-being, and the interferences and the total electric field strength, before locating the
groups of antennas in inhabited area.
Table 4. Simulation results of broadcast antennas on lossy ground
On Lossy Ground
(r=100m, ERP=10 kW, f=100
MHz)

Types of
Antenna

Reflected Electric Field
(V/m)
Total Electric Field
(V/m)
Perfect Conductor Linear Wire 59.856 83.396
Dry Ground Horn 40.862
Wet Ground Hellical 13.776


150

5. References
Azoulay, A. (2000). Radio Interface Cases on Broadcasting Sites. The 2000 IEEE International Symposium on
Electromagnetic Compatibility EMC 2000, 79-83.
Balanis, A. C. (1982). Antenna Theory, Analysis and Design. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Blank, S. J. (1992). Application of the Empirical Optimization Algorithm to Adaptive Antenna Arrays. Adaptive
Antenna Systems Symposium, Proceedings of the IEEE Long Island Section, 13-16.
Gong, J., Hayes, J. F., & Soleymani M. R. (2007). The Effect of Antenna Physics on Fading Correlation and the
Capacity of Multielement Antenna Systems. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology 56 (4), 1591-
1599.
Gupta, I. J., Baxter, J. R., Ellinson, S. W., Park, H., Oh, H. S., & Kyeong M. G. (2003). An Experimental Study
of Antenna Array Calibration. IEEE Transaction on Antenna Propagation 51 (3), 664-667.
Habash, R. W. Y. (2002). Electromagnetic Fields and Radiation, Human Bioeffects and Safety. Marcel Dekker,
New York.
ICNIRP, (1998). Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time Varying Electric, Magnetic and EMF (up to 300
GHz). Health Physics, 74(4), 494-592.
Jiawei, D., Anguo, W., & Hand, J. (2009). A Simple Radiation Pattern Reconfigurable Printed Dipole Antenna.
3rd IEEE International Symposium on Microwave, Antenna, Propagation and EMC Technologies for
Wireless Communications, 619-622.
Kaluski, M., Macher, M., Scharoch, P., & Stasierski L. (1995). EMF Estimation in the Vicinity of Multiple Panel
Antenna Systems for FM & TV Broadcasting. IEEE Transaction on Broadcasting, 41(4), 136-142.
Ridwan, M., Abdo, M., & Jorswieck, E. (2011). Design of Non-Uniform Antenna Arrays using Genetic
Algorithm. 13th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), 422-427.
Saunders, S. R. (2001). Antennas and Propagation for Wireless Communication Systems. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
Tominago, T., Shinohara, S., & Kuwabara, N. (1995). Methods of Predicting Disturbance for Receivers due to
Information Technology Equipment. The 1995 IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility EMC 1995, 522-527.
Trinchero, D., Cerato, I., & Pelluti, A. (2000). Exposure to High Frequency EM Fields in Urban Environments.
The 2000 IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility EMC 2000, 889-905,
Brugge.
WHO (World Health Organization) web site: www.who.int/peh-emf (Last accessed on Nov. 3rd 2011)


151

Gender Stereotyping and Women
Career Development in Nigeria

Dr Olajubutu

Abstract
The study examined gender stereotyping and women career development in Ondo state,
SouthWest Nigeria. Two hundred respondents formed the sample for the study. The sample
was selected through a purposive random sampling technique, across the three senatorial
districts of Ondo State, Nigeria. A Self-constructed questionnaire (GSWCDQ) was used to
collect data for the study. Three hypotheses were generated and tested at 0.05 level of
significance. The study showed that there was no significant difference between male and
female, literate and non - literate in gender stereotyping of women career development.
However, the study revealed that there was a significant difference between women with good
knowledge in Mathematics and those without it, in gender stereotyping of their career
development. Based on the findings, recommendations were made for cultural re-orientation
for better valuation of girls and women among Nigerians. It was recommended too that girls
and women should develop more interest in Mathematics for better career opportunities.
Keywords: Gender stereotyping, women, career development.


152

Introduction
Gender may be seen as not having a fixed identity but a multidimensional construct,
depending on the expectations associated with being a male or a female in a particular society.
The concept of gender stereotyping could be viewed as relating to the general way
people often devalue the performance of women who take on tasks supposedly reserved for
men. In such instances, people appear unimpressed about womens achievement, success of
women at work is often given to luck or chance rather than to womens hardwork and ability.
This is a proven fact of men intimidation of women at workplace in order to frustrate and keep
them low. This seems to be a common phenomenon in many societies of the world, Nigeria not
being an exception.
Women career development could thus be viewed as having much to do with their
ability to; prepare, enter into their chosen career fields, thrive and advance in such careers
alongside with their men counterparts, without any stereotypical bias.
Culture in Nigeria is vital to women career development. This is based on the fact that
Nigerian culture tends to believe in the inferiority of women relative to men. For this reason,
career differential is often seen at play when it is time for the selection of courses in school, or
its attending careers that follow after graduating from school. On this, Denga(1983) identified
occupations such as; Engineering, Medicine, Law, Computer Science, and Skilled trades, as
being adjudged as more befitting for boys. On the contrast, occupations considered as being
more suitable for girls are Nursing; Secretarial work, and catering services.
The resultant effects of the stereotypical choice of career on girls and women is their
avoidance of science-based courses particularly, Mathematics. This might be one of the major
reasons why women are overwhelming found in traditionally female oriented occupations, in
contrast to male-dominated ones in Nigeria. However, if Nigerian women must fulfill their
career expectations, they cannot afford to remain trapped in the traditionally female oriented
occupations for long. This is because, unlike in the recent past, the context of the woman in the
family is fast changing. Specifically, the present economic recession makes it more imperative
for women to have viable careers. For example, apart from the fact that women involvement in
meaningful careers would enable them take good care of themselves without depending on
their spouses, they would also be better equipped financially, to lend a hand to their spouses in
meeting the demands of the home. Furthermore, viable careers would offer women more
opportunities to imagine better options for their self-actualization or achievement outside the
home. Nevertheless, Chipman and Wilson (1985) Stated that, for girls and woman to enter into
male-dominated careers, it demands that they have very good Knowledge in Mathematics.
Regrettably however, it was noted at the same time too, that for girls and women to meet this
condition seems to be an uphill task. This is because there seems not to be enough support
given to them by significant others in their lives, in society.
To support this submission, the findings of the studies commissioned by the American
Association of University Women (AAUW, 1999), showed that when young women enter
college, the educational environment is often hostile and unsupportive. Also, a similar
observation was made by Egunjobi (2006) in Nigeria. Egunjobi (2006) in her paper presented
on the empowerment of the girl-child in Science and Technology at the First International
Conference of the Forum for African Women Educationalist (FAWE), at the Adekunle Ajasin
University, Akungba Akoko (AAUA), Ondo State Nigeria, told a story to draw attention to
the discouraging attitude of a male teacher to his female students. Thus, a girl, in response to
her fathers request that she should offer Additional Mathematics in place of Religious Studies,
said that their teacher had warned them against offering the course, as this may imply
additional problems for them.


153

Critically, it could be viewed that, lack of support and mentoring from significant
others, like the teacher, to girls and women is an indirect way of telling them that they do not
belong particularly in fields that include Engineering and other physical sciences. At this
juncture however, there is need to mention that inspite of the observed stereotypical barriers in
the way of girls and women, the fact still remains that quite a number of Nigerian women have
indeed gained access, and served the nation meritoriously in their area of specialties. Among
such women is the former Director of the National Agency for Food and Drugs, Administration
and Control (NAFDAC), in person of Prof Dora Akunyili. Indeed her tenure, was noted for a
drastic reduction in the production or importation of fake drugs to Nigeria. Also, there is the
female minister of Education in person of Prof Ruquayyat Rufai, and Dr. Ngozi Okonjo
Iweala, the present Minister of Finance.
It takes these Nigerian women whose names are mentioned here, a lot of courage and
coping strategies to realize their set goals, either in their career fields, or in public service.
Though, it could be argued that nobody disturbs women from gaining entrance into the male-
dominated professions, in reality however, there is enough evidence which tends to show that
their services are not required. (Fitzgerald and Harmon, 2001).This could be through series of
unwelcoming attitudes of the male colleagues, ranging from being ignored to overt verbal
harassment, or receiving no social support when it is needed by women.
The scenario being portrayed by fitzgerald and Harmon (2001) could be said to be
similar or applicable to Nigerian workplace situations. The observed oppressive and
domineering leadership styles from the male professionals to their female colleagues, in many
Nigerian organizations could be traced to the cumulative effects of Nigerian cultural
background, which allows for male dominance. Critically, one could infer here that, attitudes
do not often depend on the height of education, but on the socialization pattern of individuals.
Hence gender stereotyping of women in Nigeria is not limited to non-literate alone, but
also to the perceived highly educated people in workplace, who seem to find it difficult to let
go the ingrained idea that women are inferior to men. Men in this category therefore, are often
skeptical and jittery whenever they see women grow or progress in their careers. What they
often do is to try to pull such women down, employing different strategies, to ensure that the
environment is made unbearable for such women to operate. According to Norton (2002) such
strategies are termed hostile environment harassment. These may include blackmailing,
persistent complaint of nonavailability or non-performance at work, open verbal attacks,
taunting, amongst others. All these actions are measures taken to frustrate and truncate
womens success in their career, so as to boost and justify men domineering power.
Statement of the Problem
Culture in Nigeria tends to favour the boys over the girls in terms of determining what
is seen as being appropriate for them, in the choices of their career. The effect of the gender
stereotypical bias on career aspirations of women may include the decline in womens self-
esteem and self efficacy. If women should resign to fate, and do not make the needed efforts
to face the challenges set as a barrier to their career development, they are likely to remain
under-represented in the available, well-paid male-dominated occupational fields, and/or be
denied of access to high level positions in Nigerian society.
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were generated to guide the study:
1. There is no significant difference between male and female in gender stereotyping of
women career development.


154

2. There is no significant difference between literate and non-literate in gender
stereotyping of women career development.
3. Good knowledge in Mathematics among women will not bring any significant
difference in gender stereotyping of women career development.
Methodology
Descriptive survey method was used. The research population consisted of all
categories of people in varying career fields, including; Engineering, Medicine, Law,
Lecturing, Clerical work, Farming, Gardening, among others, in Ondo State Nigeria. Two
hundred respondents made up of one hundred males and one hundred females, were selected as
sample for the study, through a purposive and random sampling technique, from across the
three senatorial districts of Ondo State.
A self-constructed questionnaire titled Gender Stereotyping and Women Career
Development Questionnaire (GSWCDQ), was used to collect data for the study. The face and
content validities for the instrument were obtained from scholars in Test and Measurement in
the area of Counselling Psychology. The reliability of the instrument (GSWCDQ) was
determined through a test-re-test method, involving 20 respondents from another State, (that is,
Ekiti state, Nigeria), different from the state of the study. A reliability coefficient of 0.84 was
obtained. This was considered high enough for the study.
Data collected were analyzed using t- test statistics. The three hypotheses
generated were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference between male and female in gender stereotyping of
women career development.
Table 1
t-test, mean, standard deviation, showing Differences between Male And Female
Respondents in Gender Stereotyping of Women career Development.
Variables N SD Df t-cal t-cri
Male 108 89.23 7.98
198

1.55

1.96 Female 92 91.01 8.21
Not Significant P> 0.05
The analysis presented in Table 1 shows that the t-calculated of 1.55 is less than the
critical table value of 1.96. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected, showing that there is no
significant difference between male and female in gender stereotyping of women career
development.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference between literate and non-literate in gender
stereotyping of women career development.


155

Table 2
t-test, mean, SD, showing Differences Between literate and non-literate in gender
stereotyping of Women career Development.
Variable N X SD df t-cal t-cri
Literate 63 88.61 9.05 196 1.22 1.96
Non-literate 137 90.72 7.56
Not Significant P>0.05
Table 2 shows that the t-calculated of 1.22 is less than the critical table value of 1.96 at
0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis is not rejected. This shows that there is no
significant difference between literate and non-literate in their gender stereotyping of women
career development.
Hypothesis 3
Good knowledge in Mathematics among women will not bring any significant
difference in gender stereotyping of women career development.
Table 3
t-test, mean, SD, showing the Difference Between Women with Good Knowledge in
Mathematics and those without it, in their gender stereotypical challenges in career
Development.
Variables N X SD Df t-cal t-cri
Women with knowledge of
mathematics
170 140.82 15.40 198 2.23 1.96
Women without Maths 30 147.60 15.40
*Significant P<0.05
Table 3
The analysis presented in Table 3 shows that the calculated table value of 2.23 is greater
than the critical table value of 1.96. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected, indicating that there
is a significant difference between the gender stereotypical challenges being faced by women
who have good knowledge in Mathematics and those without it, in their career development.
Discussion
The result of male and female respondents, t-test for hypothesis one indicates no
significant difference in their gender stereotyping of women career development. The
calculated t-value was 1.55 while the critical t-value was 1.96 at df of 198 and 0.05 level of
significance.
It should be hardly surprising that even women respondents shared the same view with
the male respondents in the study, that there should be gender differential in women career
choice and development. This is a confirmation of the fact that peoples socialization pattern
often affect their ways of reasoning and thinking. Many people in Nigeria are yet to be
convinced that even the few female professionals in areas of Engineering, Architecture,
Medicine and others, can equally perform excellently well, or even better than their male
counterparts. The finding of the study is in agreement with Denga (1983), Egunjobi (2006) and
the AAUW (1999).
Denga (1983), referred to the critical importance of Nigerian culture in the choice of
career by girls and the boys. This draws attention to why people often devalue the performance
of women who take on tasks supposedly reserved for men in Nigeria. Furthermore, Egunjobi


156

(2006) and the AAUW (1999) dwell on the intimidating attitudes of teachers to their female
students. These also have a far reaching implications for girls and womens exclusion from the
fields that have to do with Engineering and other physical sciences.
Hypothesis two shows no significant difference between literate and non-literate
respondents, in their gender stereotypical perception of women career development. This
submission is not surprising too, it only confirms further that culture often takes priority over
whatever status one holds. In other words, people often react first in terms of acceptable
ideology of their culture, rather than in terms of their status.
The finding related to hypothesis three shows a significant difference between
women that have good knowledge in Mathematics and those without it, in the challenges they
face, especially in science-based career fields. In line with this result, Chimpman and Wilson
(1985) were of the same opinion that it is women who lack the mastery of Mathematics that
often experience more hardship in accessing viable careers or development in their careers.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, it could be concluded that career women in Ondo
State, South-West Nigeria, are over- whelmingly present in traditionally female oriented career
fields like nursing, teaching, Catering services, based on their cultural orientation.
If career women in Ondo state, Western Nigeria must grow and progress in their career
fields, it calls for a positive re-assessment of Nigerian cultural values and beliefs. This is to
enable women in Nigerian, and Ondo State in particular, contribute their own quota to their
career fields and the nations development, like their men counterparts.
Recommendations
Women like men need meaningful employment to provide additional source of social
support to increase their well being. For this reason, the following recommendations are made.
1. There should be cultural re-orientation towards the value of girls and women . Gender
typing in girls and women in particular, is not good for their career development and
general wellness.
2. Parents to encourage their children particularly girls, to develop interest in
Mathematics so that there would be no limitation to the choices of their career.
3. Men, who are looked up to as mentors at workplace, should use their positions to
assist women.
4. Career women are encouraged to develop effective coping strategies for good
adjustment at workplace.
5. Finally, all existing policies bothering on gender equality should be fully implemented
by both the state and federal government of Nigeria.


157

References
America Association of University Women (AAUW,1999) Gender gaps: Where Schools Still
fail our children. New York: Marlowe and Company.
Chipman, S.F and Wilson, D.M (1985) Understanding Mathematics Course Enrolment and
Mathematics Achievement. A synthesis of the research, In S.F Chipman, L.R Brush &
D.M Wilson (Eds). Women and Mathematics: Balancing the Equation (pp.275-328)
Hillsdale, N.J: Erilbaum.
Denga, D.I (1983). Vocational Education. Calabar, Nigeria: Rapid Educational Publishers
Ltd.
Egunjobi, A.E. (2006). Empowering the Girl-Child in Science, Mathematics and Technology
through Role Modeling: A paper presented at the 1
st
International Conference by
FAWE/AAUA. 29
th
August.
Fitzgerald, L.F, and Harmon, I.W (2001). Womens Career Development: A Postmodern
update. In F.L.T Leona and A. Barak (Eds). Contemporary Models in Vocational
Psychology (pp.207-230). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Norton, S. (2002). Women exposed: Sexual Harassment and Female Vulnerability. In
L.Diamant and J. Lee (Eds). The Psychology of Sex, Gender, and Jobs (Pp.82103).
Westport, CT: Praeger.


158

Compensating Human Capital in
Organisations: The General Concerns
about Paying Top Executives Excessively

Dr. Angeline Tay
Faculty of Business and Accountancy
University of Malaya
Kuala Lumpur 50603,Malaysia

Mr. Pankajkumar A/L Bipinchandra
Director of Investment of a Large Local Corporation in Malaysia
E-mail: angie88tay@gmail.com

Abstract
There are growing public concerns from stakeholders and the government over staff
remuneration policies and practices in organisations. Their major apprehensions are the rising
salaries, bonuses, and other benefits that are offered to corporate leaders. More recently, the
gaps between the top executives pay packages and that of the ordinary employees have
increased, resulting in employee and shareholder dissatisfaction. Researchers are still searching
for more acceptable explanations and justifications why top executives deserve to be paid over
hundreds of times more than the ordinary employees. Despite numerous past reports, reviews,
and suggestions on the need to narrow the income gaps, there has been little success in ensuring
a fairer distribution of corporate wealth among the stakeholders. The Occupy Wall Street
demonstrations in the U.S., is a typical example of mass public protests and outrage of the
frustrated and disadvantaged groups in society against the lack of success in resolving two of
the most basic needs of employees fair wages and job security. This article highlights the
concerns and continuing debates on how to fairly compensate human capital. It also raises
some criticisms on the excessive pay packages of top executives.
Key Words: Compensation, Cost-to-Income Ratio, Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory, Top
Executives Pay, Occupy Wall Street


159

Introduction
Managing the salaries and benefits of top executives and the ordinary staff members of
organisations is crucial for attracting, motivating, and retaining talents. Their total remuneration
constitutes the highest percentage of total expenditures in most firms. It is a perennial dilemma
in most firms to maintain a good balance between offering attractive pay packages to their
corporate leaders and general employees, as well as in providing fair returns to their investors
or shareholders. Prudent decisions are necessary to ensure that the top executives are not paid
excessively at the expense and disadvantage of the rank-and-file employees, shareholders, and
other stakeholders. In the past, the final pay decisions were rarely discussed and disclosed to
the general public due to their sensitivity and for strategic business purposes. However, since
the early 1990s, such pay secrecy was no longer legal in developed nations such as in the U.S.,
and the developing economies are emulating them, slowly but surely.
As the business environment is anticipated to be more turbulent and unpredictable in the
near future, organisations are increasingly being challenged to accommodate the diverse needs
of their stakeholders. By comparison, more have been openly written and discussed about
compensating non-executives than the pay structures and packages of top executives. However,
due to the recent global economic instability and public outrage in developed and developing
economies over the unfair distribution of corporate wealth among stakeholders, more
affirmative regulatory measures have been implemented to ensure that the private and public
enterprises are more transparent in disclosing their corporate governance and financial matters.
Vital information on the internal and external equities of human capital remuneration packages
within and between organisations which were once confidential, are currently more accessible
to the general public and media.
It is inevitable for the public and stakeholders of firms to be curious of the extent to
which the employees and their top executives are paid within and across industries. In general,
the components of the total pay packages of chief executive officers (CEOs) or chief operations
officers (COOs) include: their base pay or salaries, short-term incentives in the form of cash
and bonuses, long-term incentives such as stock option grants, as well as other perks such as
club memberships, travel privileges, medical and life insurance coverage, and other generous
pension plans (Dulebohn & Werling, 2007; Zajac & Westphal, 1996). In Malaysia, there is also
an additional mandatory monthly contribution that employees and employers in the private
sector would have to pay towards the Employees Provident Fund (EPF), as their retirement
safety net.
How the CEOs are paid is often influenced by several internal and external factors
(Dessler, 2010). Their total pay packages would depend on their personal characteristics,
aptitudes, experience, as well as the complexity of jobs and the ability of employers to pay.
Increasingly, they have been determined by the external market forces (Aggarwal & Samwick,
1999; Dulebohn & Werling, 2007). The demand and supply of leadership talents is one of the
major determinants of the extent to which the potential leaders are compensated. In recent
years, the talent pool of versatile generalists capable of leading corporations across any type of
industry is small compared to the supply of firm-specific leaders. Their limited supply has put
them in a position of power to negotiate with their prospective employers for generous entry
golden hellos and exit golden parachutes, as well as annual increments that maybe
independent of their corporate performance. In view of this, there is an urgent need for the
board of directors (BODs) to actively exercise their rights on behalf of the shareholders to
ensure that the rate of pay increase of their top executives would not outstrip the percentage of
increase in their corporate earnings.


160

In some instances, it is the professional compensation consultants who would negotiate
and pre-determine the compensation packages on behalf of the top executives (Kramer, 2005).
While the pay rise for the CEOs and their staff should increase in tandem with the increase in
their firms earnings and share prices, this may or may not take place in all firms. Some CEOs
continue to enjoy good remuneration irrespective of their firms performance when they should
be bearing some of the market risks. If the firms earnings persistently decrease over the years,
they should be held responsible, and have their salaries and perks cut for underperforming. The
issues relating to compensating human capital are complex and the aim of this article is to
highlight some of the issues on top executives pay in Malaysia compared to others from the
more developed economies. It also discusses the existing debates, justifications, and criticisms
on paying top executives disproportionately.
Human Capital Compensation Challenges
In the early 1900s, Frederick Taylor together with his colleagues, promoted the
adoption of scientific management practices at the workplace (Dulebohn & Werling, 2007).
They recommended firms to use pay and rewards to improve the productivity and performance
of their staff and to minimise their turnover rates. According to them, employees who work
hard and are paid and rewarded accordingly, would be more likely to improve their
performance and be less inclined to leave their organisations. This has subsequently inspired
several compensation studies to establish the extent to which pay levels and satisfaction are
related to employees performance, productivity, and their turnover intentions (e.g., Deci,
Koestner, & Ryan, 1999; Heneman, 1990; Williams, McDaniel, & Nguyen, 2006). The main
objectives of the studies were to identify factors that could motivate staff to improve their work
commitment, performance, and firm loyalty.
In general, the research findings revealed significant relationships in
compensation decisions, the attitudes and behaviours of employees, and organisational
effectiveness (Dulebohn & Werling, 2007). Employees who are talented, skillful, experienced,
and willing to work harder tend to expect their employers to consequently reciprocate. They
expect to be paid and rewarded more than their colleagues who have not contributed much.
Stacey Adams (1965) used the equity theory to explain that employees expect at least an input-
output ratio of 1:1 for their positive contributions towards organisational effectiveness. They
tend to perceive that if they work comparatively harder and put in more effort or input than
their colleagues, they would be compensated more than those who did not. Failure to address
the input-output ratio expectations could frustrate and dissatisfy employees and cause them to
engage in counter-productive behaviours.
Victor Vrooms (1964) expectancy theory expounds the linear relationships of
employees work behaviours, efforts, and pay satisfaction. According to him, the more effort
individuals put in, the more they expect to perform well and thereby deserve to be rewarded
more. Failure to meet their outcome expectations could disappoint and cause some to cut back
on their input and/or output and others may even leave their organisations. Vroom added that
the extent to which employees value their rewards (valence) is also an important element in the
equation of effort + performance = outcome. Employees tend to expect their management to
reward them based on the extent of their contributions, and the rewards must be of value to
them. Insignificant and worthless rewards that are below their expectations could cause them to
cut back on their future efforts and contributions.
Likewise, the extent to which the top executives believe they have been meaningfully
rewarded for their past and potential efforts and performance could determine if they would
expend them further in the future. Therefore, if corporations expect them to bring in more
investors and corporate earnings, they must be prepared to pay more. Unfortunately, more often


161

than not, corporations are obliged to pay top executives for their anticipated contributions based
on their past performance records elsewhere rather than on their actual efforts in steering the
potential firms towards stellar performance. Their total pay packages (golden hellos and golden
parachutes) are often pre-determined before they are hired and corporations tend to bear almost
all the risks when their new CEOs fail to meet their personal and organisational performance
targets.
The pre-employment total compensation contracts are often either negotiated directly by
the top executives themselves or through their agents such as the compensation consultants. As
there is a time-lag between hiring and measuring their actual performance, there is no guarantee
that the newly appointed top executives who were once successful in other organisations would
be able to deliver similar results, if not better in their new appointments. Stories abound of
organisations that have had to stretch their limited resources just to honour their pre-
employment contracts by hiring top executives who had over promised but under delivered in
terms of their performance. Although in theory, the CEOs personal talents, skills, and
experience are assumed to be transferable to other companies, in reality, not all of them have
the extraordinary ability to manage modern organisations across industries (Kramer, 2005)
Regulatory procedures are currently being implemented in some countries to ensure a
fairer distribution of corporate wealth among the stakeholders in organisations. This is in
response to the mounting unhappiness and awareness of employees and the general public over
the huge pay package gaps between the top executives and the lower ranking employees
(Conyon & Murphy, 2000). The Security Exchange Committee (SEC) in the U.S. has appealed
for more transparent and full disclosures of the top executives total compensation since 1992
(Perry & Zenner, 2001). In Malaysia, it is still work in progress; more organisations are doing
their best to disclose the actual compensation packages of their top executives.
Paying Top Executives Disproportionately
Controversies from compensating top executives serving public listed corporations
disproportionately are on the rise in the U.S., U.K., Europe, Australia, and even in developing
nations like Malaysia. It was in the late 1980s and early 1990s in the U.S. that the stock prices
of several corporations improved and the demands for high performing CEOs increased
(Beecher-Monas, 2009; Hall & Liebman, 1998). Due to the shortage of capable leaders,
corporations have to pay more to attract talented leaders who have the ability to manage
companies across industries (Murphy & Zbojnk, 2004). This has perhaps resulted in the rising
demand and popularity of business rather than technical degrees globally and the mushrooming
of several business schools offering the Master of Business Administration (MBA)
programmes in most universities.
Prior to the 1970s, the top executives compensation in most developed economies such
as in the U.S. and the U.K. was fairly stable and the pay disparities between them and their
immediate senior executives and the rank-and-file employees were much smaller (Murphy &
Zbojnk, 2004). However, they could not match the narrower pay gaps between those at the
top and bottom of the corporate hierarchy in Japan and Germany. In the U.S., the CEOs pay
packages grew the fastest, at least two decades before the turn of this century (Beecher-Monas,
2009; Murphy & Zbojnk, 2004). Beecher-Monas noted that the average real pay of leaders
from the Standard and Poors list of companies, leapt from a total of US$3.5 million in 1992, to
US$14.7 million in 2003. The corporate captains were paid between 140 and 500 times more
than the average employees in 1991 and 2003, respectively. This seemed to have defied Peter
Druckers passionate plea that top executives be paid not more than 20 times the average
salaries of employees in the same firm (Dillion, 2009). Beecher-Monas added that the stock


162

option grants in the U.S. had increased from 27% of the executives pay packages in 1992 to
over 50% in recent years.
One of the main reasons for the sudden hike in their compensation was that
organisations no longer relied on promoting their internal staff to the top positions but hired the
supposedly more competent and versatile individuals from external sources to boost their
corporate image and the confidence of their shareholders (Dulebohn & Werling, 2007). The
limited number of qualified top candidates has opened up more job opportunities and mobility
for these privileged few (Murphy & Zbojnk, 2004). According to the authors, the selection of
external CEOs in the U.S. had increased from 6.5% in 1970s to 17.2% and 21.6%, in 1980s and
1990s, respectively. They added that the external top executives were paid at least 15.3% more
than their internally promoted colleagues in the 1990s.
The evolution of compensating top executives excessively is rather intricate and it has
motivated academics and consultants to attempt to establish more acceptable explanations and
justifications for their huge pay packages. Murphy and Zbojnk (2004) argued that ultimately,
it is the market forces that would determine the appointments and remuneration of CEOs.
Competition is expected to be more intense and their ability to command higher compensation
are likely to transcend their academic qualifications, work experiences, and skills that are
transferable across firms and industries in the future (Kramer, 2005; Wowak & Hambrick,
2010). To earn more in the shortest time possible, some top executives have engaged in very
risky decisions so that they could demand for higher annual pay increments.
The principal-agent theory suggests that firms tend to pay their top executives based on
the stability of their stocks values (Aggarwal & Samwick, 1999; Haubrich, 1994). Others used
the fat cat theory to explain how employees who are promoted internally to the top of the
corporate hierarchy would gradually pay themselves well (Bebchuk, Fried, & Walker, 2002;
Murphy & Zbojnk, 2004). They adopt mutual rent-seeking behaviors because of their long
acquaintances with the BODs of their companies. While the BODs would turn a blind eye
towards the top executives unreasonable remuneration demands at the expense of other
stakeholders in the firms, the CEOs would in turn do their best to have them re-elected to the
board. To avoid such irregular practices, there are suggestions that companies should appoint
independent BODs to allow them to make more autonomous, professional, and rational
corporate decisions - the CEOs pay in particular (Bebchuk & Fried, 2005; Bebchuk, et al.,
2002; Kramer 2005).
Rakesh Khurana (in Dillion, 2009, p. 98) of the Harvard Business School, argued that
compensation practices became irrational when companies started hiring external candidates
instead of promoting the qualified internal executives to head corporations. Dillion noted that
unlike the internal candidates whose pay packages were once benchmarked against paying the
immediate executives just below them (vertical pay comparison), the external hires were paid
based on how much the CEOs in other companies were paid (lateral pay comparison). The
over-dependence on the limited sources of external candidates has elevated the roles of the
external compensation consultants and advisers who often recommend high pay packages for
the CEOs.
Pay Determinants and Decisions
To establish the ideal pay level and satisfaction of employees, past compensation
literature revealed that most firms had initially focused more on the internal factors such as the
organisational and personal characteristics of employees, than the external determinants such as
the labour market conditions (Dulebohn & Werling, 2007). Supporters of the internal labour
market practices proposed that employees be hired at entry level so that the longer they


163

remained in their organisations, the more likely they could move up the corporate ladder and be
paid more (Lazear & Oyer, 2004). The justification for paying the longer tenured employees
higher is that over time they would have acquired additional company-specific knowledge,
skills, and experience through formal and on-the-job training programmes. Besides, some
organisations prefer to retain them longer to recoup their training expenditures.
In the U.S., organisations like the IBM for example, tend to hire younger employees and
train them to undertake more responsibilities as they grow with the company. The more loyal,
dedicated and competent they are, the more likely they would be promoted. Highly skilled
employees are sometimes retained to recover the cost of investing in their training. However,
there are currently fewer organisations that can sustain IBMs internal staff promotion model,
including the exemplary Japanese or German corporations once well-known for their life-long
employment practices. Rather than relying on internal sources by promoting capable
individuals based on their personal characteristics, more firms are hiring from the external
talent pool whereby qualified and experienced candidates could be employed almost
immediately if the price is right (Dulebohn & Werling, 2007).
While, internal promotion practices are good for motivating employees, unfortunately,
long-tenured staff who have acquired skills from only a single company could make them less
employable in other firms and industries (Gerhart & Rynes, 2003). Their past skills and
experiences are sometimes irrelevant and too inflexible for them to cope with more demanding
challenges of emerging and modern organisations. Nonetheless, there are still debates on
whether top executives should be paid according to their personal characteristics and internal
equity factors or on the external market forces such as the extent to which other competing
companies are willing to offer.
Although researchers found significant relationships between the firms stock market
values and the top executives pay (e.g., Jensen & Murphy, 1990a; Hall & Liebman, 1998), not
all firms fully support them. On the contrary, there are reports that the percentages of increase
in the CEOs compensation have outstripped the annual performance growth of firms. There
are also deliberations if the predictable pay (base salaries) of CEOs should be lowered and their
variable pay (annual and long term incentives) be raised. While more organisations support the
pay-for-performance systems, few are willing to allow irresponsible CEOs take unnecessary
business risks to obtain quick short term gains. It is the BODs responsibility to ensure that
their CEOs focus more on achieving more gradual and stable annual increases in corporate
earnings and their CEOs remuneration.
In practice, there are several accounting and financial performance measures that firms
could rely on to measure their performance. They would include among others the use of the
firms net incomes such as their net profits, and financial tools such as earnings per share
(EPS), return on equity (ROE), return on assets (ROA), profit margins, dividends, and cash
flows (Dessler, 2010). In addition, they could also depend on other non-financial indicators
such as the achievement of their strategic business targets and the customer satisfaction survey
results. The equity-based annual rewards for the top executives are often dependent on the
firms performance. If the pay rises for CEOs are not in tandem with the increase in the firms
earnings, they could destroy the firms future stability and sustainability. Any pay or economic
imbalance within firms could create a general discontentment among the rank-and-file
employees and shareholders. They may take to the streets to release their frustration and seek
redress in public rallies.


164

The U.S. Financial Crisis
We are 99%! were the famous rallying cries of demonstrators at the Occupy Wall
Street (OWS) mass public rallies in New York City which began on the 17 September in
2011. It was sparked by the infamous Global Financial Crisis (GFC) that occured in the late
2008 through 2009. At the mass gatherings, the socially and financially disadvantaged U.S.
citizens had protested against the socio-economic injustices, rising rates of unemployment, and
the increasingly more covetous corporate leaders especially from the financial services sector
(Schneider, 2012). They wanted the small number of exclusive individuals (around 1% of the
U.S. population) consisting mainly of the investment bankers to stop enriching themselves
while the larger groups of the average and lower income earners have to content with job
insecurity and frequent layoffs in the absence of effective corporate governance.
The GFC began when the financial institutions started to incur huge losses mainly due
to their irresponsible sub-prime lending practices. The financial institutions write-downs in the
U.S. had increased to as high as US$2.076 trillion, resulting in job losses of about 439,035 by
the end of the third quarter of 2011 (Abelson & Choudhury, 2011). Ben Bernanke (2011), the
Chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank, admitted that the OWS movement was a public
reaction against the greed, recklessness, and unlawful behaviours of the maverick corporate
captains at Wall Street. He explained that the lack of prompt reforms at Wall Street had
disappointed the general public and employees in the U.S. They wanted more permanent
solutions to the source of the problem.
In mid-September 2008, the Lehman Brothers followed by the AIG, had caused a
massive sell-off in the global equity markets. This prompted the U.S. government to offer huge
bailout packages worth US$182 billion to rescue the too big to fail corporations (Holm,
Scism, & Morath, 2012). Surprisingly, upon receiving the financial support, AIG announced its
bonus payments of about US$218 million to the management team of its financial services
division. In defence, AIG cited contractual obligations and the difficulty to unwind their
complex derivative trades for the controversial decision. As a result of the immense public
protests against AIGs plans, the U.S. government conceded by imposing a 90% levy on their
bonuses (Hitt & Lucchetti, 2009). The U.S. experience triggered a global public awareness on
the need to be more sensitive and vigilant on how corporations are governed, as well as how
top executives conduct their daily businesses and how they are paid. Similar demonstrations
could take place in other parts of the globe if the gaps between the rich and poor or the haves
and have-nots within and between firms are not narrowed.
The Rising Cost-to-Income Ratios
Employees in the U.S. have been unhappy over the remuneration excesses of top
executives as some have received very attractive entry golden hellos and golden parachutes
on their retirement or resignation. James McNerney of General Electric and 3M, crossed over
to the troubled Boeing Corporation in 2005, when he was offered a substantial golden hello to
attract him to lead the organisation and to enhance the shareholders confidence (Crestwell,
2006). There were other instances whereby the total compensation of the CEOs included
additional benefits that were over and above the amounts that were officially disclosed. The
pre-negotiated actual total compensation such as exclusive pension benefits were ingeniously
crafted and carefully hidden from the untrained eyes of the BODs, shareholders, general public,
and regulators. Some of the benefits and payments that the top executives received went far
beyond their retirement or resignation dates.
Like the AIG, most of the financial institutions in the U.S. have fairly high cost-to-
income ratios. As service providers, they rely heavily on their employees and rewarding them
well is essential for retaining experienced talents. The costs of human capital in the form of


165

paying their salaries, bonuses, and other perks often form the bulk of corporate operating
expenditures. According to Roman Scott, the founder of Calamder Group, this could take up
around 60-65% of the total costs incurred by the private banks and they are expected to
increase further in the near future (Vallikappen & Tong, 2011). In January 2012, Goldman
Sachs paid out a total of US$12.2 billion in bonuses to 33,000 of their workforce based on their
2011 performance (Daily Mail, 2012). It was reported that this was nearly 7.5 times the median
household income in the U.S.
Table 1: The Cost-to-Income Ratios of Top Banking and Financial Institutions in the U.S.
Company Cost-to-Income Ratios
Morgan Stanley 97.9
Deutsche Bank AG 84.5
Bank of America Corporation 77.4
The Bank of New York Mellon Corporation 74.0
American Express Company 73.6
Citigroup Inc. 73.2
Northern Trust Corporation 72.7
State Street Corporation 70.7
KeyCorp 68.3
PNC Financial Services Group, Inc. 68.2
Barclays Plc. 67.4
Mitsubishi UFJ Trust and Banking Corporation 65.3
The Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. 64.9
JPMorgan Chase & Co. 62.8
Fifth Third Bancorp 61.7
HSBC Holdings Plc. 61.0
SunTrust Banks, Inc. 59.5
BB&T Corporation 58.6
Wells Fargo & Company 58.1
Royal Bank of Canada 57.2
Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce 56.0
Capital One Financial Corporation 55.8
U.S. Bancorp 51.5
Average 67.0
Source: 2012 Bloomberg Report for the full financial year of the respective
companies (retrieved on 4 February 2013).
As corporate profits declined severely in the second half of 2011, and despite taking
measures to scale back on expenditures, the securities industry in New York City spent a
whopping US$19.7 billion on paying bonuses to their staff (New York State Comptroller,
2012). The report added that on the average, firms that were listed in the New York Stock
Exchange had dedicated nearly 52% of their net revenues to pay the salaries and bonuses of
brokers and dealers for their services during the first three quarters of 2011, compared to 47%
throughout 2010, and 36% in 2009. In 2010, although the securities industry provided only
5.3% of the total private sector jobs in New York City, their wages amounted to nearly a
quarter (23.5%) of the total sum paid to all the private sector employees (New York State
Comptroller, 2012).


166

Based on the data compiled by Bloomberg in the U.S, Table 1 reveals that the cost-to-
income ratios of the reported companies were between 51.5% and 97.9%. It shows that human
capital payments of the banking and financial institutions in the U.S. constituted a huge
percentage of the annual total costs incurred by the end of the respective companys financial
year in 2012. Topping the list was Morgan Stanley, with a shockingly high cost-to-income ratio
of 97.9% and the lowest was U.S. Bancorp (51.5%). On the average, the cost-to-income ratio of
the companies was 67.2%, suggesting that the top U.S. corporations were spending more than
two thirds of their earnings on paying their human capital.
The Malaysian Experience
In a study by PricewaterhouseCoopers in 2007, Vallikappen and Tong (2011) reported
that the average cost-to-income ratio for private banks in the Asia-Pacific region were about
57% of their total revenues. However, this has since risen to as high as 82% in Singapore and
Hong Kong in 2010. Perhaps the main reason for the rising cost-to-income ratios of the banking
and financial institutions were the mounting costs of compensating their CEOs. Around the
same period, the cost-to-income ratios of the major banking and financial institutions in
Malaysia were more reasonable but they are expected to increase in the future.
Table 2 summarises the cost-to-income ratios and the percentages of personnel costs to
total operating costs of the local banking and financial institutions in Malaysia; the data were
extracted from the website of Bursa Malaysia or the Malaysian Stock Exchange. On the
average, for the cumulative period that ended on 30 September 2012, the average cost-to-
income ratio of the eight companies remained stable at 46.9% compared to the average of
67.0% in the U.S., and
Table 2: Cost-to-Income Ratios and Personnel Costs to Total Operating Costs
Percentages of Top Banking and Financial Institutions in Malaysia
2012 (%) 2011 (%)
Financial Year
(FY)
Cost-to
Income
Personnel Cost to Total
Operating Cost
Cost-to
Income
Personnel Cost to Total
Operating Cost
A Holding Bhd. 45.5% 60.0% 48.5% 57.9%
B Holding Bhd. 42.4% 63.6% 40.0% 64.2%
C Financial
Group Bhd.
47.9% 65.7% 46.3% 63.4%
D Group Holding
Bhd.
55.8% 55.5% 56.1% 53.3%
E Bank Bhd. 44.2% 52.4% 49.2% 58.6%
F Banking Bhd. 48.7% 57.9% 50.2% 54.1%
G Bank Bhd. 30.8% 67.5% 29.8% 67.9%
H Capital Bhd. 45.5% 60.4% 43.4% 62.6%
Average 46.9% 58.7% 46.9% 57.1%
Note: The actual identities of the banking and financial institutions have been disguised for
confidential purposes.
Source: Bursa Malaysia, Cost-to-Income ratios and Personnel Costs to Total Operating Costs for
the cumulative quarter ended on 30 September 2012.


167

70% in Switzerland in 2011. Although Table 2 shows that the cost-to-income ratios of
the Malaysian banking and financial institutions remained the same between 2011 and 2012,
the average human capital or personnel costs to the total operating costs have increased slightly
from 57.1% in 2011 to 58.7% in 2012. Comparatively, the G Bank Bhd. had the lowest cost-to-
income ratio of 30.8% in 2012, and 29.8% in 2011. However, the costs for paying their
personnel were slightly more than two-thirds of the total operating costs (67.5% in 2012 and
67.9% in 2011), while E Bank Bhd. and D Group Holding Bhd. recorded the lowest
percentages of 52.4% in 2012 and 53.3% in 2011, respectively.
Table 3 reveals the extent to which the top executives in Malaysia were paid in terms of
the percentage of total revenues and net profits of selected public listed companies for the
financial year that ended between 31 December 2011 and October 2012. Overall, the table
shows that the CEOs in most of the top corporations in the country were modestly paid
compared to their counterparts in the more developed economies. One peculiarity in Malaysia
is the presence of government linked companies (GLCs) such as the V Group Bhd. and the W
Group Holdings Bhd. In general, their CEOs were respectively paid 0.06% and 0.07% of their
total revenues or 0.52% and 0.22% of their net profits.
Table 3 also suggests that although some companies did not perform as well as the rest,
their top executives were paid comparatively higher percentages of their total revenues and net
profits. The top executives of family-owned companies such as the L Bhd., M Corporation
Bhd., P Corporation Bhd., S Corporation Bhd., Q Bank Bhd., O Holdings Bhd., U Group Bhd.,
and X Corporation Bhd., were each paid an average of between 0.10% and 2.15% of their
corporate revenues or between 0.56% and 30.54% of the net profits. Fortunately, unlike their
U.S. colleagues, the top executives from the banking and financial institutions in Malaysia are
paid modestly. Nevertheless, the shareholders and regulatory bodies should not rest on their
laurels; they need to monitor their progress to avoid undesirable outcomes in the future.


168

Table 3: Top Executives Pay as a Percentage of Total Revenues and Net Profits of
Selected Public Listed Companies in Malaysia
Company Designation
Total
Payout
(RM'mil)
Revenue
for
Latest
Financial
Year
(RM'mil)
Net
Profit for
Latest
Financial
Year
(RM'mil)
Salary as
a % of
Revenue
*Salary
as a % of
Net
Profit

L Bhd.

Chairman/CEO

113.0

19,559

2,868

0.58%

3.79%
M Corporation
Bhd.
Chairman/CEO 47.7 15,640 1,789 0.30% 2.60%
N Malaysia
Bhd.
Chairman/CEO 46.3 8,494 1,428 0.54% 3.14%
O Holdings
Bhd.
Non-Executive
Director
22.6 1,051 51 2.15% 30.54%
P Corporation
Bhd.
Managing
Director
19.9 20,196 1,181 0.10% 1.65%
Q Bank Bhd. Chairman and
MD/CEO
19.8 12,756 3,484 0.16% 0.56%
R Bhd. President/CEO 11.6 2,527 394 0.46% 2.86%
S Corporation
Bhd.
MD/CEO** 11.5 7,055 307 0.16% 3.61%
T Bhd. CEO/Executive
Director
10.1 8,800 2,527 0.11% 0.40%
U Group Bhd. Group MD/CEO 9.6 1,571 169 0.61% 5.36%
V Group Bhd.
(GLC)
MD/CEO 9.3 15,621 1,770 0.06% 0.52%
W Group
Holdings Bhd.
(GLC)
Group MD/CEO 8.7 12,122 4,031 0.07% 0.22%
X Corporation
Bhd.
Chairman/Group
MD
8.4 1,034 119 0.81% 6.57%
Y Holdings
Bhd.
Chairman 8.4 2,592 9 0.32% 47.26%
Total or
Average 346.9 129,018 20,127 0.27% 1.69%

Note: * *Relates mainly to performance incentives paid to the MD/CEO of one of its major
investments in Malaysia
* Top Executives salary as a % of net profit = Salary/(net profit + salary)
The actual identities of the banking and financial institutions have been disguised for
confidential purposes.
Sources: Malaysian Business (16
th
August 2012), and the respective annual company reports from the Bursa
Malaysias website (www.bursamalaysia.com)
Suggestions for Moderating Top Executives Pay Packages
The future success of organisations is expected to be more volatile than before due to
the global political and economic uncertainties, as well as the rising occurrences of natural
calamities around the world. With the exception of some successful businesses in a few nations,
the financial performances of several others are likely to be less vibrant than before. One of the


169

biggest challenges for most organisations would be to manage the extent to which the top
executives and general employees are paid as the costs of paying them often constitute more
than half of their total operating expenditures.
While some firms are busy looking out for extraordinary talents to lead them through
the anticipated difficult times, unfortunately not all would be able to pay them generously. The
practice of paying well just a few individuals at the top of the corporate hierarchy at the
expense of providing job security and fairer compensation to the ordinary employees may no
longer be feasible. If the gap between paying the executives and non-executives continues to
widen, it could affect the productivity, motivation, and support of the much needed rank-and-
file employees (Stabile, 2011). Conyon and Murphy (2000) emphasised that prince and paupers
can no longer co-exist in the same organisation as the weary and disadvantaged groups are
bound to resist and cause internal unrest.
According to Jensen and Murphy (1990a) the top executives in the U.S. have been
overpaid for far too long. There is no excuse for managerial greed in economically turbulent
times. Organisations would be at risk of closure and bankruptcy if their pay packages continue
to surpass the financial growth of corporations (Wowak & Hambrick, 2010). Requests for more
cash bonuses and stock options plans should match the achievement of their personal and
corporate performance targets and top executives should be penalised or fired if they under-
perform (Carpenter & Sanders, 2002).
Since 1992, the U.S. has legally attempted to curb the unreasonable rise of the top
executives pay. Corporations are forced to fully disclose to their shareholders and the general
public the exact amounts that their CEOs are paid (Crestwell, 2006; Hall & Liebman, 1998;
Perry & Zenner, 2001). However, the long term outcomes are much to be desired; some
organisations have managed to work around the ruling. To conform, they have capped their top
executives fixed base salary at US$1 million and inflated their variable pay packages such as
by deferring or not declaring their post-retirement benefits (Dillion, 2009).
Bebchuk and Fried (2005) stress that CEOs are not superstars and that they should not
be allowed to set their own pay structures. They concur with Tosi, Werner, Katz and Gomez-
Mejia (2000) that control measures are necessary to ensure that they will not use their veto
power to over-rule the BODs decisions on compensation matters. Shareholders should be
given more rights to determine the firms compensation policies (Hall & Liebman, 1998;
Jensen & Murphy, 1990b). These authors argue that the compensation packages of corporate
leaders should be linked to market conditions and risks. The failure of the BODs to consistently
act on behalf of the shareholders has resulted in the impending enactment of a bill to allow
shareholders of public listed companies to say no to pay in the U.S. (Dillion, 2009). Perhaps
if top executives request that they be paid say five times more than their counterparts in other
organisations, the shareholders should insist that they work at least five times harder, and create
five times more of their organisations net values (Kramer, 2005).
While organisations are busy re-examining the pay packages of their top executives and
non-executives, they should also ensure that their shareholders secure good returns from their
investments. To achieve this, the U.S. companies are trying to pay their top executives smaller
base salaries and increase their pay-for-performance incentives such as the stocks and stock
option plans (Conyon, 2006). Increasingly, there are companies that prohibit their top
executives from selling or exercising their shares and stock options immediately on their
retirement or resignation; they could only do so between 7 and 10 years after leaving their last
organisations (Dillion, 2009; Wowak & Hambrick, 2010).
One way to curb the rising trend of paying top executives excessively is perhaps to
adopt some of the measures that have been implemented in developed economies. Britain, for


170

example, has adopted four broad approaches and topping the list was to allow the minority
shareholders and not just the ubiquitous BODs to determine the CEOs pay packages (Dillion,
2009). In the past, the lack of corporate governance has enabled the CEOs, with the support of
their BODs to determine their own annual compensation increments. Currently, the ordinary
and institutional shareholders have the right to vote against any CEOs unreasonable demand
for pay increases. In addition, since the institutional shareholdings of listed companies in the
U.K. are rather large, they have the right not to re-appoint any member of the remuneration
committee who collaborates with their CEOs and often concede to their demands for better
annual pay packages (Dillion, 2009).
Secondly, in Britain the BODs of listed companies are advised to prudently negotiate
the CEOs actual total remuneration during the hiring process (Dillion, 2009). They are
required to consult their investors or shareholders before making the final offers which must be
officially declared. The independent pay advisory firms such as RiskMetrics have become
increasingly more popular among firms that rely on them to make important pay decisions
(Dillion, 2009). Thirdly, whenever the compensation consultants are hired to advice on
compensating top executives, they are encouraged to obtain the inputs of the internal
compensation experts who are more knowledgeable about the firms internal financial matters.
Lastly, the U.K. model also suggests that the CEOs annual performance evaluation
outcomes should be incorporated in their pay increment decisions. Requests for any increase in
their remuneration would only be considered if the CEOs have met their personal and corporate
performance targets. To achieve this successfully, the BODs are required to know their
corporate strategies and to establish if the performance targets have been achieved. In general,
the British model does not tolerate the indifferent attitudes and behaviours of the stakeholders.
Only firms that perform well would be able to pay their top executives, ordinary employees,
and their shareholders well too.
Corporations could become more sustainable and resilient if they consciously design
their future destiny rather than rely on the successes of their past business strategies. Hamel and
Valikongas (2003), for example, challenged organisations to take pro-active cognitive,
strategic, political, and ideological measures to reinvent themselves if they plan to earn and pay
their top executives and others more. They asked leaders to cognitively acknowledge that the
business environment has changed and they have to strategically look for alternative ways to
resolve their problems. The long term aim, they said, was to have zero traumas rather than zero
defects.
To achieve this, Wowak and Hambrick (2010) concur that employees, including the top
executives should be challenged and rewarded for generating new work processes and ideas.
Hamel and Valikongas (2003) added that ideologically, organisations should optimise their
existing resources to insure against the unpredictable socio-economic and political upheavals.
They advised firms not wait for tragedies to happen before they take any action because, ...a
turnaround is transformation tragically delayed (p. 10). The CEOs of Costco, Air Asia, eBay,
and Dell, just to name a few, therefore deserve to be paid more because they have
revolutionised their business practices and enriched their corporations instead of relying on
some archaic business models and waiting patiently for them to evolve slowly.
Summary & Conclusion
In Malaysia, the compensation packages of top executives from the public listed and
government-linked companies seemed reasonable. There seemed to be a stark contrast in the
cost-to-income ratios between the banking and financial firms in the country and those in the
more developed nations like the U.S. While the top executives of the large financial institutions


171

in the U.S. have paid themselves handsomely, similar threats could affect those in Malaysia.
There is a need for a fairer distribution of the corporate pie among employees across the
corporate hierarchy and the shareholders. There are currently reports of the unprecedented rise
in salaries and benefits of corporate leaders in the more affluent nations in the Asia-Pacific
region, such as in Singapore and Hong Kong. Malaysia could follow suit if the regulators,
BODs, and shareholders of firms do not curb the CEOs irrational demands for higher incomes.
Bursa Malaysia is encouraging all Malaysian firms to appoint independent members of
the BODs so that they could discharge their duties and responsibilities on behalf of their
shareholders without any fear or favour They need to examine the cost-to-income ratio reports
of their respective companies to ensure that the annual percentage increase in the salaries and
benefits of their CEOs and employees are in tandem with the growth of their corporate
earnings. Shareholders are entitled to have a louder voice in the initial pay offers and the annual
increments of their CEOs remuneration. By having continuous education campaigns, firms
could create greater awareness among their employees, investors, and other stakeholders. These
could prevent the collapse of firms and the occurrence of mass public outrage and rallies like
the OWS demonstrations in New York City.
We have not seen the end of the global debates and research on how to establish an
optimum level of compensation for employees and the top executives in particular. There are
several empirical reports confirming the positive relationships between cash payments and the
CEOs performance, as well as between the stock-based rewards and their performance
(Kramer, 2005). Permanent solutions to curb the escalating pay of top executives are long
overdue and they must be achieved in due time. However, contemporary empirical findings on
how and why the top executives continue to be paid disproportionately even during turbulent
times have remained inconclusive. There is a global quest to identify more relevant and
contemporary pay determinants of top executives and to determine their impact on personal and
organisational performances. Satisfactory explanations are not expected to be forthcoming soon
as longitudinal studies would be required to provide more support for the research outcomes.
In the long term, while pay parity across the board of human capital within and inter-
organisations is important, the solution may not be about how much the top executives are paid
but how they and the rest of the staff are paid and if the shareholders are getting good returns
on their investments. Perhaps, rather than focusing on what may be wrong with the firms
human capital compensation policies and practices, it may be a better strategy to focus instead
on what is right about the general financial performance of firms. After all, does it really matter
if a CEO is paid $5 million a year when the firm that he or she leads makes $500 million in
annual net profits?


172

References:
Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.). Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology, 2, (267-299). New York: Academic Press.
Abelson, M., & Choudhury, A. (2011). Wall Street unoccupied as 200,000 job cuts bring
darkest days, Bloomberg, 22 November.
Aggarwal, R. K., & Samwick, A. A. (1999). The other side of the trade-off: The impact of
risk on executive compensation. Journal of Political Economy, 107(1): 65-104.
Beecher-Monas, E. (2009). Role of corporate board executive pay decisions in precipitating
financial crisis. Tennessee Journal of Business Law, 11, 51-57.
Bernanke, B. (2011). Occupy Wall Street: I Cant Blame Them. Retrieved on 1 February 2013
from,
http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2011/10/ben_bernanke_on_occupy_wall_st.html
Bebchuk, L. A., & Fried, J. M. (2005). Pay without performance: Overview of the issues.
Journal of Corporation Law, 30(4), 64773.
Bebchuk, L. A., Fried, J. M., & Walker, D. I. (2002). Managerial power and rent extraction in
the design of executive compensation. University of Chicago Law Review, 69(3), 751-
846.
Brian, H. & Liebman, J. (1998). Are CEOs really paid like bureaucrats? Quarterly Journal of
Economics, 113, 653-691.
Carpenter, M. A., & and Sanders, G. M. (2002). Top management team compensation: The
missing link between CEO pay and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal,
23(4), 367-375.
Conyon, M., & Murphy, K., (2000). The prince and the pauper? CEO pay in the United States
and United Kingdom. Economic Journal, 110, 640-671.
Conyon, M. J. (2006). Executive compensation and incentives. Academy of Management
Perspectives, 20, 25-44.
Crestwell, J. (2006). Pay packages allow executives to jump ship with less risk. The New York
Times. December 29.
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments
examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological
Bulletin, 125(6), 627-668.
Dessler, G. (2010). Human Resource Management: International Edition, 12
th
ed., New
Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Dillon, K. (2009). The coming battle over executive pay. Harvard Business Review,
September, 96-103.
Dulebohn, J. H., & Werling, S. E. (2007). Compensation research past, present, and future.
Human Resource Management Review, 17, 191-207.
Gerhart, B., & Rynes, S. (2003). Compensation: Theory, evidence and strategic implications.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Hall, B., & Liebman, J. (1998). Are CEOs really paid like bureaucrats? Quarterly Journal of
Economics, 113, 653-691.


173

Hall, B., & Murphy, K. J. (2003). The trouble with stock options. Journal of Economic
Perspectives, 17(3), 47-70.
Hamel, G., & Valikongas, L. (2003). The quest for resilience. Harvard Business Review,
September, 4-14.
Haubrich, J.G. (1994). Risk aversion, performance pay, and the principal-agent problem.
Journal of Political Economy, 2, 258-276.
Heneman, H. G. (1990). Merit pay research. Research in Personnel and Human Resource
Management, 8, 203-263.
Hitt, G., & Lucchetti, A. (2009). House passes bonus tax bill --- 90% hit would affect major
banks; Senate mulls similar action amid AIG furor. Wall Street Journal, 20 March.
Holm E., Scism, L., & Morath, E. (2012). U.S. to sell off AIG stake --- Treasury would be left
holding only warrants of insurer. Wall Street Journal, Dec 11.
Jensen, M. C., & Murphy, K. J. (1990a). Performance pay and top-management incentives.
Journal of Political Economy, 98(2), 225-264.
Jensen, M. C., & Murphy, K. J. (1990b). CEO Incentives Its not how much you pay, but
how. Harvard Business Review, 68(3), 138-153.
Kramer, O. (2005). Pay without performance: The institutional shareholder perspective.
Journal of Corporation Law. Summer, 773-777.
Lazear, E. P., & Oyer, P. (2004). The structure of wages and internal mobility. The American
Economic Review, 94 (2), 212-216.
Murphy, K. J., & Zbojnk, J. (2004). CEO pay and turnover: A market based explanation for
recent trends. American Economic Review (Papers and Proceedings) 94 (May): 192-
196.
Perry, T., & Zenner, M. (2001). Pay for performance? Government regulation and the
structure of compensation contracts? Journal of Financial Economics. 62 (3), 453-
488.
Schneider, N. (2012). Occupy, after occupy. Nation, 295(13), 13-17.
Stabile, S. J. (2011). In defense of a more coherent approach to executive and rank and file
compensation. Journal of Civil Rights and Economic Development, 25(3), 565-579.
Tosi, H. L., Werner, S., Katz, J. P., & Gomez-Mejia, L. R. (2000). How much does
performance matter? A meta-analysis of CEO pay studies. Journal of Management 26
(2), 301-339.
Wall Street bonuses declined in 2011. Retrieved on 2 February 2013 from,
http://www.osc.state.ny.us/press/releases/feb12/022912.htm
What credit crunch? Goldman Sachs bankers in line for $12.2 billion pay and bonus pot
despite fall in profits. Retrieved on 2 February 2013 from,
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2088348/Goldman-Sachs-bankers-line-12-
2bn-pay-bonus-pot-despite-fall-profits.html#ixzz2JhoRyTNS
Williams, M. L., McDaniel, M., & Nguyen, N. T. (2006). A meta-analysis of the antecedents
and consequences of pay level satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 9(2), 392-
413.


174

Wowak, A. J., & Hambrick, D. C. (2010). A model of person-pay interaction: How executives
vary in their responses to compensation arrangements. Strategic Management Journal,
31, 803-821.
Vallikappen, S. & Tong, S. (2011). Millionaires help Asia private bankers earn more than
bosses, Bloomberg, 8 September. Retrieved on 2 February 2013 from,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-09-07/millionaires-help-asia-private-bankers-
earn-more-than-their-boss.html
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Zajac, E. J., & Westphal, J. D. (1996). Who shall succeed? How CEO board preferences and
power affect the choice of new CEOs. Academy of Management Journal, 39(1), 64-90.


175

Comparative Analysis of Barriers to
E-Procurement among Quantity
Surveyors in UK and Nigeria

Wasiu Adeniran Bello
Department of Building, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba Lagos, Nigeria
wasbel2001@yahoo.co.uk, wbello@unilag.edu.ng

Rueben O. A. I yagba
Department of Building, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba Lagos, Nigeria
riyagba@yahoo.com

Absract
Countries in Europe have been promulgating laws pushing public and private actors to adopt
electronic means for handling all steps of the purchase process but the level of implementation
and penetration was not as expected within the UK construction industry. Nigerian government
directed the Ministries, departments and agencies to patronize Procure 1.0 which is newly
launched e-procurement software despite the average level of e-tendering involvement among
construction industry professionals. Descriptive statistics; frequency distribution and mean
score were used to rank the variables while Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test and Spearman rank
correlation coefficient were use to compare results and explore relationship. Lack of a national
IT policy relating to e-procurement issues was ranked as the most important barrier to e-
procurement by Quantity Surveyors in Nigeria, this was ranked sixth by the UK Quantity
Surveyors whereas Prevention of tampering with document which was ranked as the first
barrier of consideration in UK was ranked 7
th
in Nigeria. It is important to note that the UK
rankings have higher mean than the Nigeria ranking. Despite few similar rankings, the findings
show that there is no significant difference in the barriers of e- procurement assessment
between Nigeria and United Kingdom. It could be inferred that the attitude of Quantity
Surveyors as portrayed in the research findings reflect the true exposure of the respondents to
e-procurement practice. The findings reveal that there is medium level of correlation in the
barriers of e- procurement use in Nigeria and UK.
Keywords: Barriers, e-procurement, ICT, Quantity Surveyors, Ranking


176

Introduction
The evolution of the internet has led the world into the electronic (e-) information
sharing, transactions, interactions and communication with global connection of millions of
users adopting the internet resources for different needs including procurements. According to
Cisco Systems (2001) electronic procurement or e-Procurement is an automated, Internet-based
way for a company to purchase the goods and services it needs to conduct business. This
advancement in information and communication technology is impacting businesses by
improving efficiency and saving money in enterprise. The vision was that the technology-
enabled acquisition of goods and services required by any organization would enable the
organization to acquire its goods and services at the best value obtainable (Enporion, 2008). In
the opinion of Oyediran and Akintola (2011) the construction industry has been one of the
most impacted by these radical changes. The Improvement and Development Agency (IDEA,
2004) defines e-Procurement as a tool to enable procurement activities, including sourcing,
ordering, commissioning, receipting and making payments for the whole spectrum of an
authoritys activities.
In construction procurement, where a tender process is utilized to procure contracts, this
is accomplished electronically through e-tendering. IDEA (2008) defines e-tendering as an
electronic tendering solution that facilitates the complete tendering process from the advertising
of the requirement through to the placing of the contract. Oyediran and Akintola (2011)
established that the awareness about e-tendering among construction industry professionals is
average whereas Martin (2003) revealed that only 3% of consultants and 4% of contractors had
any experience of e-commerce systems in the UK. Adebiyi, Ayo, and Adebiyi (2010)
developed an e-GP system to improve management of government procurement processes,
thereby ensuring transparency, monitoring, control, fair selection of bidders, reduced cost of
transactions and increased efficiency. In the year 2012 the Nigerian government launched a
new software known as Procure 1.0 and directed the Ministries, departments and agencies
(MDAs) to patronise the made-in-Nigeria software to further encourage indigenous software
development(News Agency of Nigeria, 2012). Interestingly in the UK only 2.9% of Contract
Documentation was being transmitted and received in Construction Industry Trading
Electronically (CITE) format (Martin, 2003) whereas in Nigeria the findings of Oyediran and
Akintola revealed that despite the ambivalent disposition of industry professionals towards e-
tendering, the prospect of its adoption in the Nigerian construction industry by construction
industry professionals is still high. Perhaps there could be a synergy between construction
practitioners in these two countries in fully embracing the e-procurement. Both countries are
facing challenges in the implementation of e-procurement notwithstanding the difference in
their technological advancement and development, one being a developing economy and the
other developed.
Burtonshaw-Gunn (2009) explained that UK construction companies overseas
contracts typically represents between 10 to 15 per cent of the annual turnover which require an
understanding of, firstly, how to find and undertake construction work in different countries;
secondly, the level of competition, tendering and procurement activities; and thirdly, how to
comply with new local and national government controls such as employment law, health and
safety requirements. These are significant considerations for a comparative study of this nature.
The study is set out to compare barriers to e-procurement in Nigeria and UK.Nigeria was under
the British colonial rule for a considerable period of time. According to Nationmaster (2013)
Nigerias G.D.P growth rate has been 6.94% compared with UKs GDP growth rate of 1.82%.
The presence of wide natural resources attracted foreigners and traders from different parts of
the world in Nigeria. United Kingdom is one of the major trading partners of Nigeria which
include China, United States, Netherlands, France, Germany and Italy. Nigerias six geo-


177

political zones are South-South, South-East, South-West, North-Central, North-East and North-
West. Section 14(3) of the constitution requires that the federal character should be reflected,
which is generally interpreted to mean that all public offices should be fairly distributed.
State of Information and Communication Technology in UK and Nigeria
Studying the level of interactions with computer systems and how they are used is also
an important aspect of e-procurement. ICT supports, enhances and empowers human activity
and informs future developments. According to Barnes, (2008) the use of ICT in the UK varies
between and within the countries that make up the UK (England, Wales, Scotland and Northern
Ireland) Barnes, (2008). According to the Statistical Bulletin (2012) 21 million households in
Table 1: State of Computer, Internet and ICT Application/Commitment in Nigeria and
UK.
INDICATORS Computer
Users per
100
people
Internet
Users
per 100
people
Subscription
Fixed
broadband
Internet
subscriptions
per 100
people
Quality
International
Internet
bandwidth
bits per
second per
capita
Affordability
Fixed
broadband
Internet
access tariff
$ per month
Application
Secure
Internet
Server per
million
people
ICT
Import
Nigeria -- 28.4 0.06 32 53 2 6.6
UK 86.7 84.7 31.46 112,482 25 1,594 9.3
Source: The World Bank (2012) Abridged.
Great Britain (80 per cent) had Internet access in 2012 compared with19 million (77 per
cent) in 2011. According to World Bank (2012) in collaboration International
Telecommunication Unions (ITU) depicted in Table 1 about 87% of UK populations are
computer users and internet users are 85% and still growing whereas only about 28% of
Nigeria population uses the internet. Subscription of fixed broadband and quality of
international bandwidth internet are generally low in Nigeria compared to UK as shown in
Table 1 with internet tariff in Nigeria being more expensive than UK. Despite having lesser
population UK still import more ICT than Nigeria. This indicates that for Nigeria to compare
favorably with the developed world it must develop and grow in its ICT infrastructure. (AICD,
2011) reported that Nigeria has improved per Capita growth performance and in recent years
Nigeria has made important strides toward improving and relatively advanced ICT networks
that cover extensive areas of the nations territory. This century is experiencing an increasing
yearly rate of adoption of ICT in the construction industry in Nigeria as reflected in the reports
of Oyediran and Odusami (2005), Oyediran (2005) Oladapo (2006), Oladapo (2007) Adebiyi,
Ayo, and Adebiyi (2010) Oyediran and Akintola (2011). The potential of ICT for improving
the quality of professional services in the construction industry is generally acknowledged.
E-Procurement in Construction between Nigeria and UK
The possibilities afforded by e-business are evident. According to Shaw and
Subramaniam (2002) e-procurement can keep track on the procurement progress but saves the
sales person from doing routine and repetitive job of paper documentation freeing the
purchasing staff for other value added activities such as benchmarking supplier, communicating
with the client and building profound relationship with them. Oladapo (2006) reported that over
60% of Nigerian professionals in the construction industry are connected to the internet.
Oyediran and Akintola (2011) argued that apart from computer systems, design software and
client operating systems, other basic facilities are short of average level of availability among


178

professionals in the industry. Countries in Europe have been promulgating laws pushing public
and private actors to adopt electronic means for handling all steps of the purchase process but
according to Martin, (2008) the level of implementation and penetration was not as expected
within the construction industry as less than 20% of documentation is currently tendered
electronically which suggests the unpopularity of e-procurement in UK construction (Martin,
2008).
However the take up of electronic communication as part of the procurement process in
the UK Construction Industry has been, at best, patchy. E-procurement systems allow users to
search for products and services from pre-selected suppliers (along with negotiated prices and
options), verify product availability, and route approvals according to policy or statute.
Barriers to e-procurement
The success provided by e-procurement is has been acknowledged yet implementation
is patchy which indicate that for benefits of e-procurement to be realized the barriers to its
achievement must be addressed. Hawking and Stein (2002) surveyed opinion of professionals
on 12 e-procurement drivers and barriers and their findings revealed that cost based factors are
driving e-Procurement whilst technology issues are the main barriers to e-procurement. Eadie,
Perera, Heaney and Carlisle (2007) carried out a preliminary study in United Kingdom into the
drivers and barriers in construction and ranked these from a Northern Irish Public Sector
Contractors perspective which serve as a pilot study for a follow up research by Eadie, Perera
and Heaney (2010) - the basis of comparison in this current research. Hawking and Stein
(2002) asserts that while drivers usually form the basis of business cases and provide a measure
for success it is important to consider the possible barriers companies may experience when
adopting an e-Procurement solution.
Research Method
The primary objective of the study is to assess the barriers to e-procurement practice in
the Nigeria construction industry in comparison with what is obtainable in developed countries
using United Kingdom as basis of comparison. The first part of the study is the identification of
barriers of e-procurement from literature. This lead the research to adopt the work of Eadie et al
(2010) as the basis of the instrument used for the comparison. Eadie, et al (2010) considered to
analyse the responses of Quantity Surveyors separately from other disciplines because they are
the professionals of the construction industry who normally perform the tender process and
procurement in traditionally procured contracts. Eadie et al (2010) carried a robust research
methodology in identifying thirty barriers of e-procurement. The barriers were ranked
according to the opinions of quantity surveyors in each country in the UK, namely: England,
Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. This regional division of the state of UK led this current
research work to survey the opinion of quantity surveyors in each of the six geopolitical region
of the Nigeria state, namely: North-Central, North-East and North-West, South-East, South-
West and South-South.
A stratified sampling method was adopted in distributing questionnaire with application
of cluster sampling which was adopted for two regions where Lagos the commercial capital
of the nation and Abuja - the Federal Capital Territory were situated. The first set of
questionnaires was distributed via the e-mail to quantity surveyors across the six zones. Only
Seven respondents replied and returned their questionnaires after waiting between one to three
months for their responses. This informed the use of face-to-face approach for the distribution
and collection of the responses.


179

Data Collection
Eadie (2010) collected required responses from representatives in various parts of the
United Kingdom where according to Eadie (2010) it would have been physically and
economically impossible to conduct face-to-face interviews through a web survey which
provided the ability to contact and obtain responses from individuals from each country in the
UK, namely: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Eadie (2010) identified
organisations that carry out e-procurement on a web-based questionnaire, a limitation to the
survey carried out in Nigeria as the face-to-face questionnaire approach was adopted due to
respondents uncertainty attitude to web survey, affordable access to respondents, speed of
response (time limit) and certainty of response. A strategy used in getting immediate response
on the survey was distributing the questionnaires to members of the Nigerian Institute of
Quantity Surveyors attending the 2011 EGM (Election and General Meeting) from the six
geopolitical zones namely; South-South, South-East, South-West, North-Central, North-East
and North-West. This method provide a cluster of practicing surveyors across the whole
country in a compact space and easy access to practitioners that would have been very difficult
ab initio, through posting of questionnaires. This corroborates Monette, Sullivan and DeJong
(1998) that the flexibility and speed of questionnaire method of data collection has led to it
being recognised as one of the most extensively-used surveying techniques. A total of 100
questionnaires were administered to quantity surveyors in the construction industry across the
six geopolitical zones in Nigeria working in both private and government institutions. A
stratified sampling technique was adopted by distributing 15 questionnaires to each geopolitical
zone but 20 questionnaires each to North Central (including Abuja) and South Western
(including Lagos). The increase in the number of questionnaires distributed to these two
geopolitical zones were obviously because of their economic strength in Nigeria; Abuja being
the Federal Capital Territory and Lagos being the commercial capital of Nigeria respectively.
The respondents were asked to indicate their opinions by ticking the appropriate responses
required for each question. To facilitate the analysis of the responses, numerical values were
assigned to the respondents rating ranging from one to five.
Analyses of collected data
A five point Likert type scale was used, the numerical value 5 represents very highly
significant while 1 represents not significant, this was used to calculate the mean score for each
variable, which was then used to determine the relative ranking of different variables by
assigning ranks to the mean scores, with low mean scores assigned low ranks and high scores
allocated high ranks. These rankings made it possible to cross-compare the significance of the
drivers and barriers to e-procurement as perceived by the two nations of respondents. Computer
based statistical tools such Descriptive statistics; frequency distribution and mean score were
use to rank the variables. The fact that available data for comparison from UK are ranked hence
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test at 95% confidence level 2-tailed was used to explore relationship
among variables.
Presentation of results
Quantity surveyors in various organizations in the six geopolitical zones were requested
to complete the questionnaire base on their practical experience in e-procurement especially
those having experience in e-tendering and subsequent use of ICT in their procurement. From
Table 2 the South-Western recorded the highest response rate with North-Western having the
lowest response. It could be deduced that the Southern part of the country respond better than
their northern counterpart. The overall response shows that from the 100 questionnaire planned
for targeted population of quantity surveyors with experience in e-procurement on 63 of the


180

population representing 63% response rate responded to the questionnaire. All the surveyors
covered in the study have required experience in e-procurement for the study.
Table 2: Nigeria Quantity Surveyors Sample breakdown of Responses
Location/ Region Questionnaire Distributed
Targeted sample
Responses Received
Experienced in e-procurement
% valid
response

North Central 20 11 55%
North Eastern 15 8 54%
North Western 15 7 47%
South Eastern 15 9 60%
South South 15 10 67%
South Western 20 18 90%
Total 100 63 63%
In the survey of Eadie et al (2010) all the four regions performed above average in their
response with Northern Ireland having the highest response of 75%. The overall response of the
sampled organization was 68% of the 83 suitable from the sample size. Eadie et al 2010 also
carried out a web-based survey of which 29 response was received for the four regions of UK
in his study. This study could not report a comparison of web-based survey as it is still a
challenge in Nigeria.
TABLE 3: UK wide Surveyors sample breakdown showing e-procurement use
Location/
Region
Total Number
of
Organisations

Number of
Organisations
using
EProcurement

Number of
Organisations
not using
EProcurement

Number of
Organisations
not
contactable,
% valid
response

England

206 30 103 73 65%
Scotland

127 15 71 41 68%
Wales

42 6 24 12 71%
Northern
Ireland

108 32 49 27 75%
Total 483 83 247 157 68%
Source: Eadie et al (2010) Adapted
The comparison of the two nations shows that there is a semblance of correlation of the
responses of quantity surveyors attitude between Nigeria and UK. Thus, with similar response
rate we could establish a basis for comparing the opinion of quantity surveyors from the two
countries.
Analysis of Barriers Results for e-procurement from Quantity Surveyors in Nigeria
compared with UK
The consideration given to the identified barriers of e-procurement by quantity
Surveyors in Nigeria were analysed and the results of the findings are as presented in Table 4.
The results here also show variation in the calculated mean with South Eastern and South


181

Western jointly ranking Proof of intent electronics signatures as 1
st
which was the least
ranked by the North Central and within the same low level by the North Western and South
South. In comparison with the UK rankings of the barrier, Table 5 shows the detail of the
means.
Table 4: Surveyors Rank Order for Barriers For E-Procurement in Regions of Nigeria
Barriers in Ranking Order North
Eastern
North
Central
North
Western
South
Western
South
South
South
Eastern
Variables Mea
n
Ran
k
Mea
n
Ran
k
Mea
n
Ran
k
Mea
n
Ran
k
Mea
n
Ran
k
Mea
n
Ran
k
Proof of intent electronics
signatures
3.72 4 2.00 30 2.25 28 3.91 1 2.11 27 4.41 1
Lack of Flexibility 2.20 30 2.24 28 2.35 27 3.31 8 3.24 1 3.92 3
Bureaucratic
dysfunctionalties
2.60 5 2.44 25 2.41 26 2.60 26 2.94 13 4.16 2
Resistance to changes 3.20 27 2.58 20 2.50 23 3.10 12 3.05 28 3.55 4
Perception of no business
benefit realized
3.60 8 2.40 26 2.59 19 2.68 25 2.48 21 3.48 5
Lack of widely accepted e-
procurement software
solution
2.60 26 2.48 23 2.65 16 2.06 30 2.98 10 3.45 6
Company access to the
internet
2.40 6 2.65 13 2.47 25 2.71 24 2.05 13 3.44 7
Lack of technical expertise 3.20 9 2.46 24 2.53 22 3.00 15 3.06 4 3.44 7
Magnitude of change 3.80 1 2.32 27 2.59 19 3.42 5 2.02 30 3.43 9
Lack of
publicity/awareness of best
practice solution
2.80 25 2.56 21 2.71 15 2.91 21 3.15 3 3.42 10
Confidentiality of
information
3.20 9 2.67 9 2.59 19 3.61 3 2.78 17 3.36 11
Internal and external
interoperability of e-
procurement software
3.20 9 2.72 8 2.50 23 3.61 3 2.99 8 3.31 12
Security in the process-
data transmission to the
wrong person
2.60 26 2.63 18 2.88 7 2.93 18 2.36 23 3.29 13
Clarity of sender and
tenderer information
3.00 17 2.56 21 2.88 7 3.06 13 2.71 18 3.28 14
Other competing
initiatives
3.40 6 2.64 14 2.71 15 3.41 7 3.02 6 3.27 15
Lack of a national IT
policy relating to e-
procurement issues
3.00 17 2.64 14 2.88 7 3.27 9 2.68 19 3.25 16
Upper management
support
3.80 1 2.60 19 2.71 15 3.80 2 2.80 16 3.24 17
Lack of forums to
exchange ideas
3.20 9 2.67 9 2.82 11 2.91 21 2.17 24 3.23 18
Reluctance to "buy-into"
one off systems
3.00 17 2.67 9 2.94 5 2.93 18 3.00 7 3.21 19


182

Insufficient assessment to
systems prior to
installation
3.80 1 2.64 14 2.82 11 2.87 23 2.44 22 3.19 20
Investment in compatible
systems
3.40 6 2.76 6 2.76 13 2.94 17 2.04 29 3.18 21
Data transmission
reassembly
3.00 17 2.67 9 3.06 3 3.03 14 2.17 24 3.17 22
Enforceability of
electronic contracts
3.00 17 2.75 7 3.00 4 2.95 16 2.95 12 3.15 23
Prevention of tampering
with document
3.20 9 2.88 1 2.76 13 3.12 10 2.98 10 3.13 24
Different National
approaches to e-
procurement
3.00 17 2.88 1 2.88 7 2.56 27 2.90 15 3.12 25
Lack of pertinent case law 3.00 17 2.64 14 3.24 1 3.42 5 2.14 26 3.11 26
Complicated procedures
and extended relationships
3.40 6 2.83 5 2.94 5 3.12 10 2.99 8 3.10 27
Partial data display 3.20 9 2.88 1 3.12 2 2.20 29 3.18 2 3.06 28
Information technology
investment costs
3.02 16 2.86 4 2.09 30 2.93 18 2.91 14 2.90 29
Staff turnover 3.00 17 2.13 29 2.11 29 2.22 28 2.55 20 2.20 30

Table 5: Surveyors Rank Order for Barriers for e-procurement in Nigeria and United Kingdom

Barriers in Ranking Order NG. UK.
Variables
Mean
Rank
Mean
Rank
Lack of a national IT policy relating to e-procurement issues 3.16 1 3.40 6
Other competing initiatives 3.08 2 2.40 23
Prove of intent - electronics signatures 3.07 3 3.46 3
Internal and external interoperability of e-procurement software 3.06 4 3.26 11
Complicated procedures and extended relationships 3.06 4 2.26 26
Confidentiality of information 3.04 6 3.40 6
Prevention of tampering with document 3.01 7 3.86 1
Resistance to changes 3.00 8 3.40 6
Enforceability of electronic contracts 2.97 9 3.46 3
Reluctance to "buy-into" one off systems 2.96 10 3.53 2
Insufficient assessment to systems prior to installation 2.96 10 3.46 3
Upper Management Support 2.95 12 2.60 21
Lack of technical expertise 2.95 12 3.00 15
Partial data display 2.94 14 3.00 15
Magnitude of change 2.93 15 2.87 18
Lack of publicity/awareness of best practice solution 2.93 15 3.13 13
Lack of pertinent case law 2.93 15 2.53 22
Clarity of sender and tenderer information 2.92 18 2.40 23
Different National approaches to e-procurement 2.89 19 2.26 26
Lack of flexibility 2.88 20 2.93 17


183

Perception of no business benefit realized 2.87 21 2.26 26
Bureaucratic dyfunctionalty 2.86 22 2.86 18
Investment in compatible systems 2.85 23 3.26 11
Data transmission reassembly 2.85 23 3.06 14
Lack of forums to exchange ideas 2.83 25 2.87 20
Information technology investment costs 2.79 26 2.86 18
Security in the process-data transmission to the wrong person 2.78 27 3.33 10
Lack of widely accepted e-procurement software solution 2.70 28 3.40 6
Company access to the internet 2.62 29 2.22 29
Staff turnover 2.37 30 2.13 30
Lack of a national IT policy relating to e-procurement issues was ranked as the most
important barrier to e-procurement by Quantity Surveyors in Nigeria, this was ranked sixth by
the UK Quantity Surveyors whereas Prevention of tampering with document which was
ranked as the first barrier of consideration in UK was ranked 7
th
in Nigeria. It is important to
note that the UK rankings have higher mean than the Nigeria rankings in the assessment of the
barriers. Also Nigerian Quantity Surveyors believe that there is other competing initiatives
militating against the full implementation of e-procurement as this was ranked 2
nd
but
conversely ranked 23
rd
in the UK. Another unusual ranking is the Complicated procedures and
extended relationships considered as 4
th
important barrier to e-procurement which took 26
th

position in the UK ranking. Four of the rankings of the barriers tally in their positions as Prove
of intent electronics signatures, Confidentiality of information, Company access to the
internet and Staff turnover were ranked 3
rd
, 6
th
, 29
th
, and 30
th
respectively. It could be inferred
that the attitude of Quantity Surveyors as portrayed in the research findings reflect the true
exposure of the respondents to e-procurement practice. The UK is known to be better exposed
to e-commerce generally with almost the entire nation being computer literate or ICT compliant
unlike in Nigeria where majority of the population are not ICT compliant but the sizeable
percentage of those that have proficiency in use of computer and those exposed to the ICT are
clustered in the professionals who are continuously eager to update themselves with modern
development especially in the area of ICT. Therefore, the relative semblance or agreement
between Nigeria and UK in the way they have rated these barriers is an indication of potentials
between professionals in the two countries to relate effectively on e-procurement.
Comparative analysis of differences of barriers to e-procurement in Nigeria and UK
In order to explore the agreement or otherwise the difference in the rankings of the
barriers to construction e-procurement between Nigeria and UK the Wilcoxon Signed Rank
Test was carried out to explore the significant difference between the two countries this is
presented in Table 6. The results revealed that UK barriers ranked lower than Nigeria barriers
in ten factors but ranked greater than Nigeria in nineteen factors and a tie in only one factor.
After conducting the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test to assess the difference in the rankings of
barriers to e-procurement between Nigeria and United Kingdom [Z= -.746, p= .456]. The
results suggest that there is no significant difference between Nigeria and United Kingdom in
the rankings of barriers to e procurement by quantity surveyors.


184

Table 6: Test Statistics for Barriers to e-procurement
e- procurement Barrier UK e-procurement
Barrier NG
Z -.746
a

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .456
Correlation for Barriers
The relationship between barriers to e-procurement in Nigeria and barriers to e-
procurement in UK was investigated using Spearmans Rank Order Correlation coefficient as
shown in Table 7. There was a medium, positive correlation between the two variables [r=.416,
n=30, p<.05], with high levels of barriers to e-procurement in UK associated with high levels of
barriers to e-procurement in Nigeria. In conclusion, it therefore, shows that there is
intermediate relationship or correlate in the barriers of e- procurement use in Nigeria and UK.
Table 7: Spearman Rank Order Correlations
Barrier NG Barrier UK
Spearman's rho Barrier NG Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .416
*

Sig. (2-tailed) . .022
N 30 30
Barrier UK Correlation Coefficient .416
*
1.000
Sig. (2-tailed) .022 .
N 30 30
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Conclusions
The evolution of the internet has led the world into the electronic (e-) information
sharing, transactions, interactions and communication with global connection of millions of
users adopting the internet resources for different needs including procurements. The UK is a
developed country and is today the sixth-largest economy in the world by nominal GDP and the
third-largest in Europe after Germany and France. Nigeria was under the British colonial rule
for a considerable period of time. The present G.D.P growth rate has been 6.94% compared
with UKs GDP growth rate of 1.82%. Nigeria with total population of 154 million people
estimated (2009) is still developing, comparing it with a developed nation like UK is a tall
order assessing the level of the real GDP of the two countries. It was observed that despite the
ambivalent disposition of industry professionals towards e-tendering, the prospect of its
adoption in the Nigerian construction industry by construction industry professionals is still
high. This correlates with the findings in this study. Lack of a national IT policy relating to e-
procurement issues was ranked as the most important barrier to e-procurement by Quantity
Surveyors in Nigeria, this was ranked sixth by the UK Quantity Surveyors whereas Prevention
of tampering with document which was ranked as the 1st barrier of consideration in UK was
ranked 7
th
in Nigeria. It is important to note that the UK rankings have higher mean than the
Nigeria rankings in the assessment of the barriers. Also Nigerian Quantity Surveyors believe
that there is other competing initiatives militating against the full implementation of e-
procurement as this was ranked 2
nd
but conversely ranked 23
rd
in the UK. Again four of the


185

rankings of the barriers tally in their positions as Proof of intent - electronics signatures,
Confidentiality of information, Company access to the internet and Staff turnover were
ranked similarly by the two nations.
Despite few similar rankings, the result of the research work shows that there is no
significant different in the barriers to e- procurement between Nigeria and United Kingdom.
Thus, there is similarities in their rankings. It could be inferred that the attitude of Quantity
Surveyors as portrayed in the research findings reflect the true exposure of the respondents to
e-procurement practice. The UK is known to be better exposed to e-commerce generally with
almost the entire nation being computer literate or ICT compliant unlike in Nigeria where
majority of the population are not ICT compliant but the sizeable percentage of those that have
proficiency in use of computer and those exposed to the ICT are clustered in the professionals
who are continuously eager to update themselves with modern development especially in the
area of ICT. This summarily confirms the relative similarity in the level of e-procurement
practice between Nigeria and UK Quantity Surveyors to practicing e-procurement. Possible e-
procurement transaction between the UK and Nigeria should not be a difficult project. The
Nigeria Quantity Surveyors would relatively collaborate favourably with their UK counterparts
in embracing and delivering e-procurement projects especially internationally.


186

References
Adebiyi, A. A., Ayo, C. K. and Adebiyi. M O.(2010) Development of Electronic Government
Procurement (e-GP) System for Nigeria Public Sector. International Journal of
Electrical & Computer Sciences IJECS-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 06
Barnes, Anthony (2008) Workforce development and the use of ICT in Delivering Career
Guidance in the UK, CT ICT Skills 2 for guidance counselors and Education and
Culture DG Lifelong Learning Programme
Burtonshaw-Gunn Simon A. (2009): Risk and Financial Management in Construction. 200
pages Hardback. ISBN 978-0-566-08897-1. Publisher Gower, UK. Book.
Cisco Systems (2001) E-Procurement Internet Business Solution, Seminar Empowering the
Internet Generation, San Jose, CA 95134-1706 USA
www.cisco.com/global/EMEA/sitewideassets/media/.../EProcSem.pdf
Eadie R. Perera S. and Heaney G.(2010). Identification of e-procurement drivers and barriers
for UK construction organisations and ranking of these from perspective of quantity
surveyors, ITcon Journal, Vol. 12, 103-120, http://www.itcon.org/2007/6
Eadie R., Perera S. Heaney G. and Carlisle J. (2007). Drivers and Barriers to Public Sector e-
procurement within Northern Irelands Construction Industry, ITcon Journal, Vol. 15,
23-24, http://www.itcon.org/20107/2.
Enporion (2008) Integrated end-to-end e-procurement: the foundation of spend management
success Enporion and Sourcing Innovation
Hawking, Paul and Stein, Andrew, "e-Procurement Drivers and Barriers" (2002).ACIS 2002
Proceedings. Paper 31. http://aisel.aisnet.org/acis2002/31.
Improvement and Development Agency, IDEA, (2008) E-Tendering, IDEA Website,
available on-line at http://www.idea.gov.uk/idk/core/page.do?pageId=82667
Martin J. (2003). E-Procurement and extranets in the UK Construction industry, Conference
paper given at FIG Working Week, April 13th-17th 2003, Paris, France. (Available
onlinehttp://www.fig.net/figtree/pub/fig_2003/TS_6/TS6_4_Martin.pdf
Martin J. (2008). E-Tendering about time too, RICS paper (Available
onlinehttp://www.rics.org/NR/rdonlyres/5B41E38D-2433-4AEE-
EtenderingabouttimetooJoeMartin.pdf
Monette D.R. Sullivan T.J. and DeJong C.R. (1998). Applied Social Research, Harcourt
Brace College Publishers, London
Nationmaster (2013) World Statistics Country Comparison
http://www.nationmaster.com/compare/Nigeria/United-Kingdom/
O.S. Oyediran (2005) Awareness and Adoption of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) by Architectural, Engineering and Construction (AEC) Industry
Educators in Nigeria I TCdl The ITC Digital Library http://itc.scix.net/ {accessed
26thJanuary,2013} at http://itc.scix.net/data/works/att/w78-2005-A10-4-Oyediran.pdf
Oladapo A.A. (2006) The impact of ICT on professional practice in the Nigerian construction
industry The Electronic Journal on Information Systems in Developing Countries,
EJISDC (2006) 24, 2, 1-19 http://www.ejisdc.org


187

Oladapo, Adebayo A.(2007) An investigation into the use of ICT in the Nigerian construction
industry ITcon Vol. 12 pg. 261-277
Oyediran, O. S. Akintola A. A. (2011) A survey of the state of the art of etendering in
Nigeria, Journal of Information Technology in Construction (ITcon), Vol. 16, pg. 557-
576,
Oluwakiyesi T. (2011) Nigerian Construction Industry Report: A Haven of Opportunities
Vetiva Capital Management Limited
Onyejeli Ngozi (2010) Nigeria workforce profile, The Sloan Centre on Ageing and Work
no.22 July 2010, Sponsored by Middlesex University.
Oyediran O. S. and Odusami K. T. (2005) A study of computer usage by Nigerian quantity
surveyors ITcon Vol. 10 (2005) pg. 291-303
Oyediran O. S. and Odusami, K.T. 2004. Whither the Nigerian Quantity Surveyors in the
Information Technology Age. An International Journal of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT). 1 (1 & 2) 1-16.
Shaw, M. J. and Subramaniam, C. (2002) The effects of process characteristics on the value
supply, European Journal of Purchsing and Supply Management, Vol 2 pg 221 228.
Statistical Bulletin (2012) Internet Access - Households and Individuals, Office for National
Statistics.
The World Bank (2012) World Development Indicators 2012 Development Data Group,
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818
H Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20433 USA


188

Assessing the Impact of Pre-
Construction Conference (Pcc) On the
Success of District/Municipal Assembly
Projects in Ghana
Tengan Callistus

Department of Building Technology, Bolgatanga Polytechnic, Bolgatanga, Ghana

Duodu Bismark

Department of Building Technology, Accra Polytechnic, Accra, Ghana

Kissi Ernest

Department of Building Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology Kumasi, Ghana

Nani Gabriel
Department of Building Technology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology Kumasi, Ghana

1. Abstract
The involvement of stakeholders at the early stage of construction project has become a topical
issue in recent times owing to the ever growing concern about project delivery within time, cost
and quality. The engagement of stakeholders in series of stakeholder meetings or conferences
before, during and after construction project is a recipe to the successful delivery of projects.
This paper reports on a parallel structured questionnaire and a face-to-face interview survey to
assess the importance of Pre-construction conference, attitude of stakeholders towards Pre-
construction conference and the impact of the Pre-Construction conference on the success of
construction projects in Ghana. A total of sixty-one (61) respondents, selected through a non-
probabilistic purposive sampling from building and road contractors (BRC) and
district/municipal engineers participated in the survey. The data was analyzed using
percentages, and descriptive statistics. The study revealed that non-organization of Pre-
Construction conferences contributed to time and cost overruns on projects. It is recommended
that such meetings become a contractual obligation under every project to ensure that
stakeholders interests are addressed before during and after project delivery.
Keywords: Pre-Construction Conference (PCC), Project Success, Ghana, Stakeholder,
Relationship Management,


189

2. Introduction & Literature Review
Construction project success has traditionally been measured by completion within a
predefined time, budget and according to specifications (Ayarkwah, 2010), thus timely delivery
of projects within budget and to the level of quality standards specified by the client is an index
of successful project delivery (Chan and Kumaraswamy, 1997; Sambasivan and Soon, 2007).
According to Baccarini, (1999) and Westhuizen et al., (2005), two separate components of
project success are identified; project management success and project product success. They
further define project management success as that which focuses on the project management
process and in particular on the successful execution of the project with regards to cost, time
and quality. This makes the management of stakeholder relationship in construction contracts
very important in ensuring the success of a project. Jergeas et al. (2000) consider efficient
management of project stakeholder relationships to be crucial to project success. Hartman
(2006) also opines that successful project relationships are vital for successful project delivery
and a number of researchers have in recent times taken into account project stakeholder
relationships (Yang et al, 2011).
Pre-Construction Conference (PCC) starts after design and tending processes have been
completed and a contract established (Bannister, J. M., 1991; Sickler, 2012). This
conference/meeting presents an opportunity for stakeholders to discuss key issues to the
project. PCC arguably is a nascent project management tool/activity that ensures that the
ground rules for the project is set and lines of communication outlined since poor
communication and information dissemination between project stakeholders have been found
to be major causes of delays in construction project execution (Odeyinka and Yusif 1997;
Aibinu and Odeyinka, 2006), and to review the responsibility and expectations of each of the
project participant (Minnick, 2011; Allen, 1993).
Important administrative and communication procedures and policies are also
discussed, including such items as payment procedures, changes in the work, submittals,
critical schedule milestones and special requirements such as hours of operation, noise and any
other matter of import to any of the parties are reviewed at this time (Dykdtra, 2011).
Following this Anvuur (2008), posit that "holding a foundation workshop helps to
discuss and align the goals of the various project stakeholders, agree protocols for joint
decision-making and the resolution of conflicts, and appointing champions to continuously
monitor and appraise performance against specific targets agreed in furtherance of the aligned
objectives". This he considers as a team building activity that help achieve optimal contact
factors.
Jin and Ling, (2005) found that construction projects run smoothly when start up
meetings between stakeholders were organized before construction begun. This corroborates
with a previous finding by Loraine (1994) that an initial workshop is critical because numerous
issues and concerns about relationships could be addressed. Slater (1998) contends that mutual
goals should be agreed on in advance to avoid later misunderstandings, with individual roles
clarified and continuously adhered to (Bresnen and Marshall, 2002).
However Pre-construction conference has not been a formal and regular practice in
developing countries like Ghana. The consequence been cost overruns, poor quality
workmanship and non-completion of projects. Sambasivan & Soon (2007) identifies problem
with sub-contractors, lack of communication between stakeholders and mistakes during
construction stage among other factors that are addressed by the implementation of PCC. On
the premise of the above, the study seeks to establish importance of Pre-construction
conference among district/municipal engineers and building and road contractors


190

3. Methodology
A mixed method of data collection was adopted comprising of questionnaires and
interviews conducted in parallel. In order to maximize the response rate of the district &
municipal engineers (DME) who facilitate these conferences, a face-to-face interview approach
was used. This covered currently all nine (9) district and municipal engineers Upper East
region of Ghana. Fifty-two (52) questionnaires were sent also to building and road contractors
(BRC) registered and operating in the region. This was done to avoid the risk of duplication
because several of these contractors are registered with multiple municipality and district
assemblies in the region. The study recorded a return rate of 38 questionnaire representing 73%
. The relative high response rates of 100 and 73 percent for DME and BRC respectively was
compared to that registered in the study by Owusu-Manu et al., (2010), Chovichien V., &
Suriyanon N. (2011), Cheah C.Y.J. (2007) which recorded respective response rates of 56%,
55.04%, 54%; suggesting the validity and adequacy of the response rate. Microsoft Excel 2007
was used to analyze the survey results.
4. Results and Discussions
4.1 Profile of respondents
All nine (9) questionnaires sent to the DMEs were fully completed and returned. All
respondents demonstrated some knowledge of PCC and its importance in the construction
industry. The minimum educational levels of respondents were a Higher National Diploma
(HND). About 77% of the building and road contractors (BRC) who responded to the study
were registered in financial classes D3-D4 and K3-K4. The remaining 23% represents
contractors registered in the financial classes D1-D2 and K1-K2. The high representation of
D3-D4 and K3-K4 (small scale contractors) shows how high possibility of poor performance as
opined by Asamoah, (2009).
4.2 Organization of PCC
Nearly 89% (8 out of 9) of District and Municipal Engineers indicated that PCC were
organized for building and road contractors who won projects for the first time in the district
or municipality. Once BRC became known in the district or municipal assembly (DMA), they
were seen to be familiar with the district or municipality, construction process and could apply
previous experience to subsequent projects. BRC also admitted to the above statement. This
was notice as the projects sampled for the study executed by first time contractors were
completed as scheduled, and also to acceptable quality and cost. This to a large extent gave a
first time impression about their companies to deliver as it wasnt the situation for subsequent
projects awarded to the same firms. Reference is made to Fig1, Fig2, and Fig3 below which
sought to evaluate/ascertain the level of adherence to prescribe quality, time and cost standards
by both first time contractors and continuous contractors in the municipality. The referenced
standards were those enlisted in the Contract documents as the duration of the project and cost
of the project. Quality was measured by the specifications given in the contract document and
the view of the supervising engineer.


191

Fig. 1 Level of adherence to project quality (source: Field Data)

Fig. 2 Level of adherence to project time (source: Field Data)


192

Fig. 3 Level of adherence to project cost (source: Field Data)
4.3 Stakeholders Expectation during PCC
The indication of project success is measured by its quality, time of delivery and cost
among other factors (Ayarkwah, 2010). The study sought to establish the expectation of PCC
by both BRCs and DMAs going into a construction project. This was ranked and
summarized. Table 1 below indicates that quality of the work is the ultimate measure or
expectation to be achieved by both building and road contractors and district and municipal
engineers when entering into any construction activity. However, 78% of district and municipal
engineers rated cost and time as the second and third measures in order of importance
respectively. They argued that projects are expected to conform to the contract specifications at
a minimal cost (thus value for money). Although time was rated last with 67%, it is equally
seen as critical. On the other breath, building and road contractors agree that projects should be
of quality. They however remarked that as business men they had to complete the project on
schedule in order to go in for another job (thus 91% of respondents). Cost of the project being
ranked third with 77% after quality and time. It can also be established with reference to table
2 that PCC will ensure the achievement of the expectations of both building and road
contractors and district and municipal engineers.
Table 1. Stakeholders Expectations during PCC
Ranking Expectations stated by District and Municipal
Engineers
Expectations stated by Building and Road
Contractor
1 Quality (100%) Quality (100%)
2 Cost (78%) Time (91%)
3 Time (67%) Cost (77%)
Source: questionnaire data
4.4 Impact of PCC on construction activities
The views of respondents were sought regarding the impact of PCC on construction
projects. Respondents views were again ranked and summarized as in table 2 below. The
results showed that both DMA and BRCs rated good working relationship among project team
as the extremely important impact of PCC on projects. They appreciate that PCC facilitates a


193

good line communication will improve the working relationship among the project team, the
quality level of the project, cost and project duration.
Table 2. Impact of PreConstruction Conference on Construction Projects
Ranking Impact stated by District and Municipal
Engineers
Impact stated by Building and Road
Contractor
1 Good working relationship among project
team (100%)
Good working relationship among project
team (100%)
2 Improves quality of work (100%) Improves quality of work (91%)
3 Duration of the Project is maintained (78%) Cost reduction (Working within acceptable
budget) (82%)
4 Cost reduction (Working within acceptable
budget) (67%)
Duration of the Project is maintained (68%)
5 Informs health and safety related activities on
site (67%)
Informs health and safety related activities on
site (68%)
Source: questionnaire data
In the view of both BRC and DMA health and safety related measures is the least
important impact of PCC on project.
4.5 Attitude of parties to PCC
Respondents were asked whether they will or not employ PCC prior to the execution of
projects. All the DME assured that preconstruction conferences will no doubt help to achieving
project targets of quality, time and cost. However they stated that cost of the conference has no
place in the district or municipals budget and that contractors would have to bore those cost.
BRC upon agreeing with the DME over the success of PCC also insisted that this will have a
cost implication to them. However majority (68%) of the BRC (both FTC and CT) felt that,
they will better utilize resources, manage and maximize profit. This is a positive indication that
BRCs are willing and prepared to attend PCC when organized regardless of the cost
implications.
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
It is concluded that first time contractors (FTC) achieved the project goals of time, cost
and quality and could be attributed to the Pre-Construction conferences organize for them. This
was in anticipation of subsequent or future jobs. However it was not same with continuous
contractor (CC). It is recommended that Pre-Construction conferences/ meetings become a
contractual obligation under every project to ensure that stakeholders interests are addressed
before during and after project delivery


194

6. References
Aibinu,A.A. and Odeyinka,H.A., (2006). Construction Delays and their Causative Factors in
Nigeria. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 132, (7)
Allen, R. K., (1993). Dispute Avoidance and Resolution for Consulting Engineers. ASCE
Press. ISBN 0-87262-903-1. p.36.
Anvuur,A.M.,2008.Cooperation in Construction Projects: Concept, Antecedents and
Strategies. PhD Thesis, University of Hong Kong.
Asamoah, O. R, Baiden Amissah, P. D, and Danquah, J. A., (2009). Assessing the delivery
Performance of small- scale contractors in Ghana; Case Study of Ghana Poverty
Reduction and the Social Investment Fund Projects. Retrieved from
http://www.brri.org/brri/Publications
Ayarkwah, J., (2010). Perspectives on Environmental Management in the Construction
Industry in Ghana. International Journal of Sustainably Development, Vol.3 (9), 60-68
Bannister, J. M., (1991). Building Construction Inspection: A guide for architects. John Wiley
& Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-53004-2.
Bresnen, M. and Marshall, N., (2002). The engineering or evolution of co-operation? A tale of
two partnering projects. International Journal of Project Management, 20(7), 497505.
Cheah C.Y.J. (2007). Construction Safety and Health Factors at the Industry Level: The
Case of Singapore. Journal of Construction in Developing Countries, Vol. 12(2), 81-
99.
Chovichien V. & Suriyanon N., (2011). Attitudes of People in the Thai Construction
Industry Sector on Issues Related to Delay in the Approval of Submittals, Journal of
Construction in Developing Countries, Vol. 16(1), 4167
Dykstra, A., (2011). Construction Project Management: A complete Introduction. Kirshner
Publishing Company Inc. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-9827034-9-6.
Hartman, F.T., (2002). The role of trust in project management. In: Slevin, D.P.,Cleland, D.I.,
Pinto, J.K. (Eds.), Frontiers of Project Management Research.Newtown Square,
Pennsylvania, PMI, pp. 225235
Jergeas, G.E., Williamson, E., Skulmoski, G.J. & Thomas, J.L., (2000). Stakeholder
Management on Construction Projects. AACEInternational Transactions 12, 15.
Jin, X.H. and Ling, F.Y. Y., (2005). 'Constructing a framework for building relationships and
trust in project organizations: two case studies of building projects in China',
Construction Management and Economics, 23(7), 685 - 696
Liebing, W. R., (2011). Construction of Architecture: From Design to Built. John Wiley &
Sons Inc. 312pp. ISBN 978-0-471-78355-8 (cloth).
Loraine, R.K. (1994). Project specific partnering. Engineering, Construction and Architectural
Management, 1(1), 516.
Minnick, J., (2011). How to create and use pre-construction meeting checklists. Retrieved
from http://www.forresidentialpros.com/article/10346233/. (Accessed: 19
th
Feb,
2012).
NRMCA (2000). CIP 32 - Concrete Pre-Construction conference. Retrieved from
http://www.nrmca.org/aboutconcrete/cips/32p.pdf (Accessed: 29
th
Feb, 2012).


195

Owusu-Manu, D., Badu, E., & Otu-Nyarko, D. (2010). Corporate social responsibility: the
perspective of the Ghanaian construction industry, International Journal of Project
Planning and Finance, Vol 1(1), 60-83
Odeyinka, H. A. & Yusif, A., (1997). The causes and effects of construction delays on
completion cost of housing projects in Nigeria Journal of Finanancial Mangement
and Property Construction., 2(3), 3144.
Sambasivan, M. & Soon, Y.W., (2007). Causes and effects of delays on Malaysian
Construction Industry. International Journal of Project Management 25, 517526
Sickler, M. J., (2002) During The Preconstruction meeting - Building Principles. Article from:
Camping Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.docstoc.com/docs/56148193/During-
the-preconstruction-meeting-(Building rinciples) (Accessed: 29
th
Feb, 2012)
Slater, T.S., (1998). Partnering: Agreeing to agree. Journal of Management in Engineering,
14(6), 4850.
Westhuizen and Fitzgerald, (2005). Defining and measuring project success. Retrieved from
http://eprints.usq.edu.au/346/1/DependentVariableArticleV8.pdf (Accessed: 28
th

February, 2012).
Yang,J., Shen,G.Q., Ho,M.,Drew,D.S. and Xue,X., (2011). Stakeholder management in
construction: An empirical study to address research gaps in previous studies.
International Journal of Project Management 29 (7), 900910.


196

Ceramic Association of Nigeria
(Ceran): The Journey Thus Far.

I .B. Kashim
Department of Industrial Design, School of Environmental Technology,
Federal University of Technology, Nigeria
E-mail: ibykash@gmail.com


197

Introduction:
Ceramic Association of Nigeria (CeRAN) happens to be the largest platform in which
the ceramist, archeologists, material scientists and art historians embraces as a medium to
dialogue annually over a decade now. This annual conglomeration of potters, ceramists and
allied professionals meet to discuss current issues that tends to promote ceramic practices,
interact through joint exhibitions, present academic papers that reveals recent research findings
which are usually discussed and subjected to constructive criticism that can chart way forward
at addressing problems that pottery and potters are confronted with locally and nationally. It is
pertinent also to mention the existence of another National Association known as Craft Potters
Association of Nigeria (CPAN) an umbrella body that bring potters and other professionals in
related field together for the advancement and promotion of art and science using clay as
medium. These two associations have been playing similar roles that are centered on sharing
experiences on research results and tackling problems encountered in various aspects of
ceramics and pottery practice. While CeRAN seems to accommodate more of ceramics art
educators, CPAN seems to thrive more among the studio artist who seems to be more inclined
towards exhibition of their works and participation in workshops.
This paper attempts to retrospectively review the historical trend of pottery
development in Nigeria, the formation of Ceramics Association of Nigeria (CeRAN), review of
some selected research findings published in CerAN journals known as Ashakwu Journal of
Ceramics and discuss some unique ceramics exhibits from previous conferences which
showcases some ceramics pieces with unique and exceptional creative displayed of surface
embellishments with cultural symbols that are truly Africa in concept. The impact of the
association on the development of pottery practice was also discussed before drawing a
conclusion on the overall performance of the association.
Chronological Trend in Ceramic Development in Nigeria:
Examining the contemporary pottery in Nigeria Fowowe (2004) highlighted its
development to early 1920s in Nigeria with gradual changing phases of tradition, due largely
to the contact with western civilization. The production of traditional pottery among different
ethnic groups in Nigeria have been culturally unique because of their contribution to material
culture of the people and excellence of its practice, beauty of its forms and its exemplary
display of africanistic symbols on its surface as exhibited on Gwari and Yoruba potteries .See
fig,1 and 2 below showing a typical Yoruba pottery and ladi kwalis work indicating a classic
Gwari pottery tradition.


198

In 1952, Micheal Cardew, a British master potter, at the instance of the Northern
Nigerian Government established the Abuja Pottery Centre in Suleija, now in the Federal
Capital Territory. He made a very creative initiative by assembling local potters and introduced
them to modern ceramic practice while recognizing and encouraging the tradition methods they
are used to within the confide of their craft production culture. This led to pottery production
using the potters wheel and adoption of higher temperature kilns with temperature efficiencies
far above the traditional open fire earthenware kilns they are used to. The pottery wares are
enhanced with the best of Gwari traditional design that places emphasis on incised decorations.
Prominent among the traditional potters of repute from the Centre was Ladi Kwali (1924 -
1984). Abuja pottery has no doubt made significant contributions to the economic welfare of
the people within the environment and also acted as an inspirational source for the takeoff of
modern ceramics in Nigerian tertiary institution with special reference to the Department of
Industrial Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
The institutions that offer ceramics as a course of study were based in the early 1960s
in Zaria and Nsukka Art Schools. They are now Department of Fine Art and Industrial Design,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria and Department of fine Arts, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
From 1970s to date other institutions where ceramics are offered were established among
them are Yaba College of Technology, Lagos, Department of Fine Art of Universities of Benin
and Ife, to mention a few. These institutions have transformed pottery from its normal
traditional role to more unique productions of items that have contemporary functions and
values to the world of science and technology.
Emergence of Ceramic Association in Nigeria:
The contemporary ceramics and ceramists were faced with avalanche of problems that
border on prospecting and processing of ceramic raw materials, accessibility to modern
equipment like the blungers, pugmills, jaw-crushers, ball-mills, kilns, good and effective
burners, and government attitude towards entrepreneurial endeavors in areas bordering on solid
mineral utilization as a result of over-dependence on revenue from the oil sector of the
economy. In an attempt to keep afloat in pottery and ceramic production, a potter has assumed
a lot of roles that have been so diversionary and subsequently reduces her productivity level.


199

Onuzulike (2004) states that the above situation have forced ceramist in Nigeria to
perform singularly as artist, geologist, chemists, engineers, mason, carpenter and marketer,
thereby making a lot of Nigeria business investor impatient with return on their huge
investment in ceramic cottage and large scale industries. An effort to seek for solution to these
technical problems led to the formation of professional associations like and Ceramic
Association of Nigeria (CerAN) in 1986 and Craft Potters Association of Nigeria (CPAN) in
1995. The objective of the association, according to Ahuwan (1999) are to promote the
advancement of ceramics and allied sciences, organize seminars, conferences, exhibitions and
workshops to booster technical interaction and exposure among members. The 2005 Nsukka
conference gave very good opportunity for pioneer executive members of the associoation to
mentor the younger ceramist. The patrons are Professor Abbas Ahuwan, from Department of
Industrial Design, School of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria; Prof. B.
N. Igwilo who retired from Department of Fine and Applied Art, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka; Prof. O. K. Oyeoku, who is currently Head, Department Fine and Applied Art,
University of Nigeria, Nsukka directed the affairs of the association from 1986 up to October,
2010.
At the 2010 Annual General Meeting after the conference of the Association held in
Zaria, an election was conducted which ushered in a new set of executive members with
Prof.Tolulope Lawrence Akinbogun as the president to date. Having taken stock of the
historical journey of the association so far this paper proceed to proceed to randomly appraises
selected ceramic wares at some of the exhibitions that are of particular interest to this author
since 2005 to date. Some of the prominent ceramist work that was discussed as a result of their
exceptional qualities in terms of styles, concept and thematic expression that is cultural to
Nigeria.
The exhibition for 2005 was held at the Department of Fine and Applied Art, University
of Nigeria, Nsukka from October 26 - 29 with 34 participants while in 2006, the Department of
Industrial Design, Federal University of Technology, Akure hosted the conference and with 42
participants in the exhibition from various parts of the country, most of who are academicians
from various tertiary institutions in Nigeria.
Research Efforts
One of the activities of CeRAN is the organization of annual conferences whose plenary
sessions allow for participant to present thought provoking academics papers. Some of the
papers presented are based on results of laboratory experiments, some field survey on topical
societal issues, some review of books, exhibition reviews, and presentation of profile of some
outstanding ceramists who have made significant contribution and importantly act as an avenue
for interaction among people from different locations in Nigeria and inter-related disciplines
with ceramics. Few research works that were presented and published are hereby reviewed
based on the following conferences titles highlighted below;
- CeRAN 2005 Earth Resources in Human Development held on the 26
th
-29
th
Oct.
2005 at the Department of Fine and Applied Art, University of Nigeria, Nsukka,
Nigeria.
- CeRAN 2006 Ceramics and the Society held on the 10
th
-13
th
Oct.2006 at The Federal
University of Technology,Akure-Nigeria.
- CeRAN 2007 Ceramics and Sustainable Development in Nigeria held on 9
th
-12
th

Oct.2007 at the Department of Fine Art,Delta State University ,Abraka,Delta State,
Nigeria.
- CeRAN 2008 Trends and Challenges in Ceramics Development in the 21
st
Century


200

held on the 8
th
-11
th
Oct.2008 at Museum of Traditional and Nigerian Architecture[
MOTNA] Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria
- CeRAN 2009 Did not hold.
- CeRAN 2010 focuses on Advances in Ceramics Materials and Technology held on
- CeRAN 2011 Ceramics and the Environment is proposed to be held Novenber 2011 at
The Department of Fine and Applied Arts, University of Benin, Benin-City, Nigeria.
- CeRAN 2012 Ceramic and Transformation in Nigeria. University of Uyo, Akwa Ibom
State. Nov, 2012.
The few reviewed works that were singled out for discussions are based on the facts that
were centered on the need driven research that are meant to solve the problems bedeviling the
development of ceramics in Nigeria.
In the journal edition of 2003 titled Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics produced and edited
under the umbrella CerAN presented Opoku (2003) research work, which highlighted the major
ceramic saw materials that could be derived locally in Nigeria. The material highlighted were
feldspar, silica/quartz, calcium carbonate, kaolin, ball clay which are available in millions of
tonnage from raw material research and development council publication.( 1997 ).In this same
edition Garkida (2003),who is a glass technologist carried out an experiment on Ijero Ekiti
.feldspar in term of the chemical and physical component present there in. The finding reveals
that Ijero feldspar component of potassium could successfully be used in the preparation of
glaze and glass batches. This discovery is in the right direction as it assisted in sourcing from
within the country local raw materials for ceramics and glass presentation which were hitherto
imported to Nigeria with hard earned foreign` earning.
The 2004 edition of Ashakwu featured another prominent research conducted by Munai
and Naallah which exploited Nafadah gypsum for the preparation of Plaster of Paris that was
suitable for the production of ceramics mould with setting time between 16-20min.The
significant of this research is that it was expected to assist the desire for mass production
arising from proto-typed designs in ceramics without necessarily resulting to importation with
the scarce monetary resources.
In subsequent edition to date, Kashim (2005) reports his field and experimental work on
the Economic survey and suitability of Ceramic Raw Material in Nigeria for the production of
porcelain. He produced porcelain that has similar characteristics with those from United
Kingdom and China. His study reveals that Koalin explioted from Barkin-Ladi, produced
porcelain that proved to be translucent under the ray of light, fired white with almost 100%
vitrification and with zero level porosity at 13050c. The research served as compendium of raw
material exploration and contribution to few exploits by various researchers in the attempt to
develop porcelain body and glazes that is truly indigenous.
Datiri and Yusuph (2004) investigated the extensive exploration of Kaolin in Barkin
Ladi. They investigated the development of Kaolin processing plants (the processing
approach). This was assessed through direct observational approached by the owners of the
plants from various locations around the mining sites. The revelations from the mining site as
investigated reveal an unbelievable level of kaolin presence in the town. This processing
actually contributes to the environmental sustainability of the people of the study area
significantly in term of money realized from the activities for their daily up keep. Akinbogun
and Fadairo (2009) also developed an ash glazes from Agricultural waste products, that is, they
experimented on the using ashes from cocoa-pod to produce a transparent ash glazes in
combination with Ijero-Ekiti feldspar and kaolin from Ikere Ekiti, both in Ekiti State, Nigeria.
The outcome of the research was intended to assist cottage ceramics industries to continue


201

production business in the face of odds confronting them from raw material processing and
importation.
The cultural dynamics of Ufe pottery in Ijumu Local Government Area of Kogi State,
Nigeria was examined by Dr. Clement Mayowa Bakinde of Archeological Unit of the
Department of History, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. He considered the research to be of
utmost importance at the reconstruction of Ufe peoples lifestyle using their pottery tradition
which was feared to be sliding in to extinction. His research documented their potting tradition
so that it will not be irrevocably lost due to lack on continuity of the craft by the people.
All the above research arrears are duly acknowledged because raw material processing,
local glaze formulation and firing ceramics ware to gloss temperature in locally fabricated kilns
have constituted a serious cog in the wheel of the developmental progress of contemporary
pottery and ceramics practice in Nigeria. A lot of industries were set up in the 1970s when
Nigerian economy was very buoyant as a result of oil boom at the international market. The
petrol-dollar income encouraged importation of ceramics raw materials and equipment but with
the down-turn in the economy in the 1990s to date, most of these ceramic industries have
folded up while the surviving few are not really finding it comfortable to be in business. That is
the reason why some of these local research findings have been able to fill significant gaps that
hinders ceramics practice in Nigeria and attempts to rejuvenate the vibrancy expected of the
already depreciating ceramics production industries.
Appraisal of some selected ceramic wares in previous exhibition:
Over the period from 2008 to date few works were actually given recognition during the
exhibitions because they are art pieces that are deep rooted in African culture in which great
talents are displayed. They are creative and inspiring from the unprecedented display of African
artistry and cultural expositions. Some of the selected works over some period of time
discussed below shows African display of ingenuity at promoting local pottery and design.
Exhibits: That shows Symbol of Nigerian Cultural Identity
There are very many participants but few works are singled out for discussion from the
previous year exhibits, especially those that have some expressions that are exceptional in
theme, craftsmanship and intrinsic values in their African content. Professor Okpan k. Oyeoku
in 2005 at the conference held at University of Nigeria, Nsukka, expresses that Nigerian
ceramics have come of age in the expression of its identity in forms and design reflecting
contribution to socio-cultural life of the country.
(1) The Desire to Fly Again: Gladys Udeh
This is a pot which was presented in multi-coloured glazes ranging from buff to
polished top and a base made in shade of dark glaze. The upper portion abstractically takes
after a fish while the tail bottom is represented with coil. A lot of harmony in the contrast was
achieved in the distribution of light and shades and her ability to effectively use lines and coil
to represent scales and fins which created illustration on the surface is highly commendable.


202

Fig. 3: Desire to Fly Again by Gladys Udeh. Stoneware transparent glaze
(2) Uyai Offiang (Moonlight Play): Nsewtip Udom
This was a linear pot made of coils and super imposed on a linear sliced of wood
assembled and painted with black lines. It is a symbolic representation of the clamoring for
moon light, starting from moon crescent to full round moonlight that brighten from night to
early morning. The brightness of the night moon allow children and adults alike to take
advantage for long night plays, a recreational activities among marriageable adults that results
in marriage proposals. The work represents a typical night setting among the Calabar people of
Cross River State in Nigeria.


203

Fig. 4: Uyai Offiang (Moonlight Play) by Nsewtip Udom. Terracotta
(3) Yam Casualities: Ozioma Onazulike
Onazulike is a lecturer with University of Nigeria, Nsukka, a prolific historian and a
ceramic critics. In the exhibition, he displayed yam in its broken form which he titled
orthopedic hospital. It is a high-fired terra-cotta piece in yam form that was bone-fired to
create a smoothy sooth impression on the surface. The smoothy surface impression gave the
yam a feel of reality. Yam is one of the popularly grown tuber crop among all ethnic groups in
Nigeria. It is popularly used for celebration and as traditional presentational offer in
ceremonies that has to do with marriages, burial rites and local festival such as egungun
(masquerade), ogun (god of iron) and osun (god of water).


204

Fig. 5: Yam Casualities by Ozioma Onazulike. Smoked terracotta
(4) My Grandfathers Gourds: Dipo Akano
Dipo Akano is a lecturer at Yaba College of Technology, Lagos. He made a gourd in
clay, which originally are calabash containers used for storage of liquid that have to do with
either magical concoctions or water or palm-wine (a local drink tapped from palm tree). The
gourd was made of stoneware using tenmoku glaze with surface embellishment in geometric
shapes showing visible intertwined coils representing the point of carriage. Colour stains were
splashed on the opening point of the container to give the foaming impression of the palm-wine
drink.


205

Fig. 6: My Grandfathers Gourds by Dipo Akano. Stoneware glazed pot
(5) The National Colour: Onu, Cains Chukwudi
This is a representation of more than 70 miniature terra-cotta birds hung on a chicken
net. The birds were made to be flying in different directions restlessly. It was used to express
Nigerian national colour symbolizing survival of the fittest, that is a country with plenty and yet
plenty of its common population struggle day and night for survival. Chukwudi displayed good
sense of patience and skill at executing the concept with good realistic representation of forms.

Fig. 7: The National Colour by Onu, Cains Chukwudi. Mixed media, Terracotta


206

(6) Embrace: Ngozi Omeje
The flower pot was designed showing two figures of human beings hugging themselves
to a warm reception radiating a lot of emotional feeling of warmth. The figure built in coil
shows feeling running through the nervous system when one comes in contact with someone he
had like to welcome and appreciate. The pot symbolizes an affection displayed to reach out to
ones guests, friends, clients, and customers as expressed by the potter. She expresses that
affection as represented by the images on the pots runs deeper than just to making money.
Embrace was intended for making guest at ease and show sign of welcome in any reception to
an office. Ngozi was a graduate of University of Nigeria, Nsukka who did her National Youth
Service then at University of Benin. She has other exhibits like tea sets, jug and cups that were
also beautifully accomplished with good textural surface finish in butter coloured glaze that
was contrasted with blue stain. She made and exhibited a traditional bottle with intricate thin
coils used to embellish the surface titled heritage.

Fig. 8: Embrace by Ngozi Omeje. Fig. 9: Cultural Heritage by Ngozi Omeje.
Stoneware glazed Stoneware; coil textured
(7) Porcelain Collections: Kashim Isah Bolaji
Kashim displayed a porcelain whitewares made 100% of locally derived ceramics raw
material contents from Nigeria. The items produced in porcelain include ball-mill pebbles and
linings, laboratory pestle and mortar. But of particular interest is the Benin traditional mask
which takes a resemblance after the symbol of The Festival of Art and Culture FESTAC
1977, that is, the emblem used in the celebration by Nigeria in 1977.


207

Fig. 10: Benin traditional mask by Kashim I. B. Porcelain
(8) The Hill and the Ants: Nkechinyere J. Anyaocha
This is a unique hand built terra cotta figure. It showed a typical impression of an ant
hill that is surrounded with termites. One of the common features of Nigeria land formation is
ant hills. Their presence are usually very noticeable and given adequate attention as ant hills
and termites are very unfriendly to building materials especially wood used for roofing, house
door and furniture. The scenes of termite hills usually present very interesting physical
characteristics that attract artistic attention as presented in her work.

Fig. 11: The Hill & the Ants by Nkechinyere J. Anyaoha. Stoneware glazed


208

The Impact of the Association
The association has impacted significantly on ceramics practitioners and other allied
professional in several ways as itemized below:
- Hitherto before the advent of the association in Nigeria potters were just working
individually and do not have common forum to discuss their successes and challenges.
Through the annual conferences it was made possible to share from each others
wealth of experiences, in terms of problems encountered and different ways it was
been resolved.
- Scientific discovery are presented before the professionals. The methods and results
are subjected to different methods of verifications to be able to validate such claims.
- The association provided an avenue for it member to publish its research findings in
The Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics. The opportunities have assisted significantly
ceramist in the academics to be promoted based on such publication. Before this time
these set of professional are disadvantaged compared to their counterpart in other
profession who have many of such journal to publish the outcome of their research
efforts.
- The exhibitions by participants allows for cross fertilization of production
methodologies and creativity in technique of execution of works.
- The association provides common ground for an informal interaction among members
from different locations in the country sharing different cultural background.


209

Conclusion
Going down the memory lane from the inception of Ceramics Association of Nigeria
alot of editions of Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics have been produced with articles that were
peer reviewed by reknown ceramists like Profesors; O.K. Oyeoku, Ahuwan Abbas, Umar
Sullyman, Abdullahi Umar, Lawrence Tolulope Akinbogun, with host of other senior
academics which has a spread across different tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The annual
conferences avail researchers the opportunities to prevent papers on resent findings,
breakthroughs, problem analysis and series of brain storming in finding a way forward for
ceramics development in the country. The exhibitions on most cases exemplify the ingenuity of
Nigerian potters as engineers, technologists, geologists and artists. All of these are an attempt
to produce pottery that has African stamp in its forms, concepts and designs as it relates to
surface embellishments.
Some of the research efforts are in the area of glaze formulation, development of locally
made plaster of paris from gypsum, formulation of glaze recipe using indigenous materials
based on establish glaze soft wares, development of different types of kiln (wood, gas, potshard
and raku) are commendable. Also worthy of mention are development of high fired glaze
bodies (porcelain) and current efforts to develop mosaic tesserae from waste glass. There is
ongoing research into formulation of opacified glazes using waste bone ash from abattoir. All
of the above have aided capacity building in the arrears of pottery practice and kept the practice
alive in spite of all the enormous hostility ceramics is expose to due to the nations economic
down turn. Ceramics Association of Nigeria has not really gotten to its apex but it has provided
a platform for ceramists and potters to come together for common goals in fulfilling the
objective for which it was formed.


210

References
Ahuwan, A. M. (1999) Trends in Contemporary Ceramics in Nigeria. Environ: Journal of
Environmental Studies. 1(2 & 3), 32 - 49.
Akinbogun, T. L. & Fadairo O. O. (2009) Exploration of Ashes from Cocoa Pod for the
Formulation of Transparent Glazes. Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics.
Bakinde, C. O. (2007) Traditional Pottery as a Channel of Group Identity. Ashakwu Journal
of Ceramics. 4(1) 40 49.
Datiri, Y. C. & Yusuph, R. K. D. (2004) Developing a Small Scale Kaolin Plant Processing
Plant: (The Wet Processing Approach) A Practical Experience Report at Barkin-
Ladi .Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics, 1(2), 13 17.
Fowowe, M. O. (2004) Changing Phases in Tradition: The Origin and Growth of
Contemporary Pottery in Nigeria. CPAN Journal of Ceramics. 1 (1), 4 - 13.
Garkida, A.D. (2003) Ijero Feldspar: A Good Source of Potassium Alumino-Silicate for the
Glass and Ceramics Industries. Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics 1(1), 73 75.
Kashim, I. B.(2005)An Assessment of Factors Militating Against Indigenous Manufacturing
of Porcelain in Nigeria. 2(1) 36 44.
Munai, A. D. & Na allah, S. (2004) Production of Plaster of Paris: The Nafada Gypsum
Experience. Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics 1(2) 43 49.
Opoku E. A. (2003) Develpoment of Local Raw Materials for the Ceramics Industries in
Nigeria. Ashakwu Journal of Ceramics. 1(1) 14 - 17
Onuzulike, O. (2004) Towards Professional Visibility: The History of Ceramics Associations
in Nigeria. CPAN Journal of Ceramics. 1 (1), 43 - 54.
Raw Material Research and Development Council (1997), Raw Material Sourcing for the
Manufacturing Industries in Nigeria, Lagos, Mufadanic Press Ltd. Pg. 256.
About the author

Kashim Isah Bolaji (B.A., M.A., PhD.Industrial Design). He specializes in ceramics with
specialization in the production of high fired ceramics (porcelain). He is currently the Ag.
Head, Department of Industrial Design, Federal University of Technology, Akure Nigeria. He
has worked as a production manager in ceramics industry in Nigeria, taught ceramics in
different polytechnics and universities in Nigeria. Belong to different professional associations
among which are: Craft Potter Association of Nigeria, Ceramics Association of Nigeria,
Society of Nigeria Artists and African Association of Industrial Designer.


211

Strengthening National Primary
Schools in Malaysia

I khsan Othman
Sultan Idris Education University, Malaysia
ikhsan@fppm.upsi.edu.my

Amir Hasan Dawi
amir@fppm.upsi.edu.my

Mohamad Sidik Ariffin
sidik@fb.upsi.edu.my

Abstract
In Malaysia one of the strategic thrusts in Education Development Master Plan (2006-2010) is
strengthening National Schools. Strengthening National schools brings the meaning that
National Schools as the schools of choice and plays the role to encourage interaction between
multiethnic groups for social integration towards national unity. However the availability of
Chinese National-type Schools and Tamil National-type Schools brought up short of constrains
for the National Schools to attract pupils from ethnics other than Malays. Findings from this
research explain public perspectives on schools other than National Schools namely Chinese
National-type Schools and Tamil National-type Schools. Although majority agreed that
National Schools are at the better position, this research findings show that Chinese and Indian
in Malaysia still have their own reasons for choosing Chinese National-type Schools or Tamil
National-type Schools for their children. Such reasons from the findings will be highlighted in
this article. In summary, imposing policy to strengthen National Schools brings conflicts to
national interest; and to have one type of school might face difficulties. Therefore, should
designing national education policy for national interest and global purposes consider various
ethnics interest.

Keywords: Multiethnic perspectives, primary school education, National Schools, Chinese
National-type Schools, Tamil National-type Schools, culture, heritage.


212

Introduction
In Malaysia, strengthening National Schools is one of the six strategic thrusts in
Education Development Master Plan (2006-2010) besides nation building, development human
capital, bridging the education gap, enhancing the teaching profession and accelerating
excellence of educational institutions. Issues pertain the needs to strengthen National Schools
are strongly related to the nature of multiethnic society in Malaysia. After independence from
colonialism until today, Malaysia struggles in many ways to accommodate every ethnic group
in the country to live in harmony and unity. Anyway every ethnic group seen to maintain their
status quo in many aspects include language, culture and education. Malaysia is not like other
countries such as Japan, Korea, China, Indonesia, Singapore or India which are practicing one
language and one schooling system for the nation. Many types of schooling system in Malaysia
can create barrier for ethnic interaction, social integration and national unity. National unity is
the concern of Malaysian government as it is one of the prerequisite for political stability,
promoting economic growth and achieving countrys vision to become a developed country in
the year 2020.
During British colonialism in Malaya (Now Malaysia), every ethnic group had their
own schooling system. The colonial divide and rule policy permitted various schooling
systems base on ethnic. The schooling systems can be distinguished according to ethnic and
language used or so called vernacular schools. Under the concept of vernacular schools, there
were Malay schools for Malays, Chinese schools for Chinese, Tamil schools for Indian and the
English schools for upper class citizens. Other than that were missionary schools and religious
schools like sekolah pondok or madrasah.
British policy on education for Malay, Chinese and Indian, conformed to their views of
that particular groups role in Malaya. Education for upper class Malay children was at schools
which were situated in town areas. For the rural Malays, the government introduced the Malay
vernacular schools with the intention to retain Malays in rural areas with their tradition
economic activities. For elite class Malay or royal family, their children were educated in the
modern English school.
Most of the Chinese were at mining areas and town like Ipoh, Penang and Kuala
Lumpur. Chinese vernacular schools had their beginning in Malaya as early 1829. The schools
remained for a long time in the hands of Chinese communities. At the end of the nineteenth
century and the first half of the twentieth century there were in operation several private
schools, financed by Chinese parents with Classic Art and Confucianism as the curriculum. The
Chinese had their systems which were based on curriculum, materials and values from the
mainland of China. Teachers and text books for the schools were also imported from there.
For Indian, most of Indian early schools in Malaya were situated in estates of rubber
and coconuts. Formal Indian education was pioneered in the first half of the nineteenth century
by Christian missionaries who opened Tamil schools in Penang, Malacca and Singapore. Most
of the schools used Tamil as the medium of instructions and were almost wholly India-oriented
(Andaya and Andaya 1982). Curriculum used in Tamil schools had the orientation for India
where most of the teachers were recruited. The schools which mostly located in rubber
plantations enabled children to maintain links with their Indian heritage and Hindu religion.
Generally, the education system during colonial era had polarized the ethnic groups
found in Malaya. The three main ethnic groups were geographically less to interact with each
other. The Malay schools, Chinese schools, Tamil schools and English schools varied in
quality, curriculum and cultural orientation. The Malay, Chinese and Tamil schools socialized
children to be Malay, Chinese or Indian. They transmitted their different world-views to
maintain cultural identity of each ethnic group.


213

After the independence from colonial, education in Malaysia changed. This
phenomenon had more significance in creating the Malaysian education policy which
emphasized on the unity of the citizens which comprised of multiethnic society. In other words,
the awareness of the ethnic differences created the needs to unite the citizens in every aspect of
lives. The creation of a national education policy which emphasized education as an instrument
to achieve political unity, economic development, nation building and social integration come
to be realized when the Razak Report 1956 was published (Federation of Malaya 1958, EPRD
1990). The Razak Report emphasizes the importance of education policy in satisfying the
legitimate aspirations of each of the major ethnic groups in the country. From this stage
onwards education policy in Malaysia has always find way towards social integration and unity
of the citizens; political development; economic development; and nation building.
In 1960, the Razak Report was reviewed by the committee chaired by Rahman Talib
and Rahman Talib Report was the published, which again endorsed the education policy as a
route to unity or social integration (Federation of Malaya 1961). The Education Act passed in
1961 incorporated most of the recommendations of both the Razak Report and Rahman Talib
Report. The Education Act 1961 aimed to establish a national system of education and promote
its cultural, social, economic and political development. The Education Act 1961, also
highlighted national language as the main medium for instructions. The national language,
which is Malay language become the main medium of instructions in schools. At the same
time, use of Mandarin in Chinese National-type Schools and Tamil in Tamil National-type
Schools were allowed until the national type schools will one day be converted to National
Schools by minister. This was clearly stated in Education Act 1961: 21(2).
Where at any time the Minister is satisfied that a national type primary school
may suitable be converted into national primary school, he may by order direct
that the school become a national primary school
Even after the independence of Malaysia in 1957, the vernacular schools concepts were
being part of the national education system. Malaysian school system generally divided into
three mainstreams based on medium of instruction; Malay, Mandarin and Tamil parallel with
the need of the respective main ethnic groups of the country. Anyway education still plays its
role in achieving social integration for national unity. Through common school experiences,
curriculum and examinations, it is expected to socialize students in the country towards a
common way of thinking. Common text books were also used in order to suit changes towards
Malaysian centric.
Malay language became medium of instruction in National Schools. The use of mother
tongue languages, Mandarin continues in Chinese National-type Schools and Tamil in Tamil
National-type Schools. The subjects of English and Malay are compulsory in all primary
schools although the medium of instruction (language) varies according to schools. It was
further highlighted in Cabinet Committee Report 1979 which had its main goal for the
achievement of national unity in multiethnic society. Until today, education has been assigned
as playing a major role in achieving the targets besides nation building, development of human
capital, promoting economic growth and so forth. Anyway the continually use of three
languages as a medium of instruction however, not only create gap and divide citizens into
multiethnic society but also create problems in dealing with globalization.
Research on Multiethnic Perspectives
The research done was to investigate perception about National Schools compared to
Chinese National-type Schools and Tamil National-type Schools parallel with the effort of
Malaysia education policy in strengthening National schools. The research also had the purpose


214

to examine ethnic influences on their choice of schools for their children. The research
involved interview and questionnaire. The respondents for the interview were school
administrators and headmasters from National schools, Chinese National-type Schools and
Tamil National-type Schools. The respondents for the questionnaire were teachers and parents
from those schools. A total of 75 administrators and headmasters were involved in the
interview sessions and were divided into two groups according to their school type. The
respondents were asked to discuss and give feedbacks in the form of summary on the rationale
why parents choose the respective schools for their children. Time given was two hours. For
questionnaire, a total of 1,126 individuals including parents and teachers (Chinese and Indian)
gave their responses to the questionnaires. This paper reports part of the whole research project,
which highlights findings regarding with ethnic influences on the choice of schools made for
their children.
Findings from Focused Interviews
In the focused interviews, parents perspectives on the respective schools were
identified. Interviews were carried out with 11 (7 males, 4 females) headmasters and
administrators from Chinese National-type Schools. Data from the interviews are significant on
the importance of the schools from Chinese perspectives. Interviews were also carried out with
14 (6 males, 8 females) headmasters and administrators from Tamil National-type Schools.
Data from the interviews are significant on the importance of the schools from Indian
perspectives.
Chinese Perspectives on Chinese National-type Schools:
Chinese parents perspectives on Chinese National-type Schools were identified
through focused interviews with headmasters and administrators from Chinese National-type
Schools. The perspectives are more on reasons for choosing Chinese National-type Schools
among Chinese. The reasons are as follows:
- Mandarin is the mother tongue language for Chinese. They believe that the
ethnic will disappear without the language.
- Teaching and learning processes are believed to be more effective with the use
of Mandarin as the medium of instructions.
- Most of Chinese parents had their education background from Chinese
National-type Schools
- Parents feel easier to guide their children at home with the use of their mother
tongue.
- Chinese National-type Schools are more oriented towards academic
achievements which are in favour of the parents.
- Parents feel easier to communicate with Chinese school administrators compare
to other schools.
- Chinese parents have a confidence that Chinese National-type Schools leavers
will have more opportunities in open job market.
- There are opportunities for children to take part in extra co-curricula activities
at various levels in Chinese National-type Schools.
- Chinese National-type Schools play important role for the development of
Chinese young generations.
- Chinese education also focuses on entrepreneurship which is one the aspect
found in Chinese cultures.
- The quality of education in Chinese National-type Schools is uprising
especially in the teaching of science and mathematics in English.


215

- Chinese National-type Schools celebrate Chinese cultures and heritages such as
writing, calligraphic, music and dance to maintain Chinese identities.
- Children will get easier to follow teaching and learning process if taught in
Mandarin (mother tongue).
- Parents feel that mathematics and science achievements are better in Chinese
National-type Schools compare to other schools.
Indian Perspectives on Tamil National-type Schools
Indian parents perspectives on Tamil National-type Schools were identified through
focused interviews with headmasters and administrators from Tamil National-type Schools.
The perspectives are more on reasons for choosing Tamil National-type Schools among Indian.
The reasons are as follows:
- Indian parents consider, it is important for their children to educate within their
mother tongue language
- Indian parents feel that it is easy for their children to understand instruction if
taught by their own language.
- Tamil National-type Schools which use mother tongue language is symbolizing
institution that develop Indian culture and tradition
- Parents treat mother tongue language as soul of Indian community
- It is easy to communicate with Tamil National-type Schools administrators
compare to other type of schools
- There is a need to strengthen Tamil National-type Schools
- The location of Tamil National-type Schools are conducive to Indian
community because most of the schools are located near to their home, such as
in plantation area
- Tamil National-type Schools celebrate and maintaining Indian festival and
practice, including Hindus religion
- The importance of Tamil National-type Schools to maintain ethnic identity
- Tamil National-type Schools play important role for the development of Indian
children
- The quality of education in Tamil National-type Schools is uprising especially
in the teaching of science and mathematics in English.
- Easier for children to communicate with each other using their own language.
- Indian parents feel safer if their children are in Tamil National-type Schools
compare to other schools.
- Children get good treatments in Tamil National-type Schools.
- Pupils get personal attention because small number of population in Tamil
National-type Schools.
- There are opportunities for children to take part in extra co-curricular activities
at various levels in Tamil National-type Schools.
From the summaries of the focused interviews, conclusion can be made to say that the
dominant factors for Indian and Chinese to choose Chinese National-type Schools or Tamil
National-type Schools in Malaysia are closely related to their language (mother tongue),
cultures and heritages. It is a must for them to relate school with the survival of their language
(mother tongue), cultures and heritages. Despite that, other factors which make them attracted
to those types of schools are related to academic performance, availability and location.


216

Findings from Questionaires
Surveys were also conducted using questionnaires to verify the findings from
interviews. Respondents were individuals who have interest with Chinese National-type
Schools or Tamil National-type Schools including parents and teachers. The respondents
comprised of a total of 866 parents and teachers (433 Chinese, 433 Indian).
Preservation of Mother Tongue Language:
Table 1 shows the percentage of agreement by the respondents of this study regarding
with the preservation of Chinese language (mother tongue). From the responses of the
questionnaires, conclusion can be drawn to say that basically most of the Chinese parents send
their children to Chinese school because of language (mother tongue).
Table 1: Percentage of Agreement for the Preservation of Chinese Language
No. Sub-scales Percentage of agreement (%)
4 3 2 1
1 Educated in Mandarin (mother tongue) 60.5 35.6 3.0 0.9
2 Applying Chinese language 50.6 42.3 4.8 2.3
3 Mandarin subject not taught in National schools 17.3 26.1 42.7 13.9
4 Easy to learn in Mandarin (mother tongue) 45.3 47.1 6.0 1.6
Note: 4-strongly agree, 3-agree, 2-not agree, 1-strongly not agree
with the preservation of Tamil or Indian language (mother tongue). From the responses,
conclusion can be drawn to say that basically most of the Indian parents in Malaysia send their
children to Tamil National-type Schools because of language (mother tongue).
Table 2: Percentage of Agreement for the Preservation of Tamil
4 3 2 1
1 Educated with Tamil 56.7 37.2 3.7 2.4
2 Applying Tamil 48.6 42.9 6.9 1.6
3 Tamil subject not taught in National schools 16.8 45.7 22.4 15.1
4 Easy to learn in Tamil (mother tongue) 36.3 54.8 6.9 2.0
Preservation of Culture and Heritage:
with Chinese culture and heritage. From the responses, conclusion can be drawn to say that
basically most of the Chinese parents send their children to Chinese school because of culture
and heritage.
Table 3: Percentage of Agreement for the Preservation of Chinese Culture and
Heritage.
4 3 2 1
1. Maintain Chinese cultures 53.3 41.6 4.6 0.5
2. Celebtarting Chinese festivals 52.0 40.0 6.9 1.1
3. Moral education based on Chinese cultures 34.9 44.8 13.6 6.7


217

with Indian culture and heritage. From the responses, conclusion can be drawn to say that
basically most of the Indian parents send their children to Indian school because of culture and
heritage.
Table 4: Percentage of agreement for the preservation of Indian culture and heritage
(Indian)
4 3 2 1
1. Maintain Indian cultures 58.4 33.9 6.5 1.2
2. Celebtarting Indian festivals 53.1 38.0 6.5 2.4
3. Moral education based on Indian cultures 46.5 40.4 9.0 4.1
As for overall, there is a correlation between findings form the interviews and findings
from questionnaires regarding with the importance of maintaining language (mother tongue),
culture and heritage through education and school system. The dominant factors for Indian and
Chinese to choose Chinese National-type Schools or Tamil National-type Schools in Malaysia
are closely related to their language (mother tongue), culture and heritage. It is a must for them
to relate school with the survival of their language (mother tongue), culture and heritage. Other
factors which make them attracted to those types of schools are related to academic
performance, security, availability, opportunity and location.
Discussion
These research findings highlight on how ethnicity can affect the development of
education policy in Malaysia. Ethnic identity is among things that have to be maintained by the
respective ethnic group. Base on literature, language, culture and heritage are among the ethnic
identity which are sensitive to ethnic groups found in Malaysia. The social integration and the
unity of the population in Malaysia from one point of view depends how each ethnic pays
respect to the others including things like language, culture and heritage. This research finding
shows that the ethnic identities are believed to be maintained through education and schooling
system.
Scenario that happen today in Malaysia compare to colonial era, has not much different
where every ethnic groups had their own type of schools with their own uniqueness to maintain
the respective ethnic identity. During colonial era, any move towards schooling system by the
British government had no significant impact. Every ethnic group found to have their own
interest or vision for their young generations. This scenario cannot be found in Indonesia,
Singapore, India or China where they practice one language and one schooling system for the
nation. Therefore, should we say that the scenario of the education and schooling system in
Malaysia now is among the impacts of colonialism; or should we say that Malaysian
government now is replicating the colonial education system. Further study should also be done
regarding with this matter for clarification.
Designing and imposing national education policy for national interest or for global
challenges by government; seem necessary to consider the interest of ethnic groups found in the
country. This concept had long been introduced by sociologists and educationists which brings
the meaning that education is for the sake of maintaining cultures and heritages of the society.
Therefore, introducing and imposing the policy of strengthening National Schools to the
citizens by the government in Education Development Master Plan (2006-2010), had no
exception.


218

But let us see from other point of view; that is the introduction of Vision Schools
(Sekolah Wawasan) by the government of Malaysia in 1999. The Vision School had hardly met
the target, even though the concept of Vision Schools still maintain the occurrence of National
Schools, Chinese National-type Schools and Tamil National-type Schools. The schools in the
concept of Vision Schools are located in a common school area and students commonly use
certain schools facilities (not all) such as school field and school hall. Vision Schools also
permits the opening and the growth of Chinese National-type Schools and Tamil National-type
Schools; or in other words Vision Schools provides the guarantee for maintaining language,
cultures and heritages. The reasons why Vision Schools hardly met the target even though the
concept considers the interest of the ethnic groups should be compared with the reasons for
imposing the policy of strengthening National Schools in Education Development Master Plan
(2006-2010). This will lead to justifications whether consensus is really necessary in
developing and imposing policy for education development.
Conclusion
Any new education policy imposed by government must be exposed to public for public
understanding. Without the understanding, the implementation of the policy will face difficulty
in the implementation. Take the experience of Vision School, although it provides the
guarantee for maintaining of language, cultures and heritages, the school hardly met the target.
Strengthening National Schools as one of the strategic thrusts in Education Development
Master Plan (2006-2010) probably will face difficulty as Chinese and Indian parents have their
own rationales to stay at their tradition school in sending their children for primary school
education. Thus, government must also make steps to make public understand the importance
or strength of any new education policy which is going to be imposed..


219

References
Andaya, B.W. & Andaya, L.Y. (1982). A History of Malaysia. London: McMillan
Education Planning and Research Division (1990). Education in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur:
Ministry of Education
Federation of Malaya (1958). Report of the Education Committee. Kuala Lumpur:
Government Printers.
Federation of Malaya (1961). Report of the Education Riview Committee. Kuala Lumpur:
Government Printers.
Mahathir Mohamad (1991). Malaysia Melangkah ke Hadapan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Ministery of Education (2006). Education Development Master Plan (2006-2010). Kuala
Lumpur: Ministry of Education
Ministery of Education (2001a). Education in Malaysia: A Journey to Excellence. Kuala
Lumpur: Ministry of Education.
Ministery of Education (2001b). Pembangunan Pendidikan 2001-2010. Kuala Lumpur:
Ministery of Education
Mohamad Muda (1998). Cabaran dan Harapan dalam Pendidikan Menghadapi Alaf Baru.
Diperoleh Januari 29, 2003 daripada
http://www2.moe.gov.my/~mpbl/Research/98Muhd.html
Murad Mohamad Noor (2005). Revolusi Pendidikan. Syarahan Khas. Universiti Pendidikan
Sultan Idris.
Wan Liz Ozman Wan Omar (2000). Gagasan Alaf Baru: Mencetus Kebangkitan Malaysia
Membina Keagungan. Batu Caves: Thinkers Library.
Wan Mohd Zahid Wan Mohd Nordin (1993). Wawasan Pendidikan: Agenda Pengisian.
Kuala Lumpur: Nurin Enteprise.

Tengan, C., Et Al

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Tengan, C., Et Al

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Scottish Journal of Arts, Social Sciences and Scientific Studies - ISSN 2047-1278

You might also like