PRINCIPLES LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING H.

DOUGLAS BROWN
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Douglas Brown divides the book into 4 sections and 10 chapters. The first section discusses he factors that influence learning and teaching language in the first part is the age factor, further psychological factors, cultural and social factors and the latter factor linguistics.

Chapter 1 Language, Learning, and Teaching In chapter 1 deals with the language, learning and teaching. There are a few questions about second language acquisition, among others, characteristics of learners, linguistic factors, the learning process, age and acquisition, variable instructional, context, and goal. In essence, these questions arise when first learning a second language, such as who the learners, the learners what to learn, how learning takes place, when learning a second language takes place, an influential variable in second language acquisition, context of the mother tongue , and the latter is the goal of mastering a second language itself. A variety of these questions as an overview of second language learning.

The definition of language is a statement that shows characteristics of a concept. However, other languages have many different definitions. The definition of mastery learning or gaining knowledge about a subject or a skill to learn, experience, and instruction. While teaching is to show something or assist in the assessment, prepared knowledge, make out or understand.

There are several schools of thought in acquiring a second language support. Among other Structural Linguistics and psychology Behavioristic, the essence of language acquisition without examining the mind only on things that looks. Generative linguistics and cognitive psychology, research rationally by observing competence, constructivism is a new school of thought that examines all aspects.

Teaching Language in Nineteen Century. The method used in this century is the classic method, the method focuses on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary, as well as a variety of declension and conjugation, translation of text, and written exercises workmanship. The classical method is also called the grammar translation method of language (Grammar Translation Method). Teaching with classical methods has many shortcomings. Language teaching in the twentieth century The method used in the twentieth century is the method audio-lingual method and using the principle of the approach. Part I Age Factor Chapter 2 First Language Acquisition In chapter 2 is discussed on the theories that aa in first language acquisition. There are two groups clashing arguments about second language acquisition is the Behavioristic and nativist. Behaviorostik researchers assume that the language acquired in accordance with the habit of learning by operant conditioning. Behavioristik got a lawsuit by Chomsky. Another approach is the nativist approach which assumes that humans have a language acquisition device, the child already has a natural-language provision in him since birth. The researchers nativist continue their research about the universality of language (universal grammar). This nativist researchers also got a lawsuit. That on initinnya information will be processed simultaneously on several levels (parallel distributed processing / PDP) branch of research that examines the PDP called konektionisme. The theory of mediation at the center between the behaviorist and nativist. There is a functional approach as the development of nativist theory.

Issues in First Language Acquisition There are various problems in acquiring a first language, including competence and performance, understanding and production, Congenital or parenting, Universal, systematic and variability, Exercise and Frequency, Input, and Discourse. First language acquisition insights are applied in language teaching.

Chapter 3 Age and Acquisition In studying a second language, one must throw away the myths that exist in this second language acquisition because these things are wrong. Second language acquisition by children and adults are also different, can not be equated. There are several considerations that must be considered in language acquisition, There is a critical period hypothesis (The Critical Period Hypothesis) which states that there is a biological timetable in language acquisition. In addition to this theory there is also a neurobiologist balance of influence, affect brain development also with language acquisition. Consideration of regional accents of origin, consideration of cognitive, affective considerations, and linguistic considerations should also be considered. The problems that arise in a second language with language problems at first.

Part II Psychological Factor Chapter 4 Human Learning Human cognitive areas is essential for human language acquisition. Therefore it is necessary to understand the general nature of human learning such as learning and training. The theory in this study there were 3 among others Behavioristic (classical and operant), cognitive theory, and constructivist theory. Language learning involves all kinds of learning, according to Gagne (1965) there are eight types of learning: learning cues, stimulus-response learning, coupling, verbal association, discrimination, double, learning concepts, learning principles, and the last is problem solving. Such learning will be applied according to the method Behavioristic and cognitive methods. Another problem that occurs in language learning is the transfer, interference and excessive generalization. Transfer is the transfer of knowledge prior to the next lesson. There are two types of transfer ie positive and negative transfer, positive transfer occurs when previous knowledge to support future learning, while negative transfer (interference) is when the previous learning interfere with future learning. generalization is important in learning but if too much will cause interference. In the process of generalization there are two processes namely inductive and deductive reasoning. Moreover intelligence is also

influential in language learning. Language teaching methods in practice there are two contrasting the methods and language learning community audio-lingual. Chapter 5 Styles and Strategies Processes, styles and strategies The process is characteristic of all human beings. The style is a term that refers to the biases or preferences that are consistent and somewhat durable in within one. The force on each person is different, there are more oriented to visual, audio, etc. The strategy is a special method to solve a problem or to convey something. Learning style Cognitive style is the relationship between personality and cognition. While the style of learning is when cognitive styles are specifically linked to the educational context. Learning styles are divided into two styles of reflective and impulsive style. whereas according to various studies, there are many styles of learning. Independence of Field The independence of the field is when the can see the relevant factors in a field among the factors that disrupt. While the field dependence is tendency on something so relevant factor is not easily recognizable. Dependencies field is also called the sensitivity of the field. The literature on dependency-independency field called field independencedependence (FID). people with FI tend to be more independent, competitive, and confident. FD people more inclined to socialize and to better understand people's feelings. Various researchers argue that the argument about which is more successful in learning a second language used FD / FI. In essence this is important both styles are used in learning a second language.

Left-right brain dominance. Although the left and right brains work differently but the left and right brain operate as a team. There are differences in second language learners are predominantly right brain or left brain. FI and FD function is associated with left and right brain.

Tolerance of ambiguity

Someone who has a tolerance of ambiguity can absorb and consider the arguments even though it was contrary to our thinking while intolerance of ambiguity when one is closed and isolated would not accept entries that do not correspond to the incomprehensible. Excessive tolerance can inhibit meaningful ideas and too intolerant are also not good, it would become too rigid, dogmatic, harsh and too narrow. In essence, tolerance of ambiguity will be slightly better if applied in learning a second language.

Reflectivity and Impulsivity Impulsiveness is when guessing something quickly just by luck with a hunch based reflective whereas more careful and full consideration. Errors occur in children more impulsive. However, impulsive child also has the advantage.

Visual style, and KINESTHETIC Auditory Every child has a different style in accepting input. Some children with such visual images he would more easy to understand, there is a sound, and there is more to understand if using motion / demonstration. Everything has advantages and disadvantages.

Autonomy, Awareness and Actions (Autonomy, awareness, and action) at this point becomes important in education. Pupils were given the autonomy to get what they need in class, not just accept what the teacher alone. Of understanding also becomes important in the autonomy. After understand there must be action. Action is required as the selection of appropriate learning strategies for themselves. Strategy Learning strategies in each individual is different from one person to another person. learning strategy is divided into 3 categories: meta-cognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective, meta-cognitive strategies in learning plan, is learning the cognitive tasks associated with learning, socio-affective mediation with regard to social activity and interaction with others. There is also a communications strategy, the strategy of avoidance and compensatory strategies. Strategy-Based Instruction There are two categories directly and indirectly. The strategy is divided into 3 namely direct memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies. Indirect

strategy is divided into 3 namely meta-cognitive strategies, affective and social. For recognize and identify the styles and strategies learners used a questionnaire.

Chapter 6 Personality Factors In addition to cognitive factors, personality or affective factors also affect second language acquisition. There are areas in the affective life, the first is to accept the environment, and then respond, judge things, organizing values, then get the appropriate value system. Affective factors in second language acquisition include dignity (global, situational, tasks), attribution theory (how people explain the causes of their success) and the feasibility of self (when learners capable of performing a task), willingness to communicate in second language learning, overcome the barriers that exist when studying the language, taking risks, anxiety (innate and situational), Empathy, and extroversion. Motivation is also included in the influential personality factor in second language acquisition. Theories of motivation, among others, in terms of behavioutistik theory, cognitive and constructivist. According to Gardner and Lambert dividing the two basic types of motivation that is instrumental and integrative orientation. in orientation, one can have a motivational intensity high and low. Another motivation is the concept of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is motivation from yourself and there is no apparent reward except the activity itself rather than as a directive from the outside. Extrinsic motivation is the expectation of reward and motivation come from outside us. Personality and language learning is also influenced by factors neurobiology. There are parts of the brain that play a role in affective relationship with language. Positive assessments of the situation improving language learning language learning and assessment inhibit negative second language acquisition. Influential personality types in language acquisition. Myers dichotomous divide it into four styles: vs. introversion. understanding, sensing vs.. intuition, thinking vs.. feelings, judgments vs. understanding. This is developed further so it will show a variety of combinations. Affective factor measurement requires skilled and expensive. Therefore, the test methods used with paper and stationery.

There are various types of tests, among others Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), Attitude / Motivation Test Battery (AMTB), and Myers-Briggs test (MBTI) Motivation Study abroad can also be performed both in the classroom. Teachers can teach, after considering personality variables in the class. A teacher must consider the intrinsic and extrinsic factors. In addition, teachers also need to think about teaching techniques that can increase the motivation of the students.

PART III Social and Cultural Factors Chapter 7 Social and Cultural factors The definition of culture is a way of life, can also be interpreted as the ideas, habits and skills, arts and devices that characterize a group of people within a specific time period. Each group of people certainly has a different culture. Culture confirmed a cognitive behavioral and affective context of personal and social. There are people who think that the culture that we follow is the most correct; such a view is wrong because it is only seen from the side of our personal Culture is very influential in language acquisition. It will therefore be discussed in depth the relationship of language and culture. Stereotype is when we have the views on the culture of a people by just looking at the habits of a group. It could also be called simplification of views. The concept of this oversimplification should be avoided enumerated by the teacher and the learner's second language. Second language teachers and learners need to understand cultural differences in order to change the perception becomes appreciation. Stereotype may imply an attitude toward culture or language spoken. An attitude, show up and make up most of one's perception of him, others, and the culture in which he lived. In conjunction with the acquisition of language, has conducted research that attitudes form a motivation. In order to acquire a second language well we also have to learn a second culture. Because this is tantamount to obtaining a second identity, it's called acculturation. Sometimes people experience a disruption in the process of acculturation, which is called culture shock. Social distance, or far away close influential cultural differences in second language acquisition. John Schumann described the social distance consists of the following parameters: dominance, Integration, cohesive, Harmony and permanence. The greater the

social distance the more the greater difficulty encountered when learning a second language learners. To measure the social distance William Acton makes Professed Difference in Attitude Questionnaire. Teachers are also required to teach intercultural competence in order to further facilitate in obtaining a second language. Language Policy and Politics When the English international language made up a lot of responses including who should be a teacher of English, whether native English speaking teachers or teachers not native English speakers. It is actually no need to debate because in essence all teachers can teach English if the teacher covers four skills, language is one of the four skills. English is also divided into two language English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL). ESL and EFL acquisition is different. ESL learners tend to be more easily acquired than in the EFL learners. Linguistic imperialism is when the English used as a global language would preclude the use of mother tongue and when someone who does not learn the Classic International Language will prevent social and economic progress in the future. EIL provides positive and negative impacts therefore we must be able to react properly. Debate in Western countries, the United States never declared English as their ceremonial International. Held a major campaign in California to ban bilingual education programs. This is only harmful because of waste of money and time. Benjamin Whorf advises on the mid-1950s that language has a strong influence on the thinking and one's outlook. But the emerging debate between the pros and cons of this statement premises. Foreign language courses considered essential connection between language and culture. Cultural aspects that need to be modified in order to correspond with classroom teaching. Chapter 8 Communicative Competence There are various definitions of communicative communications from various experts. Among other definition of Michael Canale and Merrill Swain CC concept divides into four components / subcategories. Which defines as the use of linguistic and defining the functional aspects of communication: grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence. Bachman added organizational competence, sociolinguistic competence as well as breaking into ilukosionaire competence and sociolinguistic aspects. Language functions

The function is basically a goal we accomplish with the language. As requested, stating, responding to, and so on. Communication is a functional, purposeful, designed to bring the effect of a change. Communication is the act of speech. Halliday divides functions into seven languages namely: 1. Instrumental function 2. Regulatory functions 3. Representational function 4. Interactional functions 5. Function of personal 6. Heuristic function 7. The function of imaginative A sentence can have many different functions simultaneously. Understanding the function of this language is the most important in learning a second language. Functional approach to language teaching Functional explanation of language contained in the national-functional syllabus. This syllabus is used to organize a curriculum of primary foreign structural. Syllabus language relegated to a secondary focus. Now this has become an inside functional syllabus has been modified. Discourse analysis The researchers conducted an analysis of the discourse on the relationship between form and function. Discourse is the language beyond the sentence. Production and comprehension of language is a factor in our ability to observe and process the barrage of discourse, to bring meaning not only of one sentence but the sentence of a referral before or since. One sentence can have many different responses. Without this pragmatic context would lead to ambiguous. Therefore need an increased emphasis on the communicative discourse level of language in the classroom. The conversation also becomes important to note because is included in the social character. Communication and interaction. How good conversation, how to start a topic and avoid the topic is the question How did they say someone will be researched and analyzed by researchers. According to studies conducted Hey, the stages in this conversation started from seeking attention. last topic nominations, followed by the development of topic. Retention of conversation also requires clarification, shift, evasion and interruptions. Termination also Need to be a good topic studied. According H.P.

Grice, a topic in a conversation will be effective when the conversation has, quantity, quality, relevance, a good way. Along with the development of technology, there is a branch of discourse analysis of the linguistic corpus. The corpus is a set of text / writing, speech transcription, or both are stored in electronic form and analyzed with the aid of computer software programs. There are two forms of the corpus of writing and speech. pragmatics Pragmatics is important in conveying and interpreting meaning. Pragmatics include contextual skills such as the use of greetings, polite requests, persuade, and disagree according to Kasper and Roever research. A sentence can have different meaning and purpose in responding to it. Second language acquisition will become more complicated if socio- pragmatic and pragma-linguistics involved in it. Another pragmatic factor affecting the acquisition of CC is the gender factor of production and reception of language. Normally speaking women better than men. Another part of discourse analysis is contrastive rhetoric, this arises from the assumption that language emerged not in structure syntaxes alone but rather in the discourses of nature, whether oral or written. Discourse style Style rather than social or regional dialect, but rather a set of conventions to select words, phrases, discourse, and non-verbal language in certain contexts. Martin Joos described the five levels of formality in speech style: 1. Oratorical style 2. Deliberative style 3. Consultative style 4. Relaxed style 5. Familiar style This category can also be applied in written discourse. Style components manifested through verbal and non-verbal. Register often mischaracterized as a style. registers identified as a specific phonological variants, vocabulary, idioms and other expressions which are connected with the work groups and socioeconomically different. Nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication includes kinesics, eye contact, proksemic, artifacts, kinesthetic, and olfactory dimensions. Kinesics is communication relating to the movement of bodies in each State shall have the meanings that different. Eye contact also has a different meaning for the United States and Japan. Proksemic is the distance in a conversation.

Artifacts or clothing and jewelry is also an important aspect of communication implies a social level. Kinesthetic, how we touch other people is also an important aspect of communicating. Olfactory dimension is related to smell, there is a group of people who do not like the smell of this course will have an effect in communication. CC in the classroom: CLT and task-based teaching Emerged as the method of approach to language development of the era, there are communicative language teaching (CLT) and there are task-based teaching. Task-based instruction appears as the focus of language teaching around the world Part IV Linguistic Factors Cross-Linguistic Influence and Learner Language Contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) states that the main obstacle second language acquisition is the first language of the intervention system and the system a second language. At this time considered that the structural linguistic devices such as slot fillers grammar Frier will allow a linguist to accurately describe the observed two languages and matching the second exposure to determine the differences that exist. Examples of this contrast when native English speakers learn Spanish as a second language. Examples include couples who contrasted. 0-transfer rate. There is no difference or contrast between the two languages. Level 1 - A Fusion. Two items in the original language combined into one item in the target language. Level 2 sub-differentiations. An item in the original language is not in the target language. Level 3 - a reinterpretation. An item in the original language was given a new shape or distribution. Level 4 Over-differentiations. An entirely new item, even if only slightly with an item similar to the language of origin, must be learned. level 5 - Cleavage. One item in the original language into two or more in the target language requires the learner to create a new differentiator.

From the CAH to CLI Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis will have a weakness when predicting difficulties, whether or not to be verified. Attempts to predict difficulties with contrastive analysis are called the strong version of CAH. This analysis has intuitive appeal. While the weak version of the CAH is called cross-linguistic Influence (CLI), which basically suggests

that we should not forget the past experience of action learning, and the influence of language originated from previous experience. . Strong version of CAH criticized by Whitman and Jackson who has done empirical tests CAH effectiveness analysis as a tool to predict difficulties with the Japanese as the research sample. On the basis of these studies CAH inadequate as a basis for determining the difficulty. There are other researchers who criticize CAH with an empirical study. The conclusion is that large differences do not always have a greater difficulty. Strong form of CAH is too weak while the weak version is too weak then it is better to use CLI research.

Striking and Universal Grammar Differential strinking hypothesis to explain the relative difficulty with universality as a baseline. Ecman linguists claim that the items that stand out in a language will be more difficult to obtain than that is not flashy, striking degree equal to the degree of difficulty. and in harmony with the statement Echman, Rutherford also says so. By using UG hope is that it can facilitate second language acquisition and make it easier to identify the difficulties that exist. Also striking in theory there is a model of competition, ie when second language learners have not had a way to interpret the word to the learner's first language will seek other alternatives to find the meaning. These ways more modern than the CAH.

Language Learners In the SLA, learners are not considered as blank paper that has not been filled by any but the learner is someone who is intelligent and able to develop ideas and be able to process the acquired acquisition in accordance with the systematic stages. Language learner is a unique language for each learner has different characteristics. Hypothesis between languages provides the latest breakthrough from CAH environment. Language learners is the approach used to analyze between languages. Production data can be understood in general, while the understanding of second language is more difficult to assess because it can be observed directly. Error Analysis Mistakes are made a reasonable start to begin a lesson. mistakes made when learning the language will bring up a feedback for how it should be a benar.Tanpa processing there is an error, the learner will understand the true difficulty. Teachers must understand the

mistakes made by learners because of mistakes made could have been the key to understanding the second language acquisition. Errors of different errors. Fallacy is when the learner knows how the system will correct language but fail in use. While the error is when the learner is not appropriate to use the system language. A mistake can not necessarily be corrected itself while the error can be corrected itself. Mistakes can be observed this is called error analysis. Analysis of excessive errors will cause a negative impact for learners. Although this correction is important but the purpose of second language learners are achieving communicative fluency. Error analysis can make us fixated on specific languages regardless of the universality of language. After analyzing the errors continued with the analysis of performance or analasis translingual. Identify and describe the error is a sulit.Pengajar must collect data from learners and identify it with logic. The first step is to identify analyze and explain the error. There are two types of errors that is open and closed. There are several ways to identify the error. Sources of error are determined after analyzing the error. By identifying the sources of error we can understand cognitive and affective processes associated with system linguistic learners.

Transfer interlangual is the error that occurs between two languages or more. This error occurs occurs when the learner uses language rules first applied to the second language. Such errors can be detected. Intralingual transfer is the interference that occurs in the language itself. Learning context should also be observed in the classroom by the teacher. materials provided should be appropriate. Influence of errors / mistakes will make teaching learner misunderstanding. Besides the communication strategy must also be chosen appropriately in order to achieve the expected goals. Stage of development of language learners. According to research conducted by Corder stage there are four stages of language development: 1. Random phase errors 2. Phase appears 3. Phase systematic 4. Phase stabilization

Variations in language learners Variations exist in the language learner paradigm continuum model and competency model variables. This model evolved into the other models on the research of linguists. Fossilization or Stabilization. Fossilization occurs when language users already attached to the initial accent or early language rules that have been attached to a person but it is not impossible that this thinking can be changed. To overcome the problem of fossilization can use feedback. While stabilization is where learners are at a point is stable not.

Error class: A brief history Mistakes are made from a process of trial and error is actually a good process for the development of the learner. Unlike the theory of Skinner. Instruction focuses forms Form-based instruction (FFI) is important in a functional language in communicative contexts. . FFI is a strategy used for learners interested in studying English.FFI has a feedback type and learner responses to feedback. The feedback also has several types, corrective feedback and meta-linguistic feedback. The response to feedback any form of response, repair, and repetition.
Chapter 10 Toward a Theory of Second Language Acquisition To build SLA theory required a broad knowledge variables learners. Territory and SLA generalization there are many factors. In addition there are any hypotheses and claims about how people can acquire a second language well but the myth is not quasi-true. Criteria practicality good theory is that is comprehensive. Hot topic in SLA research Some of the topics that appear on the SLA of much debate and controversy emerged among many other explicit and implicit learning, problem understanding, inputs and outputs as well as The frequency of learning. Other hypotheses about SLA is from Stephen Krashen called input hypothesis. This hypothesis is included in the hypothetical outward. There are five hypotheses in the input hypothesis. 1. Obtaining the learning hypothesis 2. Monitor model 3. Natural order hypothesis

4. Hypothesis input 5. Affective Filter Hypothesis

The core of the input hypothesis is that there is adequate input, speech skills learners will come by itself without the demand of teachers. Usually an active learner and passionate produce output in a foreign language is usually successful. In addition there are external hypothesis of cognitive hypotheses about the SLA, according to McLaughlin and Schmidt on this hypothesis learning needed awareness processing model called attention, and not all children are always better in learning. Another cognitive model is a model of implicit and explicit. by Ellen Bialystok and other researchers have examined that attempt to obtain adults with implicit and explicit language but was never an analysis. Social constructivist model, proposed by Long regarding the interaction hypothesis that assumes that the input comes from social interaction. In addition there is a theory of language acquisition are described by the growth process a seed into a tree. All theories about the acquisition of this SLA shall be applied in practice to consider it again, assume that the SLA is a combination of science and art, and also takes the role of intuition.

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First language Acquisition, Chapter 2. H. douglas Brown

Summary.
Not until the second half of the twentieth century did researchers begin to analyze child language systematically and to discover the nature of the psycholinguistic process that enables every human being to gain fluent control of an exceedingly complex system of communication.

Theories of first language acquisition.

During their first year, children make specific attempts to imitate words and speech sounds they hear around them and about this time they utter their first words. By about 18 months of age, these words have multiplied considerably and are beginning to appear in two-word and three-word sentences, referred to as telegraphic utterances. By about age three, children can comprehend an incredible quantity of linguistic input; their speech capacity mushrooms as they become the generators of nonstop chattering and incessant conversation. At school age, children not only learn what to say but what not to say as they learn the social functions of their language. Using the schools of thought referred to the extreme behavioristic position would claim that children come into the world with a tabula rasa. At the other constructivist extreme is the position that makes not only the rationalist/cognitivist claim. These positions represent opposites on a continuum, with many possible positions in between.

Behavioristic Approaches.
The behavioristic approaches focused on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior. A behaviorist might consider effective language behavior to be the production of

correct responses to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned. The Skinners theory of verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning by operant conditioning. Operant conditioning refers to conditioning in which the organism emits a response, or operant without necessarily observable stimuli; that operant is maintained (learned) by reinforcement. In an attempt to broaden the base of behavioristic theory, some psychologists proposed modified theoretical positions. One of these positions was mediation theory, in which meaning was accounted for by the claim that the linguistic stimulus (a word or sentence) elicits a mediating response that is self-stimulating. Charles Osgood called this selfstimulation a representational meditation process. In fact, some ways meditation theory was really a rational/cognitive theory masquerading as behavioristic. Yet another attempt to account for first language acquisition within a behavioristic framework was made by Jenkins and Palermo. While their admitting that their conjectures were speculative and premature. They claim that imitation was an important, if not essential, aspect of establishing stimulus-response associations.

The Nativist Approach.

The term nativist is derived from the fundamental assertion that language acquisition is innately determined, that we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us. Chomsky claimed the existence of innate properties of language to explain the childs mastery of a native language. This innate knowledge is embodied in a language acquisition device (LAD). McNeill described LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties. The ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment. The ability to organize linguistic data into various classes that can later be refined. Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are not. The ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input. McNeill arguments for the appropriateness of the LAD proposition, especially in contrast to behavioristic, stimulus-response (S-R) theory. More recently, researchers focuses on what has come to be known as Universal Grammar. Positing that all human beings are genetically equipped with abilities that enable them to acquire language. Rather, the childs language at any stage is systematic in that the child is constantly forming hypotheses on the basis of the input received and then testing those hypotheses in speech. Jean Berko demonstrated that children learn language not as a series of separate discrete items, but as an integrated system. Nativist studies of child language acquisition were free to construct hypothetical grammars. The early grammars of child language were referred to as pivot grammars. A new Spolsky was provided by what has came to be known as the parallel distributed processing (PDP) model ( also called connectionism) in which neurons in the brain are said to form multiple connections. All of these approaches within the nativist framework have made at least three important contributions to our understanding of the first language acquisition process:

1. 2. 3. 4.

1. 2. 3.

Freedom from the restrictions of the so-called scientific method Systematic description Potential properties of Universal Grammar.

Functional Approaches.
Its a move even more deeply into the essence of language. Two emphases have emerged: a) researchers began to see that language was one manifestation of the cognitive and affective ability to deal with the word, with others, and with the self. b) The generative rules were abstract, formal, explicit, and quite logical, yet they dealt specifically with the forms of language and not with the deeper functional levels of meaning constructured from social interaction. Cognition and Language Development. Lois Bloom pointed out that the relationships in which words occur in telegraphic utterances are only superficially similar. By examining data in reference to contexts, Bloom concluded that children learn underlying structures. Blooms research, along with that of Jean Piaget and other, paved (allan) the way for a new wave of child language study, this time centering on the relationship of cognitive development to first language acquisition. What children learn about language is determined by what they already know about the world. Dean Slobin demonstrated that semantic learning depends on cognitive development and that sequences of development are determined more by semantic complexity than by structural complexity. Bloom noted that an explanation of language development depends upon an explanation of the cognitive underpinnings of language Social Interaction and Language Development. In recent years it has become quite clear that language functioning extends well beyond cognitive thought and memory structure. Here we see the second, social constructivist emphasis of the functional perspective.

Issues in First Language Acquisition.

Competence and Performance. Competence refers to ones underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact. Performance is the overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence. Tarone calls heterogeneous competence abilities that are in the process of being formed.

Comprehension and Production.

Into some foreign language teaching materials is that comprehension can be equated with competence, while production is performance. It is important to recognize that this is not the case: production is more directly observable, but comprehension is as much performance.

Nature or Nurture?
Nativists contend that a child is born with an innate knowledge of or predisposition toward language, and that this innate property (the LAD or UG) is universal in all human beings.

Universals.
Closely related to the innateness controversy is the claim that language is universally acquired in the same manner, and moreover, that the deep structure of language at its deepest level may be common to all languages. Intereintig universlas of pivot grammar and other telepgraphese emerged. Maratsos enumerated some of the universal linguistic categories. These categories are still the subject of current inquiry:

wonder order morphological marking tone agreement (e.g., of subject and verb) reduced reference nouns and noun classes verbs and verb classes predication negation question formulation

Much of current UG research is centered around what have come to be known as principles and paraments, this mean that the child's task of language is manageable because of certain naturally occuring constraints.

Systematicity and variability.

One of the assumptions of a good deal of current research on child language is the systematicity of the process of acquisition. But in the midst of all this systematicity there is an equally remarkable amount of variability in the process of learning. Researchers do not agree on how to define various stages of language acquisition, even in English.

Language and Thought

For years researchers have probed the relationship between language and cognition. Piaget who claimed that cognition development is at the very center of the human organism and that language is dependent upon and springs from cognitive development. Others emphasized the influence of language on cognitive development. Vigotsky through language, is a prerequisite to cognitive development. Vigotskys zone of proximal development is the distance between a childs actual cognitive capacity and the level of potential development.

Imitation
It is common that informal observation said that children are good imitators; the imitation is one of the important strategies a child uses in the global level. Indeed, researches have shown that echoing is a particularly salient strategy in early language learning and an important aspect of early phonological acquisition.

Practice
Repetition and association is the key to the formation of habits by operant conditioning. Practice is usually thought of as referring to speaking only. But one can also think in term of comprehension practice, which is often considered under the rubric of the frequency of linguistic input to the child.

Input
The role of input in the childs acquisition of language is underiably crucial. Whatever ones position is one the innateness of language, the speech that young children hear is primarily the speech of older siblings.
The importance of the issue lies in the fact that it is clear from more recent research that adult and peer input to the child is far more important than Nativists earlier believed.

Discourse.
A subfield of research that is occupying the attention of an increasing number of child language researchers, especially in an era of social constructivist research, is the area of conversation or discourse analysis. It is only one aspect, as the child also interacts with peers and, of course, with other adults. Sinclair and Coulthard (1975) proposed that conversations be examined in terms of initiations and responses.

As a conclusion we can admitted that a large number of theories and issues in child language have been explored with the only purpose of briefly characterizing the current state of child language research, and the other purpose is to highlighting a few of the key concepts that emerge in the formation of an understanding of how babies learn to talk and eventually become sophisticated linguistic beings.

In the classroom:

Gouin and Berlitz -- The First Reformers

Gouin and Berlitz they were the first two reformers in the history of modern language teaching. In The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages (1880), Franois Gouin describes a set of experiences that finally led to his insights about language teaching. On the other hand we have Berlitzs method; his method was that second language learning should be more like first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammatical rules.

Adquisicin del primer idioma, Captulo 2. H. Douglas Brown

Resumen.
No fue hasta la segunda mitad del siglo XX se empiezan a investigadores analizar sistemticamente el lenguaje infantil y descubrir la naturaleza del proceso psicolingstico que permite a todo ser humano a hacerse con el control fluido de un sistema extremadamente complejo de la comunicacin.

Las teoras de la adquisicin del primer idioma.

Durante su primer ao, los nios hacen intentos especficos para imitar palabras y sonidos del habla que escuchan a su alrededor y alrededor de esta poca que pronunciar sus primeras "palabras". Alrededor de los 18 meses de edad, estas palabras se han multiplicado considerablemente y estn empezando a aparecer en dos palabras y tres palabras "oraciones", conocido como "telegrficas" enunciados. Por cerca de tres aos de edad, los nios pueden comprender una cantidad increble de entradas lingsticas, sus setas capacidad del habla a medida que estn los generadores de parloteo sin parar y la conversacin incesante. En la edad escolar, los nios no slo aprenden qu decir, pero lo que no quiere decir que a medida que aprenden las funciones sociales de la lengua. Uso de las escuelas de pensamiento que se refiere a la posicin conductista extrema afirmara que los nios vienen al mundo con una tabula rasa. En el extremo constructivista otra es la posicin que permite no slo la afirmacin racionalista / cognitivista. Estas posiciones representan los opuestos de un continuo, con muchas posiciones posibles en el medio.

Los enfoques conductistas.

Los enfoques conductistas se centr en los aspectos perceptibles de inmediato de la conducta lingstica. Un conductista podra considerar la conducta del lenguaje eficaz para la produccin de respuestas correctas a los estmulos. Si una respuesta en particular se ve reforzada, se convierte en habitual, o condicionado. La teora de Skinner de la conducta verbal era una extensin de su teora general del aprendizaje por condicionamiento operante. El condicionamiento operante se refiere al condicionamiento en el que el organismo emite una respuesta, o operante sin necesariamente estmulos observables, que se mantiene operante (aprendido) de refuerzo. En un intento de ampliar la base de la teora conductista, algunos psiclogos proponen modificar posiciones tericas. Una de estas posiciones fue la teora de la mediacin, en el cual el significado se explica por la afirmacin de que el estmulo lingstico (palabra o frase) produce una "mediacin" respuesta que se auto-estimulante. Charles Osgood llam a esto la autoestimulacin un "proceso de meditacin de representacin. De hecho, algunas formas de meditacin teora era realmente una teora racional / cognitiva conductista disfrazado. Sin embargo, otro intento de dar cuenta de la adquisicin de la primera lengua dentro de un marco conductista fue hecha por Jenkins y Palermo. Mientras que su admisin de que sus conjeturas eran "especulativo" y "prematuro". Dicen que la imitacin es un importante, si no esencial, aspecto de establecer asociaciones estmulorespuesta.

El enfoque nativista.
El nativista trmino se deriva de la afirmacin fundamental de que la adquisicin del lenguaje es innata determinado, que nacemos con una capacidad gentica que nos predispone a una percepcin sistemtica del lenguaje que nos rodea. Chomsky afirma la existencia de las propiedades innatas de lenguaje para explicar el dominio del nio de un idioma nativo. Este conocimiento innato se manifiesta en un dispositivo de adquisicin del lenguaje (LAD). McNeill describe LAD como un conjunto de cuatro propiedades lingsticas innatas. La capacidad de distinguir los sonidos del habla de otros sonidos en el entorno. La capacidad de organizar los datos lingsticos en varias clases que ms tarde puede ser refinado. El conocimiento que slo un cierto tipo de sistema lingstico es posible y que otros tipos no lo son. La posibilidad de participar en la evaluacin constante del desarrollo del sistema lingstico con el fin de construir el sistema ms simple posible de las entradas lingsticas disponibles. McNeill argumentos a favor de la adecuacin de la proposicin LAD, sobre todo en contraste con la conductista, de estmulo-respuesta (SR) teora. Ms recientemente, los investigadores se centra en lo que ha llegado a ser conocido como la Gramtica Universal. La postulacin de que todos los seres humanos son genticamente equipados con habilidades que les permitan adquirir el lenguaje. Ms bien, el lenguaje del nio en cualquier etapa es sistemtica en que el nio est en constante elaboracin de hiptesis sobre la base de la informacin recibida y luego probar estas hiptesis en el habla. Jean Berko demostrado que los nios aprenden el lenguaje no como una serie de distintos elementos discretos, sino como un sistema integrado. Nativistas estudios de adquisicin del lenguaje infantil son libres de construir gramticas hipotticas. Las gramticas tempranas del lenguaje infantil fueron referidos como gramticas pivote. Un nuevo Spolsky fue proporcionada por lo que ha lleg a ser conocido como elprocesamiento distribuido paralelo (PDP) modelo (tambin llamadoconexionismo) en el que las neuronas en el cerebro se dice que forman conexiones mltiples. Todos estos enfoques en el marco nativista han realizado al menos tres contribuciones importantes a nuestra comprensin del proceso de adquisicin del lenguaje en primer lugar:

1. 2. 3. 4.

1.

La libertad de las restricciones del llamado "mtodo cientfico" 2. Descripcin sistemtica 3. Propiedades potenciales de la gramtica universal.

Enfoques funcionales.
Es un movimiento an ms profundamente en la esencia del lenguaje. Dos nfasis han surgido: a) los investigadores comenzaron a ver que el lenguaje era una manifestacin de la capacidad cognitiva y afectiva que lidiar con la palabra, con los dems y con uno mismo. b) Las reglas generativas eran abstracto, formal, explcita y muy lgico, sin embargo, trata especficamente de las formas del lenguaje y no con los niveles ms profundos de significado funcional de la interaccin social estructurada de cara. Cognicin y Desarrollo del Lenguaje. Lois Bloom seal que las relaciones en las que las palabras se producen en los enunciados telegrficos slo son superficialmente similares. Al examinar los datos en referencia a los contextos, Bloom lleg a la conclusin de que los nios aprendan las estructuras subyacentes. Investigacin de Bloom, junto con la de Jean Piaget y otros, allan el camino para una nueva ola de estudio del lenguaje infantil, esta vez centrado en la relacin entre el desarrollo cognitivo a la adquisicin de la primera lengua. Lo que los nios aprenden acerca del lenguaje est determinada por lo que ya saben sobre el mundo. Dean Slobin demostrado que el aprendizaje semntico depende del desarrollo cognitivo y las secuencias de desarrollo que se determinan ms por la complejidad semntica que por su complejidad estructural. Bloom seal que "una explicacin del desarrollo del lenguaje depende de una explicacin de los fundamentos cognitivos del lenguaje" Interaccin Social y Desarrollo del Lenguaje. En los ltimos aos se ha puesto de manifiesto que el funcionamiento del lenguaje se extiende mucho ms all del pensamiento cognitivo y la estructura de la memoria. Aqu vemos el segundo nfasis, social constructivista de la perspectiva funcional.

Problemas de la adquisicin del primer idioma.

La competencia y el rendimiento.
La competencia se refiere a su conocimiento subyacente de un sistema, un evento o hecho. El rendimiento es la manifestacin abiertamente observable y concreto o realizacin de competencias. Tarone llama competencia heterognea - habilidades que estn en el proceso de formacin.

Comprensin y Produccin.
En algunos materiales de enseanza de lenguas extranjeras es que la comprensin puede equipararse a la competencia, mientras que la produccin es el rendimiento. Es importante reconocer que este no es el caso: la produccin es ms directamente observable, pero la comprensin es el rendimiento como mucho.

Naturaleza o la crianza?
Los nativistas sostienen que un nio nace con un conocimiento innato de o la predisposicin a la lengua, y que esta propiedad innata (la LAD o UG) es universal en todos los seres humanos.

Los universales.
En estrecha relacin con la controversia innatismo es la afirmacin de que el lenguaje es universalmente adquiridos de la misma manera y, adems, que la estructura profunda del lenguaje en su nivel ms profundo puede ser comn a todos los idiomas. Universlas Intereintig pivote de gramtica y otro telepgraphese surgido.Maratsos enumer algunas de las categoras lingsticas universales. Estas categoras son todava objeto de investigacin actual: pregunto orden

tono de marcacin morfolgica acuerdo (por ejemplo, el sujeto y el verbo) reduccin de los nombres de referencia y las clases nominales verbos y clases de verbos predicacin negacin

pregunta formulacin

Gran parte de la investigacin actual UG se centra en lo que ha llegado a ser conocido como principios y paramentos, esto significa que la tarea del nio de la lengua es manejable debido a ciertas limitaciones de origen natural.

Sistematicidad y la variabilidad.
Una de las premisas de una buena parte de la investigacin actual sobre el lenguaje infantil es la sistematicidad del proceso de adquisicin. Pero en medio de todo esto sistematicidad hay una cantidad igual de notable variabilidad en el proceso de aprendizaje. Los investigadores no se ponen de acuerdo sobre cmo definir las diferentes etapas "de la adquisicin del lenguaje, aun en Ingls.

Lenguaje y Pensamiento
Durante aos, los investigadores han investigado la relacin entre el lenguaje y la cognicin. Piaget quien afirm que el desarrollo cognitivo est en el centro mismo del organismo humano y que el lenguaje depende de resortes y de desarrollo cognitivo. Otros hicieron hincapi en la influencia del lenguaje en el desarrollo cognitivo.Vigotsky a travs del lenguaje, es un requisito previo para el desarrollo cognitivo. Vigotsky zona de desarrollo prximo es la distancia entre la capacidad real cognitivo del nio y el nivel de desarrollo potencial.

Imitacin
Es comn que saids informales observacin de que los nios son buenos imitadores; theimitation es una de las estrategias importantes que un nio usa en el nivel global. De hecho, las investigaciones han demostrado que haciendo eco es una estrategia particularmente relevante en el aprendizaje temprano de idiomas y un aspecto importante de la adquisicin fonolgica temprano.

Prctica
La repeticin y la asociacin son la clave para la formacin de hbitos de condicionamiento operante. La prctica se suele considerar como una referencia al discurso nico. Pero tambin se puede pensar en trminos de la prctica de comprensin, que sistema operativo considerado a menudo bajo la rbrica de la entrada de frecuencia og lingstico del nio.

Entrada
El papel de la entrada en la adquisicin del nio de la lengua es underiably crucial. Cualquiera que sea la posicin de uno es uno el carcter innato del lenguaje, el lenguaje que los nios pequeos se escucha es sobre todo el habla de los hermanos mayores.

La importancia del tema radica en el hecho que se desprende de la investigacin ms reciente que los adultos y pares de entrada para el nio es mucho ms importante que antes crea nativistas.

Discurso.
Un subcampo de la investigacin que est ocupando la atencin de un nmero creciente de investigadores del lenguaje del nio, especialmente en una poca de investigacin constructivista social, es el rea de conversacin o de anlisis del discurso. Es slo un aspecto, ya que el nio tambin interacta con sus compaeros y, por supuesto, con otros adultos. Sinclair y Coulthard (1975) propuso que las conversaciones sea examinada en funcin de las iniciaciones y las respuestas.

Como conclusin podemos admitir que un gran nmero de teoras y problemas en el lenguaje infantil han explorado con el nico propsito de caracterizar brevemente el estado actual de la investigacin del lenguaje infantil, y el otro propsito es poner de relieve algunos de los conceptos clave que emergen en la formacin de una comprensin de cmo los bebs aprenden a hablar y eventualmente convertirse en sofisticados seres lingsticos.

En el aula:

Gouin y Berlitz - Los primeros reformadores

Gouin y Berlitz se fueron los dos primeros reformadores en la historia de la enseanza "moderna" del lenguaje. En El arte de aprender y estudiar Lenguas Extranjeras (1880), Franois Gouin describe un conjunto de experiencias que finalmente condujeron a sus ideas acerca de la enseanza de idiomas. Por otro lado tenemos mtodo Berlitz, su mtodo era que el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua debera ser ms como primeras y segundas lenguas, y poco o ningn anlisis de las reglas gramaticales.

lunes, 4 de abril de 2011 http://jositaruiz.blogspot.com/2011/04/chapter-language-learning-and-teaching.html Chapter: Language, Learning and Teaching. H.D. Brown Learning a second language is long and complex undertaking process, many variables are involved in the acquisition process, if we want to learn a second language we need to take present that this process involves acquire a new culture, a new way of thinking, feeling and acting.

1.- What is a permanent struggle in teaching/learning?

The permanent that I'm going to struggle in teaching/learning process is to reach beyond the confines of my first language and into a new language, a new culture, a new way of thinking, feeling and acting.

2.- Are we equipped with a do-it-yourself-kit?

Language learning is not a set of easy steps that can be programmed in a quik do-it-yourself-kit. Many variables are involved in the acquisition process.

3.- Why do people learn or fail to learn a language?

Because it's necessary that the teacher needs to know something about the intricate web of variables that are spun together to affect how and why one learners fails when they learn a second language.

4.- Name the issues to consider in second language acquisition.

The current issues in second language acquisition (SLA) may be initially approached as a multitude of questions that are being asked abour this complex process. Those of the questions are:

Who? -> These question focus attention on some of the crucial variables affecting both learners' successes in acquiring a foreing language and teachers' capacities to enable learners to achieve that aquisition.

What? -> These profound questions are of course central to the discipline of linguistics.

How? -> Refers to where the learning take place, what is the optimal interrelationship of cognitive, affective, and physical domains for successful language learning. When -> One of the key issues in second language research and teaching is the differential success of children and adults in learning a second language. Where? -> Refers in whitch "foreign" language context the second language is heard and spoken Why? -> These question have been posed to give you an inkling of the diversity of issues involved in the quest for understanding the principles of language learning and teaching.

5.- What are the motivations to learn a language?

This question have been posed, in very global terms, to give us an inkling of the diversity of issues involved in the quest for understanding the principles of language learning and teaching.

6.- What is a PARADIGMA?

Paradigma it's an interlocking design, a theory of second language acquisition.

7.- Give 3 definitions of LANGUAGE.

"Language is a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously, without conscious effort or formal instruction, is deployed without awareness of its underlying logic, is qualitatively the same in every individual, and is distinct from more general abilities to process information or behave intelligently". ( Pinker). "Language is a system of arbitrary conventionalized vocal, written, or gestural symbols that enable members of a given community to communicate intelligibly with one anothe" (Introductory texbooks) "Systematic communication by vocal symbols" ( Concise Columbia Encyclopedia).

8.- What is the relation between language and cognition?

A foreing language teacher effectively teach a language if they don't know, even in general, something about the relationship between language and cognition.

9.- Which are some LEARNING definitions?

"Learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice" (Kimble & Garmezy)

"Acquiring or getting of knowledge of a subject or a skill by study, experience, or instruction".

10.- Can we define TEACHING apart from LEARNING?

Teaching cannot be defined apart from learning. Teaching is guiding and facilitating learning, enabling the learner to lear, setting the conditions for learning .

11.- What is the importance of our PEDAGOGICAL PHILOSOPHY?

Our understanding of how the learner, learns will determine our philosophy of education, our teaching style, our approach, methods and classroom techniques.

12.- Refer to the 3 schools of thought is SLA?

a) Structuralism/Behaviorism During the 40' and the 50' the structural, or descriptive, school of linguistics prided itself in a rigorous application of the scientific principle of observation of human languages. The linguistic's task, according to the structuralist, was to describe human languages and to identify the structural characteristics of those languages. Among psychologists, a behavioristic paradigm also focused on publicity observable responses, those that can be objectively perceived.

b) Rationalism and Cognitive Psychology This school of linguistics emerged through the influence of Noam Chomsky; he was trying to show that human language cannot be scrutinized simply in terms of observable stimuli and responses on the volumes of raw data gathered by field linguists. Cognitive phsychologists sought to discover underlying motivations and deep structures of human behavior by using a rational approach. c) Constructivism Constructivism argue that all human beings construct their own version of reality, and therefore multiple constrasting ways of knowing and describing are equally legitimate.

13.- Describe the GTM.

The grammar translation method of foreign language teaching is one of the miost traditional methods in the classroom. It was originally used to teach "dead" languages (and literatures) such as latin and Greek, involving little or no spoken communication or listening comprehension.

This method it focuses on learning the rules of grammar and their application in translation passages from one language into the other. The vocabulary in the target language is learned through direct translation from the native language, it is taught in the form of isolated word list. e.g. with vocabulary test such as: the house = la casa the mouse = el ratn

Readings in the target language are translated directly and then discussed in the native language. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation. The grammar is taught with extensive explanations in the native language, and only later applied in the production of sentences through translation from one languege to the other.

Chapter 02. FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

http://www.tuninst.net/LAT/n-Brown3/n-ch02-3/n-ch02-3.htm#FIRST-LANG-ACQUISI taken 21st october, 2012.

Chapter 3: Age and Acquisition

http://www.kau.edu.sa/Files/0008718/Files/86858_Chapter%203%20-%206%20Slides.pdf