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Composites
Mechanical & Physical Properties
• High Strength: • None of the single materials can satisfy all
Metals demanded properties at the same time.
Ceramics • But combination for the desired
• High Ductility
Metals
combination of the properties.
Polymers • Composite materials: The combination of
• High Toughness
Metals
two or more materials to obtain the desired
Polymers properties that can not be obtained in the
• Good Wear Resistance original materials.
Ceramics
Metals • Improved properties:
• Good Corrosion Resistance 9Stiffness,
Polymers 9Strength,
Ceramics
9Hardness,
• Good Electrical Conductivity
Metals 9Weight,
• Low Density 9Corrosion Resistance,
Polymers 9Conductivity 1

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The specific strength vs. temperature

for several composites and metals.
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Types of Composites
1. Particulate Composites
a. Dispersion-Strengthened
Composites
b. True Particulate Composites
i. Cemented carbides
ii. Abrasives
iii. Electrical Contacts
iv. Polymers
v. Cast Metal Particulate Comp.
(a) plywood is a laminar composite
2. Fiber-Reinforced Composites
3. Laminar Composites (b) a fiber-reinforced polymer matrix
composites
4. Sandwich Structures
(c) concrete; a particulate composite;
sand or gravel in a cement matrix
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1a. Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
Mak214E

1. Contains very hard oxide particles 10 to 250 nm in diameter

called “dispersoids” in a metal matrix.
2. Prevents dislocation motions and provides strengthening.
3. No coherency between the dispersoids and matrix.
4. No overaging; Good high temperatures porperties.
5. No dissolution in dispersoids or no reaction between matrix and
dispersoids.

Examples:
¾ SAP: Sintered Al powder up to 14% Al2O3 content. Fabricated with
powder metallurgy.
¾ TD-Ni (Thoria dispersed Nickel): First thorium and Nickel powder
mixed and pressed to compact the green. Then sintered in oxygen
allowing internal oxidation of thorium forming thoria.
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TD-Ni. The dispersed ThO2

particles with a diameter of 300
nm or less

SAP can be used

upto about 300°C.

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1b. True Particulate Composites
i) Cemented carbides (Cermets)–
Hard ceramic particles bonded with a soft
metallic matrix.
• WC very hard and too brittle to be a cutting
tool. Co matrix provides good toughness.
• Produced with powder metallurgy: Co and
WC powders sintered together.
• Other hard ceramics; TiC, TaC, etc. Microstructure of
WC / 20% cobalt-
cemented carbide
ii) Abrasives:
Grinding and cutting wheels.
• Hard particles bonded by glass or polymeric
matrix.
• Hard particles; Al2O3, SiC or BN. 6

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1b. True Particulate Composites
iii) Electrical Contacts:
• Used for electrical contacts in switches and relays
• A good combination of wear resistance and high electrical
conductivity.

The steps in producing a silver-tungsten electrical composite:

(a) Press the W powders,
(b) a low-density porous compact green state,
(c) Sintering,
(d) Infiltration of liquid silver into the pores. 7

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1b. True Particulate Composites
iv) Polymers: Polymers containing fillers and extenders are particulate
composites.
a) Fillers: Carbon black in vulcanized rubber to improve strength,
stiffness, hardness, wear and heat resistance.
b) Extenders: CaCO3, Silica, talc, etc. For reducing the cost.
c) Elastomers: to increase toughness.
d) Lead (Pb): to use in nuclear application to absorb radiation.

8
The effect of clay on the properties of polyethylene.

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1b. True Particulate Composites
v) Cast Metal Particulate Composites:
• Al casting containing SiC composites; for vehicle applications
• Thioxotropic behavior: In solid + liquid region, metal slurry behaves like a
solid if no stress, but can easily flows under pressure therefore can be injected
into dies: Al-Mg alloys used in auto rims, engine blocks, etc.
• Compocasting: Molten alloy cooled to about 40% solid + 60% liquid region
and vigorous stirring to break the dendritic structure (similar to Thioxocasting,
but used in composite making), then add the hard particles.

SiC reinforced Al casting alloy,

segregated to interdendritic
9
regions of the casting

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2. Fiber Reinforced Composites
Incorporating fibers in matrix:
9Fibers: Strong, stiff but brittle
9Matrix: Softer and ductile
Combined properties:
• Matrix transmits the force to the fibers
• Fibers carry the most of the applied load
Improvement in:
¾Fatigue resistance,
¾Strength
¾Stiffness
¾Strength / weight ratio
¾Both at room T and high T 10

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2. Fiber Reinforced Composites
Factors affecting the properties of fiber reinforced composites:
(a) Length and Diameter of Fibers, (b) Amount of Fibers, (c)
Orientation of Fibers, (d) Fiber Properties, (e) Matrix
Properties, (f) Bonding between Matrix and fibers
(a) Fiber length and diameter:
Fibers; short fibers, long fibers, continuous
fibers. Diameters generally vary in the range
of 10 - 150µm. Length should be higher than a
specific value called critical fiber length.
σ f ⋅d
l cr =
2 ⋅τ i
l<lc Very small reinforcing effect Increasing the length of
chopped fibers in a matrix
lc < l < 15 lc Only finite reinforcing effect
increases the strength.
l > 15 lc Full Strengthening (like continious fibers)
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2. Fiber Reinforced Comp.
Mak214E
(b) Amount of Fibers:
• As the volume fraction of fibers
increases, the strength of composites
increases.
• But generally less than 80% due to the
wetting problems.
Increase in amount of reinforement,
(c) Orientation of Fibers: increase in elasticity and strength
• Short and randomly distributed fiber: Relatively
isotropic properties.
• Long unidirectional fibers: anisotropic
properties. Best strength and modulus when the
fibers are parallel to the loading direction
(longitudinal). Worst results when the fibers
perpendicular (transverse)
• Some arrangements possible to meet the
strength requirements: 0/90o, 0/45/90o) Contribution is maximum when
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stress and fiber direction is paralle.

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A 3D weave for fiber- (a) Tapes containing aligned fibers can be

reinforced composites. joined to produce a multi-layered
different orientations to produce a
quasi-isotropic composite.
(b) 0°/+45°/90° composite

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2. Fiber Reinforced Composites
(d) Fibers:
• Polymer fibers (Kevlar, Nylon, PE)
• Metals (Be, Boron, W)
• Ceramics (E, S glass, Carbon)
• Whiskers (Alumina, Grapite, SiC, etc)

(e) Matrix Properties:

Supports the fibers, transmits the stress to the fibers, protects the fibers from the
external effects, also controls the electrical, chemical, and thermal properties.
9Polymer Matrix Composites:
9Metal Matrix Composites:
9Ceramic Matrix Composites

(e) Bonding and failure:

If bonding between fiber and matrix is low, strength and toughness is low.
Sometimes coating layer on fibers to increase the bonding between fiber and
matrix such as “Sizing”: silane coating on glass fibers
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C.Ergun
Mak214E Polymer Matrix Fiber Composites
¾Common in many applications such as aerospace, racing, etc.
¾High strength metal fibers metals, polymers or ceramics,
• Carbon fibers for high stiffness: For sporting goods.
• Kevlar fibers for high strength: Bulletproof clotting for lightweight
ballistic protections.
• PE fibers relatively high strength combined with toughness and
damage resistance: Sails for racing yachts.
• Hybrid composites with a mixture of two or more different fibers:
Kevlar + Carbon for toughness and stiffness,
Kevlar + Glass for improved stiffness.

For better fracture toughness:

9Long fibers
9Amorphous matrix
9Thermoplastic elastomer matrix
9Interpenetrating network polymer 16

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Mak214E Metal Matrix Fiber Composites

Reinforce with metal or ceramic fibers for improved properties.

9Al reinforced with borsic fibers for aerospace applications: space
shuttle struts
9Cu reinforced with SiC; High strength propellers for ships.
9Al reinforced with Al2O3 fibers; Pistons for diesel engines
9Al reinforced with SiC fibers or whiskers; Aerospace applications
stiffeners missle fins.
9Al reinforced with Carbon fibers; Antenal mast in Hubble telescope
9Superalloys reinforced with metal (W) or ceramic fibers (SiC or
B4C) high strength at high T; Jet engine parts.
9Ti or Ti3Al reinforced with SiC fibers; Turbine blades and disks.
9Nb3Sn-Cu composites; super-conducting applications.

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C.Ergun
Mak214E Ceramic Matrix Fiber Composites
Carbon-Carbon composites,
9Stronger at high T upto 3000oC than lower T.
9Applications: Nose cone and leading edges of high performance
aerospace vehicles(planes), brake discs for racing cars, commercial jet
aircrafts and biomedical applications.

Pay special attention to

carbo-carbon
composite: No lost even
increase in mechanical
properties upon heating.

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C.Ergun
Mak214E Ceramic Matrix Fiber Composites
Ceramic fiber / ceramic matrix composites:
“POOR BONDING” at fiber / matrix interface; improved fracture toughness.
(a) Propagation of crack around the fiber and “bridging” some fiber in the
cracked surface;
(b) pulling out the fiber.

Two failure modes:

(a) Extensive pull-out of SiC fibers in a glass matrix provides good composite toughness.
(b) Bridging of some fibers across a crack enhances the toughness of a ceramic-matrix
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composite

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3. Laminar Composites

Why laminar composites?

To improve corrosion resistance, low cost, high strength,
light weight, superior wear or abrasion resistance, for
better appearance, and unusual thermal expansion
coef.
Types:
1. Thin coatings,
2. Thicker protective surfaces,
3. Claddings,
4. Bimetallics,
5. Laminates,
6. Fiber reinforced composites.

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Laminar composites:
large variety of laminar composites of a variety of
different applications.
1) Laminates: Layers joined by adhesives
9Arall
9Glare
2) Clad metals:
9Silver coinage
9Alclad
3) Bimetallics

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C.Ergun
Mak214E Types of Laminar Composites

1) Micro laminates: Layers joined by

adhesives
Applications: Safety glasses,
insulations in motors, for gears, for
printed circuits, decorative items such
as Formica and furniture.

Schematic diagram of an aramid-

aluminum laminate, Arall, which has
potential for aerospace applications.
Microlaminates:
1. Arall (Al / aramid laminates),
2. Glare (glass / Al laminates)
For a combination of strength, stiffness, corrosion resistance, light weight,
good fatigue resistance (blocking crack growth), good resistance to
lightning strike, good formability and machinability.
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C.Ergun
Mak214E Types of Laminar Composites
2) Clad metals: metal / metal composites, corrosion resistance with high
strength.
• Silver coinage: A silver colored Cu 80% Ni alloy bonded to a Cu 20%
Ni alloy for low cost.
• Alclad: commercially pure Al bonded to high strength Al alloy for the
combination of corrosion resistance, strength and light weight. Pure Al
protects high strength alloy against corrosion. For aircraft, heat
exchangers, buildings, storage tanks.

3) Bimetallics : Two metals in a laminar

composites.
•Very different therermal expansion coef.
•Reversible and repeatable expansion
characteristics for reliability,
•A high modulus of elasticity to do a work. Clading is used to
For temperature indicators and controllers. produce bimetallics!!
Temperature measurements. 23

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Mak214E 4. Sandwich and Honeycomb Structures
Sandwich materials:
Lightweight and stiff structures
9Thin layer of facing materials,
9Light weight filler materials,
Neither the facing material nor the filler material is rigid but the
combination is very stiff.
Examples:
¾Corrugated paper used for packaging.
¾Honeycomb materials for aircrafts

Honeycomb:
9 A lightweight and stiff structures
9 Materials may be used such as Al, fiber glass, paper, aramid, etc.
9 May be filled by foam or fiberglass for sound and vibration
absorption.

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Some important definition: Refer to the glossaries
at the end of each chapter for more definitions
Cemented carbides (Cermets) - Particulate composites containing hard ceramic particles
bonded with a soft metallic matrix.
Electrical Contacts - Materials used for electrical contacts in switches and relays must have a
good combination of wear resistance and electrical conductivity.
Polymers based particulate composites - Many engineering polymers that contain fillers and
extenders are particulate composites.
Rule of Mixtures - Some properties of the laminar composite materials parallel to the lamellae
are estimated from the rule of mixtures.
Producing Laminar Composites - (a) roll bonding, (b) explosive bonding, (c) coextrusion, and
(d) brazing.
Laminates - Laminates are layers of materials joined by an organic adhesive.
Cladding - A laminar composite produced when a corrosion-resistant or high-hardness layer of
a laminar composite formed onto a less expensive or higher-strength backing.
Bimetallic - A laminar composite material produced by joining two strips of metal with
different thermal expansion coefficients, making the material sensitive to temperature changes.
Aspect ratio - The length of a fiber divided by its diameter.
Delamination - Separation of individual plies of a fiber-reinforced composite.

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C.Ergun
Mak214E Processing the Composites
Steps in manufacturing of composites:
1. Producing the fibers
2. Arranging the fibers
3. Manufacturing the composites
Producing the fibers
¾ Metallic fibers (Be, Boron, W)
¾ Glass fibers (E and S glass, Carbon)
¾ Polymer fibers (Kevlar, Nylon, PE)
¾ Whiskers (Al2O3, Graphite, SiC, etc)

Fibers:
1.Boron fiber
2.Carbon fiber
3.Whisker 26

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Comparison of the specific strength

and specific modulus of fibers versus
metals and polymers.

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C.Ergun
Mak214E 1. Producing the Fibers
1.Boron fiber: Very reactive
9 CVD (chemical vapor deposition)
process; Vaporization of BCl3 and
deposition on very fine W filaments
substrates (carrier).
9Similar technique used to produce SiC
deposition on C fiber substrates with
also CVD method.

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C.Ergun
Mak214E 1. Producing the Fibers
2. Carbon fiber: Produced by carburizing
or Graphitizing.
Graphitizing
9Starting material is a polymer such as
PAN (polyacrylonitrile) or pitch
(aromatic compound)
9Carburizing at high T (1000-2000oC)
just C backbone remains. Carburizing
for high strength.
9Graphitizing at high T (2500-3000oC)
for high elastic modulus
9Drawing is important to align to get
the desired orientation.

3. Whiskers:
9 Single crystal with aspect ratios 20 to 1000.
9 No mobile dislocations so no slip; very high strength.
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Mak214E 2. Arranging the Fibers
Divided into 3 groups:
¾Bundled filaments
¾Short fibers
¾Continuous fibers

1.Bundled filaments: Filaments bundled together.

9 Yarns: A twisted bundle of more than 10000 continuous fibers
9 Tow: An untwisted bundle of more than 10000 continuous fibers
9 Rovings: An untwisted bundle of less than 10000 continuous fibers

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C.Ergun
Mak214E 2. Arranging the Fibers-Cont.
2.Short fiber --Staples: Chopped short fiber with a length of 1 cm or less.
9 Easy to mix into polymer matrix composites.
9 Good for sheet or bulk molding.
9 Random orientation in matrix providing isotropic properties.

3.Long and continuous fibers:

9 Mats: Non-woven randomly oriented fibers loosely held together by a
polymer resin.
9 Fabrics: Woven, braided or knitted in 2D or 3D and impregnated in a
polymer resin.
9 Tapes: Single filament thick strips of prepregs with the filaments either in
unidirectional or woven fiber. Several layers of tapes are joined for
structures. Upper and lower faces may cover with metal foils and joined with
diffusion bonds
Prepreg: Layers of fibers, mats or fabrics in un-polymerized resins. Stacked to
shape a desired part and polymerized to join the layers 31

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3.Manufacturing the Composites
1.Short fiber reinforced composites:
a. Mixing: Mixing the fibers with polymer with liquid or polymer matrix.
b. Manufacturing the composites: Some conventional methods
9 Injection molding for polymer matrix comp.
9 Casting for production of MMCs
9 Spray up method: spraying the mixture against a form and curing.

2.Continuous fiber (short or long) reinforced composites:

¾ Hand lay out technique:
¾ Pressure bag molding:
¾ Match die molding:
¾ Filament winding:
¾ Pultrusion:
¾ Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs):
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Manufacturing the Composites, Cont.
2. Continous fiber (short or long) reinforced composites:
Unidicrectionally alligned fibers, mats and fabrics.

¾Hand lay out technique:

9Place the tapes, mats or fabrics
against a form.
9Saturate with a polymer resin.
9Roll to assure good contact between
the layers and to free the pores.
9Cure the polymer.
9Good for fiber glass vehicle bodies
etc. But slow and labor intensive.

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Manufacturing the Composites, Cont.
¾Pressure bag molding:
9Similar to hand lay out technique but pressure provides good bonding.
9Large polymer matrix composties such as skins of military aircrafts.

¾ Match die molding: short fibers of mats into a two part die. When closed
the composite shaped.

(b) pressure bag molding, (c) matched

die molding.
Close die deformation of composites
34
composed of several tapes

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Manufacturing the Composites, Cont.
¾Filament winding:
9 Wrapping the fiber around a form or a mandrel: Gradual increase in
thickness up to even several feet with build up the material.
9 Dipping the filament into the polymer matrix resin before, during or
after winding.
9 Curing completes the production.
9 Good for pressure tanks, rocket motor casings, etc.

Producing composite shapes

by filament winding.

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Manufacturing the Composites, Cont.
¾ Pultrusion:
9Fiber drawn from the spools
9Passed the fiber from a polymer resin bath.
9Gathered together in a die to produce particular shape.
9Curing the resin immediately in an oven in the continuous
production line.
9Good for continuous, simple shaped products with a cross section of
round, rectangle, pipe, plate, or sheet.
9Subsequent processes for complicated shapes such as sporting
goods, ski poles, fishing poles, golf club shafts.

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Manufacturing the Composites, Cont.

¾ Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs): Casting methods base

on forcing liquid metal around fibers:
1. Capillary rise
2. Pressure casting
3. Vacuum infiltration
4. Continuous casting

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Manufacturing the Composites, Cont.
Manufacturing methods:
• Deformation boding good for claddings and bimetallics braking
the surface oxide films and providing atom to atom contact.
• Adhesive bonding for individual plies.

(A) Roll Bonding,

(B) Explosive Bonding,
(C) Coextrusion,
(D) Brazing.

Production of fiber tapes by encasing fibers

between metal cover sheets by diffusion bonding.
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Manufacturing the Composites, Cont.

Corrugation method for producing

a honeycomb core,
Material (such as aluminum) is
corrugated between two rolls.
The corrugated sheets are joined
together with adhesive,
Cut to the desired thickness.

Honeycomb sandwich structure

• A hexagonal cell honeycomb core,
• Joined to two face sheets by
means of adhesive sheets,
• Exceptionally lightweight yet stiff,
and strong.

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