Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Is Rocket
Science
What Expert Teachers
of Reading
Should Know
and
Be Able
To Do
The most
fundamental
responsibility
of schools is
teaching
students to
read.
Teaching Reading
Is Rocket Science
June 1999
Author note: This paper was prepared for the American Federation of Teachers by Louisa C. Moats, project director, Washington D.C.
site of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Early Interventions Project, and clinical associate pro-
fessor of pediatrics, University of Texas, Houston, Health Sciences Center. Her work is supported in part by grant HD30995, “Early
Interventions for Children with Reading Problems,” funded by the NICHD.
Table
of Contents
Preface 5
Executive Summary 7
In Sum 28
End Notes 29
References 30
R
eading is the fundamental skill to that research. It reviews and describes
upon which all formal education the knowledge base and essential skills
depends. Research now shows that that teacher candidates and practicing
a child who doesn’t learn the reading teachers must master if they are to be suc-
basics early is unlikely to learn them at all. cessful in teaching all children to read
Any child who doesn’t learn to read early well. Finally, the report makes recommen-
and well will not easily master other skills dations for improving the system of
and knowledge, and is unlikely to ever teacher education and professional devel-
flourish in school or in life. opment.
Low reading achievement, more than In medicine, if research found new
any other factor, is the root cause of ways to save lives, health care profession-
chronically low-performing schools, als would adopt these methods as quickly
which harm students and contribute to as possible, and would change practices,
the loss of public confidence in our school procedures, and systems. Educational
system. When many children don’t learn research has found new ways to save
to read, the public schools cannot and will young minds by helping them to become
not be regarded as successful—and efforts proficient readers; it is up to us to promote
to dismantle them will proceed. these new methods throughout the edu-
Thanks to new scientific research—plus cation system. Young lives depend on it.
a long-awaited scientific and political And so does the survival of public educa-
consensus around this research—the tion. The urgent task before us is for uni-
knowledge exists to teach all but a handful versity faculty and the teaching communi-
of severely disabled children to read well. ty to work together to develop programs
This report discusses the current state of that can help assure that all teachers of
teacher preparation in reading in relation reading have access to this knowledge.
T
he most fundamental responsibility ameliorated by literacy instruction that
of schools is teaching students to includes a range of research-based com-
read. Indeed, the future success of ponents and practices. But, as the statis-
all students hinges upon their ability to tics testify, this type of instruction clearly
become proficient readers. Recent scien- has not made its way into every class-
tific studies have allowed us to understand room.
more than ever before how literacy devel- Indeed, a chasm exists between class-
ops, why some children have difficulty, room instructional practices and the
and what constitutes best instructional research knowledge-base on literacy
practice. Scientists now estimate that fully development. Part of the responsibility for
95 percent of all children can be taught to this divide lies with teacher preparation
read. Yet, in spite of all our knowledge, sta- programs, many of which, for a variety of
tistics reveal an alarming prevalence of reasons, have failed to adequately prepare
struggling and poor readers that is not their teacher candidates to teach reading.
limited to any one segment of society: Fortunately, this situation is being correct-
■ About 20 percent of elementary stu- ed, thanks in large part to recent basic
dents nationwide have significant prob- research on reading that has allowed the
lems learning to read. community of reading scientists and edu-
cators to agree on what needs to be done.
■ At least 20 percent of elementary stu-
This new information about language,
dents do not read fluently enough to
reading, and writing is just beginning to
enjoy or engage in independent reading.
shape teacher preparation and instruc-
■ The rate of reading failure for African- tional programs. This knowledge must
American, Hispanic, limited-English also form the basis of high-quality profes-
speakers and poor children ranges from sional development for practicing teach-
60 percent to 70 percent. ers.
■ One-third of poor readers nationwide
are from college-educated families. What Does the Research
■ Twenty-five percent of adults in this Say About Effective
country lack the basic literacy skills Reading Instruction?
required in a typical job. Well-designed, controlled comparisons
Research indicates that, although some of instructional approaches have consis-
children will learn to read in spite of inci- tently supported these components and
dental teaching, others never learn unless practices in reading instruction:
they are taught in an organized, systemat- ■ Direct teaching of decoding, compre-
ic, efficient way by a knowledgeable hension, and literature appreciation;
teacher using a well-designed instruction- ■ Phoneme awareness instruction;
al approach. And, while many students
■ Systematic and explicit instruction in
from high-risk environments come to
the code system of written English;
school less prepared for literacy than their
more advantaged peers, their risk of read- ■ Daily exposure to a variety of texts, as
ing difficulties could still be prevented and well as incentives for children to read
8 / AFT TEACHERS
Preventing Reading Failure:
A Top Priority
for Education
I
n today’s literate world, academic suc- high percentages of people who cannot
cess, secure employment, and person- read.3 Such realities have prompted the
al autonomy depend on reading and National Institutes of Health to regard
writing proficiency. All children who are reading development and reading difficul-
capable of reading must be taught how to ty as a major public health concern.
read; such is the fundamental responsibil- For poor, minority children who attend
ity of schooling. Although educators have low-performing urban schools, the inci-
long understood the importance of litera- dence of reading failure is astronomical
cy, a series of recent studies goes a long and completely unacceptable. African-
way in elucidating the chain of cause and American, Hispanic, limited-English
effect that supports the development of speaking students, and those from impov-
literacy. Convergent findings of high-qual- erished homes fall behind and stay behind
ity research have clarified how children in far greater proportion than their white,
learn to read and what must be done to middle-class counterparts. The rate of
ensure that they do. Beyond doubt, read- reading failure in these groups is 60 per-
ing early links one benefit to another. cent to 70 percent according to the
Enjoyment of reading, exposure to the lan- National Assessment of Educational
guage in books, and attainment of knowl- Progress.4 This figure alone explains much
edge about the world all accrue in greater about the poor academic achievement of
measure to those who have learned how to minority students and why they are
read before the end of first grade. under-represented in professions that
Difficulty with the first steps of reading, in depend on higher education.
contrast, eventually undermines vocabu- Environment, however, does not
lary growth, knowledge of the world, mas- explain all. Many children from more
tery of language, and skill in writing. Once advantaged, literacy-rich environments
behind in reading, few children catch up have trouble learning to read, and many
unless they receive intensive, individual, children from high-risk environments do
and expert instruction, a scarce (and indeed learn to read.5 California recently
expensive) commodity in most schools.1 initiated a series of laws to reform reading
Far too many children have trouble education after 49 percent of students of
reading and writing. About 20 percent of college-educated parents scored “below
elementary students nationwide have sig- basic” on the National Assessment of
nificant problems learning to read; at least Educational Progress. One-third of poor
another 20 percent do not read fluently readers nationwide are from college-edu-
enough to enjoy or engage in independent cated families who presumably encourage
reading. Thus it should not be surprising literacy in the home.
that, according to the United States Office The tragedy here is that most reading
of Technology, 25 percent of the adult pop- failure is unnecessary. We now know that
ulation lacks the basic literacy skills classroom teaching itself, when it includes
required in a typical job.2 Among those a range of research-based components
who do not make it in life—school and practices, can prevent and ameliorate
dropouts, incarcerated individuals, unem- reading difficulty. Although home factors
ployed and underemployed adults—are do influence how well and how soon stu-
10 / AFT TEACHERS
Where We Are:
Taking Stock of
Teacher Preparation in Reading
12 / AFT TEACHERS
examinations that are standardized across No such rules or standards assure that
the profession. Continuing education to teachers who instruct children in reading
stay abreast of proven best practices is have mastered the relevant knowledge
mandated. The public interest is protected base and acquired the necessary skills.
by professional governing boards that Even within large universities that prepare
monitor the knowledge base and oversee hundreds of teachers every year, there
the competence of these licensed pro- may be no curricular specifications or
fessionals. We, the consumers of these standards. What a teacher candidate
professional services, should be able to learns depends on the professor he or she
trust that any person holding a license has selects. What the professor teaches is
demonstrated competence and is determined solely by what the professor
accountable to his or her professional may know or believe. Courses in reading,
board of governance. which are typically limited to three credit
14 / AFT TEACHERS
Only recently
has basic
research
allowed the
community of
reading
scientists and
educators to
agree on what
needs to be
done.
Toward a Curriculum
for Teacher Preparation
and Inservice Professional Development
A
core curriculum for teacher prepa- guage, many more societies would have
ration and inservice professional written languages; human beings would
development can be divided have invented writing systems many thou-
roughly into the following four areas: sands of years before we did; and everyone
would learn reading as easily as ducks
■ Understanding knowledge of reading
learn to swim. The prolonged, gradual,
psychology and development;
and predictable progression of skill in
■ Understanding knowledge of language print translation attests to the difference
structure which is the content of between processing spoken and written
instruction; language. Although surrounding children
■ Applying best practices in all aspects of with books will enhance reading develop-
reading instruction; and ment, a “literature-rich environment” is
■ Using validated, reliable, efficient as- not sufficient for learning to read. Neither
sessments to inform classroom will exposure to print ordinarily be suffi-
teaching. cient for learning to spell, unless organ-
ized practice is provided. Thus, teachers
This core will, of course, be supple-
must be reflective and knowledgeable
mented and honed in time, but its goal is
about the content they are teaching, that
to bring continuity, consistency, and com-
is, the symbol system itself and its rela-
prehensiveness to preservice teacher edu-
tionship to meaning.
cation and to focus the content of contin-
Research has shown that good readers
uing education and graduate programs.
do not skim and sample the text when
(For specific details on the curriculum
they scan a line in a book.25 They process
content in these four areas see Appendix
the letters of each word in detail, although
A.)
they do so very rapidly and unconsciously.
Those who comprehend well accomplish
Knowledge of the letter-wise text scanning with relative ease
Psychology of Reading and fluency. When word identification is
and Reading fast and accurate, a reader has ample
mental energy to think over the meaning
Development
of the text. Knowledge of sound-symbol
mapping is crucial in developing word
Basic Facts About Reading
recognition: the ability to sound out and
If the findings of research psychologists,
recognize words accounts for about 80
educators, and linguists were better
percent of the variance in first-grade read-
known, the risk of unfounded and even
ing comprehension and continues to be a
harmful teaching practices would be
major (albeit diminishing) factor in text
reduced. Learning to read is not natural or
comprehension as students progress
easy for most children. Reading is an
through the grades.26
acquired skill, unlike spoken language,
The ability to sound out words is, in
which is learned with almost any kind of
fact, a major underpinning that allows
contextual exposure. If learning to read
rapid recognition of words “by sight.”
were as natural as acquiring spoken lan-
16 / AFT TEACHERS
Language
knowledge and
language
proficiency
differentiate
good and poor
readers.
Before children can easily sound out or The language skills that most reliably
decode words, they must have at least an distinguish good and poor readers are
implicit awareness of the speech sounds specific to the phonological or speech-
that are represented by symbolic units sound processing system. Those skills
(letters and their combinations). Children include awareness of linguistic units that
who learn to read well are sensitive to lin- lie within a word (consonants, vowels, syl-
guistic structure; recognize redundant lables, grammatical endings, meaningful
patterns; and connect letter patterns with parts, and the spelling units that represent
sounds, syllables, and meaningful word them) and fluency in recognition and
parts quickly, accurately, and uncon- recall of letters and spelling patterns that
sciously.27 Effective teaching of reading make up words. Thus, skilled reading pres-
entails these concepts, presented in an ents a paradox: Those who can most easi-
order in which children can learn them. ly make sense of text are also those who
can most easily read nonsense. For exam-
The Characteristics of Poor and ple, children who comprehend well when
Novice Readers they read also do better at tasks such as
Experts agree that reading and writing call reading words taken out of context,
primarily on deep linguistic processing, sounding out novel words, and spelling
not on more peripheral auditory or visual nonsense words.28 Intelligence and verbal
perceptual skills. Language knowledge reasoning ability do not predict reading
and language proficiency differentiate success in the beginning stages as well as
good and poor readers. As they begin to these specific linguistic skills.
learn, poor readers are not less intelligent Although the purpose of reading is to
or less motivated; they are, however, less comprehend text, teachers should also
skilled with language, especially at the appreciate the relationships among read-
level of elemental linguistic units smaller ing components in order to teach all com-
than whole words. For this reason, they ponents well—in connection to one
benefit from instruction that develops another and with the emphasis needed at
awareness of sounds, syllables, meaning- each stage of development.29 A child can-
ful word parts, relationships among word not understand what he cannot decode,
meanings, and the structures of written but what he decodes is meaningless
text. unless he can understand it. If this rela-
tionship is realized, a teacher will teach
linguistic awareness and phonics deliber-
ately, while linking skills to context as
much as possible.30 When appropriate, the
emphasis will shift to increasing reading
volume and teaching the interpretive
strategies central to comprehension: sum-
marizing, questioning, predicting out-
comes, and monitoring one’s own under-
standing. But a focus on comprehension
skills can—and should—begin long before
children can decode. Teachers and other
adults should read to children and, there-
by, begin to develop their appreciation for
the written word and their comprehen-
sion skills.
18 / AFT TEACHERS
learned early to sound words out and read knowledge of word structure so that print
new words with ease.31 That is, they gained conventions can be explained, identified,
the insight that letters in our writing sys- classified, and used for the higher purpos-
tem more or less represent segments of es of efficient word recognition and
speech (phonemes) and used this knowl- vocabulary development. The methods of
edge to increase their reading vocabular- any lesson will be chosen according to the
ies. Moreover, emergent reading follows a learner’s level of skill development.
predictable course regardless of the speed Teaching children about sounds is appro-
of reading acquisition.32 The learner pro- priate at the very early stages; emphasiz-
gresses from global to analytic processing, ing morphemes is appropriate later on. At
from approximate to specific linking of every level, teachers need to connect the
sound with symbols, and from context-driven teaching of these skills with the joy of
to print-driven reading as proficiency is reading and writing, using read-alouds
acquired. Awareness of letter sequences, speech and the motivating activities popularized
sounds, and meanings of words develop in a by the whole-language movement. Expert
reciprocal fashion as soon as basic phono- teachers will have the knowledge, strate-
logical awareness and letter knowledge gies, and materials to judge what to do
are gained. Effective teachers will recog- with particular children, not on the basis
nize where their students are in reading of ideology, but on the basis of observa-
and writing development and will tailor tion, logic, knowledge of child develop-
instruction accordingly. ment, knowledge of content, and evidence
The signs of each stage are readily for what works.
apparent to a teacher who is a trained
observer. Beginning students do not
understand that letters represent the Teachers who understand the psychology
sounds in words, although they do know of reading and reading development
that print represents spoken messages.
Next, they use their knowledge of letters can answer questions like these:
and rudimentary awareness of speech
sounds to attempt spelling and reading by Why is it useful to know if a student can read nonsense
sounding out parts of words, often the words such as flep, tridding, and pertollic?
prominent consonants of a word (as in KR The ability to read nonsense words depends on rapid and accurate
for car and HP for happy). Skill at sound- association of sounds with symbols. Good readers do this easily so
ing out words and at spelling them pho- they can decipher new words and attend to the meaning of the pas-
netically unfolds gradually as the child sage. Poor readers usually are slower and make more mistakes in
becomes aware of all the speech sounds in sounding out words. Their comprehension suffers as a consequence.
a word to which letters need to be Poor readers improve if they are taught in an organized, systematic
matched. With appropriate instruction, manner how to decipher the spelling code and sound words out.
children learn quickly how print patterns
represent speech. For example, they know What does it mean if a 5-year-old child writes “pez tak me
that -ck is used at the ends of words, that yet u?” (Please take me with you.)
letters can be doubled at the ends of words This is early phonetic or letter name spelling, showing fairly well
but not at the beginnings, and that words developed awareness of speech sounds (phonological awareness) but
typically contain a vowel sound. They little knowledge of standard spelling. Over the next year, the child
learn in phases that -ed spells the past needs to be taught how to read and spell single consonants, short
tense but is pronounced three different vowels, and regular word patterns with those elements, as well as a
ways: /t/ as in raked, /d/ as in played and few high-frequency sight words at a time. Practice with decodable
/ed/ as in painted. More advanced stu- text is appropriate at this stage.
dents will decipher words such as synchro-
nous by larger chunks, reading by analogy Which words do good readers skip as they read along
to known words with the prefix syn-, the at a good pace?
root -chron, and the suffix -ous. Almost none. Good readers process every letter of almost every word
Effective teaching, matched to the stu- when they read.
dents’ developmental levels, requires
20 / AFT TEACHERS
Practical Skills of tion with its application to purposeful
daily writing and reading, no matter what
Instruction the skill level of the learner. Middle- and
in a Comprehensive upper-grade children who are poor read-
Reading Program ers can be brought up to grade level with
appropriate instruction although the time
Opportunities for Supervised and effort involved is considerably greater
Experience than that required to teach younger chil-
Knowing what should be done in the dren.35
classroom is necessary but not sufficient Well-designed, controlled comparisons
for developing practical teaching skills. of instructional approaches have consis-
Translating knowledge into practice tently supported these components and
requires experience with a range of stu- practices in reading instruction:36
dents. New teachers seldom have the
experience of watching various experts at Teachers who understand the knowledge
work or receiving on-site supervision on a
regular basis.33 However, the repertoire of of language structure and its application
practical implementation skills to be can answer questions like these:
learned is extensive, and the time needed
to hone those skills is substantial.
What sounds will children confuse with /p/ and what can the
Internship programs should be designed
teacher do to help children avoid confusion?
to allow new teachers to collaborate with
Sounds that are articulated similarly are most likely to be confused.
peers and with mentor teachers, and to
support the development of skills new The /b/ is articulated exactly like the /p/, except that it is voiced—the
teachers need to manage the range of vocal cords get involved right away with /b/. Sometimes children con-
reading levels and instructional chal- fuse /p/, /b/, and /m/, again because they are all produced with the lips
lenges they will encounter in their class- together. A teacher can point this out to children and then have them
rooms. practice identifying, saying, reading, and spelling these sounds in con-
trasting words such as bike, Mike, and pike.
Use of Validated Instructional
Practices Why do children spell dress with a j or g
Children are routinely subjected to teach- in the beginning?
ing practices that have not been tested
Because we pucker before the /r/ and make a sound more like
and proven effective for children like
/j/ or soft g than the /d/ in desk. Children can be asked to think
themselves. Much more research must be
undertaken to substantiate the value of a
about this and watch what their mouths do before practicing
wide range of instructional approaches the recognition and spelling of tr (and dr) words.
used in classrooms. Meanwhile, there is an
increasing body of evidence that supports Are love, dove, and give “exception” words in English?
the effectiveness of several existing read- No, they are completely predictable. English doesn’t permit its
ing programs.34 Experts agree that children written words to end in one v letter alone. The e is necessary to
who initially are at risk for failure are keep it company and prevent the word from ending in a v.
saved, in most cases, by instruction that These words can be taught as a group that does follow a pat-
teaches directly the specific language
tern.
skills on which proficient reading de-
pends. Effective teachers of reading raise
awareness and proficiency with every
How many meaningful parts (morphemes) are there in the
level of language organization including word contracted?
sounds, syllables, meaningful parts (mor- Three. The prefix com, meaning with, that was changed to con
phemes), phrases, sentences, paragraphs, so that it would match up with the t for easier pronunciation;
and various genres of text. Teaching strate- the root tract meaning to pull, and the past tense ed. Contract
gies are active, exploratory, and engaging. should be grouped with retract, intractable, traction, and other
They also balance language skill instruc- words that share its root.
Phonology Naturally produced speech sounds are Recognize and describe phonological errors
sometimes difficult to classify. in children’s speaking, reading, and writing.
Speech sounds are folded into one another during Evaluate the complexity of any syllable (whether
normal speaking (co-articulation). it contains clusters before and/or after a vowel).
Speech sounds are produced in various forms Choose examples of words for specific
because of phonological rules and onset-rime units and phonemes.
dialectical variation.
Phonology encompasses all aspects of speech Give feedback to students with reference
processing and production including stress to articulation.
placement and memory for new words.
Plan and teach implicit and explicit activities
The English alphabetic writing system designed to enhance phoneme awareness,
represents phonemes indirectly and with syllable awareness, and memory for pronunciation.
considerable variation.
Understand and follow a developmental continuum
in phonological skills during instruction.
Morphology Over half the running words in text are Latin Recognize morphemes in words.
and Greek derived. These words are made up
of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Choose morphologically related words to teach
reading, vocabulary, and spelling.
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units.
Select and/or design word study for intermediate
Morphemes and syllables differ. and high school students organized around
common morphological roots and derived
Morpheme structure can be transparent or obscure. word forms.
22 / AFT TEACHERS
LANGUAGE Domain of Teacher Knowledge Teacher Skill or Ability:
STRUCTURE Examples of Application in Practice
Orthography The English alphabet is a recent development. Choose examples of spelling correspondences,
patterns, rules, and exceptions.
Letters represent sounds but are not the
same as sounds. Recognize and sort predictable and unpredictable
words.
English orthography is variable and complex
but predictable. Adopt and learn a systematic plan for teaching
decoding and spelling.
Certain frequent spellings are used for
each of the consonant and vowel Link decoding and spelling instruction.
phonemes of English.
Evaluate the design of instructional materials.
Words can be grouped by their spelling
units (digraphs, blends, silent letter
combinations, teams, diphthongs, and
six common syllable types).
Syntax and Texts have structures that can be represented Use a visual coding strategy to portray the sructure
Text graphically and three-dimensionally (e.g., of simple sentences and their elaboration.
Structure narrative structure, exposition such as
compare/contrast structure; argumentation Analyze and construct common paragraph forms.
and description).
Map and outline the logical flow of text of various
Sentences have an underlying structure that kinds.
can be manipulated.
Recognize a well written (“reader friendly”) text.
Cohesive devices include reference, parallel
sentence structure, organization of paragraphs.
24 / AFT TEACHERS
Where We Need To Go:
Changing Teacher Preparation
and Professional Development
in Reading
I
n the next 10 years, about two million and market-driven changes in teaching
new teachers will be hired. If higher philosophy.
standards and substantive courses of If research guides their profession,
preparation are adopted now, American teachers will be in a better position to
educators will be equipped to minimize countermand the proliferation of appeal-
reading failure in all but a small percent- ing but unsupported ideas that have been
age of students. To achieve that goal, a harmful influences for more than a
range of initiatives needs to be consid- decade.39 Examples of popular misconcep-
ered. tions include:
1. Research Should Guide the Pro- ■ reading instruction is only needed until
fession. Teacher educators must be con- third grade;
versant with the new research findings
■ competent teachers do not use pub-
and incorporate them into their course-
lished reading programs;
work in teacher preparation. Schools of
education must collaborate with the liber- ■ avoiding published reading programs
al arts faculty to assure that the necessary empowers teachers and enhances the
knowledge about language and learning professional status of teaching;
are accessible to teacher candidates. ■ teaching phonics, word attack, and
Teachers must be educated to identify, spelling skills directly to children is
read, respect, and apply the findings of harmful;
scientific research to their practice. ■ those who favor good code instruction
Although teachers typically mistrust the are opposed to literature and compre-
classroom practicability of much educa- hension instruction;
tional research and seldom have access to
■ reading a lot is the best way to overcome
research reports,38 their courses and inser-
a reading problem;
vice workshops should be liberally
informed by exemplary studies. Practicum ■ children should be taught to guess
experiences should focus on methods words on the basis of meaning and syn-
shown to work with well-defined groups of tax;40 and
learners. Teachers are often not in a posi- ■ skills must always be taught in the con-
tion to make decisions regarding district text of literature.
reading curricula and/or reading texts. With no accountability system to check
Nevertheless, teachers who understand their dissemination, unsupported ideas
the foundations of their discipline are bet- such as these fill the void left by weak pre-
ter prepared to argue against the whole- service and inservice programs. Perhaps
sale district adoption of irresponsible fads
26 / AFT TEACHERS
they must teach once they are in the class- is known about reading instruction. Only
room. Consistency among university core reading programs that incorporate prac-
curricula for teachers, state standards and tices and materials validated by research
curriculum frameworks for school chil- should be adopted for general use.
dren, and teacher licensing standards 6. Promote High-Quality Profes-
could eliminate the confusing and contra- sional Development for Teachers.
dictory learning experiences that teachers Every teacher who currently teaches read-
now encounter. ing would benefit from high-quality edu-
4. Create Professional Develop- cation about reading development, lan-
ment Institutes for Professors and guage structure, and recent research find-
Master Teachers. Are professors of edu- ings. Validated instructional programs
cation currently able to provide instruc- should be accessible to every teacher,
tion in the core curriculum suggested in along with consultation and demonstra-
this paper? A recent survey of the reading tion of their effective use. Teachers need
educator faculty in California indicates ongoing professional development that
that they are not. Indeed, a review of read- has topical continuity, practical applica-
ing course syllabi by California’s Commis- tion, and opportunities for collaboration
sion on Teacher Credentialing noted with peers. These professional develop-
important gaps in substance.46 The review ment experiences should be linked to con-
suggests that deep, substantive changes tinuous in-class coaching. State boards
are needed in course content and design. can target the use of state monies to sup-
Individual professors often do commend- port those professional development pro-
able work under adverse circumstances, grams that meet criteria for quality, cur-
but many are not familiar with the basic rency, effectiveness, and alignment with
disciplines that might inform reading edu- achievement standards. The federal gov-
cation and are insulated from scientific ernment can offer grants to stimulate
progress in fields that have an impact on working partnerships among research
their own. Professors and staff developers institutions, public schools, and teacher
deserve opportunities and incentives to preparation programs. Time is too valu-
attend professional development insti- able to waste on the discontinuous, inef-
tutes to keep abreast of advances in fields fective inservice programs still popular in
such as linguistics, neuropsychology, our schools.
developmental psychology, cognitive 7. Invest in Teaching. Strong teacher
experimental psychology, and multidisci- candidates will enter and stay with the
plinary intervention research.47 profession if their working conditions
5. Press the Developers of Text- improve. First and foremost, candidates
books and Instructional Materials To must be equipped to do the task at hand
Improve Their Products. Textbooks before they are put into classrooms to
must eventually be held to a standard of manage on their own. Amenities that
comprehensiveness, accuracy, logic, many of us take for granted, such as access
research validation, and manageability to telephones and copy machines, time to
before being allowed onto state or school eat lunch or plan with colleagues, freedom
district adoption lists. Just as the public is from menial chores, assistance within the
protected from untested drugs, unsafe classroom, and access to validated
manufactured goods, and unhealthy envi- instructional materials should be avail-
ronmental pollutants, so should school able to all teachers. Teachers who know
children and teachers be protected from they can achieve results because their pro-
the widespread implementation of untest- grams and training have prepared them
ed or ineffective programs and materials. are likely to stay in the profession, experi-
Enormous amounts of money are spent ence a high degree of job satisfaction, and
yearly by schools on vendors’ products, rebuild respect for public education.
most of which are totally lacking in
demonstrated efficacy. Districts and
teachers should analyze texts against what
T
he fact that teachers need better mistaken notion that any literate person
training to carry out deliberate should be able to teach children to read.
instruction in reading, spelling, and We do not expect that anyone who appre-
writing should prompt action rather than ciates music can teach music apprecia-
criticism. It should highlight the chronic tion, or that anyone who can balance a
gap between what teachers need and what checkbook can teach math.
they have been given. It should under- Just about all children can be taught to
score the obligation of licensing programs read and deserve no less from their teach-
to combine coursework with practice on a ers. Teachers, in turn, deserve no less than
range of predefined skills and knowledge. the knowledge, skills, and supported prac-
The deficiencies in teacher preparation tice that will enable their teaching to suc-
represent both a misunderstanding of ceed. There is no more important chal-
what reading instruction demands and a lenge for education to undertake.
28 / AFT TEACHERS
End Notes
1
Sources for these statistics include Cunningham 25
Share & Stanovich, 1995; Adams, Treiman &
and Stanovich, 1998; Fletcher et al., 1994; Fletcher Pressley, 1998.
and Lyon, 1998; Juel, 1988; Shaywitz et al., 1992; 26
Foorman, et al., 1997.
and estimates by the U.S. Office of Special 27
Adams, 1990; Adams, Treiman & Pressley, 1998;
Education Programs of referral rates for reading Share & Stanovich, 1995; Pressley, 1998.
problems. 28
Fletcher & Lyon, 1998.
2
United States Office of Technology Assessment, 29
Ibid.
1993.
30
The appropriate context for beginning reading
3
Cramer & Ellis, 1996.
gives children ample practice with decodable text,
4
1992 and 1994 data for fourth-graders reading books designed so that children can read many
below the basic level of proficiency required to do examples of words representing a phonic or
grade level work, National Assessment of spelling pattern (see Stein, 1993) and Stein,
Educational Progress. Johnson & Gutlon, 1998.
5
Scarborough & Dobrich, 1994. 31
This early achievement in reading is often referred
6
Fletcher & Lyon, 1998, summarize intervention to as mastering the alphabetic principle.
studies that have been successful in reducing read- 32
Ehri, 1994; Pressley, 1998.
ing failure to this level. 33
Lyon, Vaasen, & Toomey, 1989.
7
Nicholson, 1997. 34
American Federation of Teachers, Seven Promising
8
Ibid. Reading and English Arts Programs, 1998.
9
Adams et al., 1998; Brady et al., 1994; Tangel & 35
Torgesen, 1998.
Blachman, 1995; Scanlon & Vellutino, 1997. 36
Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998.
10
A. Liberman (1997). In April 1998, Dr. Liberman 37
Tunmer & Hoover, 1993.
received the Distinguished Lifetime Achievement
Award from the Society for the Scientific Study of
38
Commeyras & DeGroff, 1998.
Reading for his work explicating the nature of 39
Pressley, M. 1998, pp. 275-278, describes these and
phonological processing and its relationship to other “myths” in reading education.
reading. 40
The idea of “three cueing systems” has encouraged
11
Moats, 1995; Moats & Lyon, 1996; Scarborough et teachers to teach children to guess at words from
al., 1998. context as an alternative to sounding them out.
12
Shankweiler et al., 1996. The concept has little grounding in psychological
science (Adams, 1998).
13
Ibid.
41
Acknowledged in a resolution of Congress in
14
Beck et al., 1998; Pressley, 1998.
which the Department of Education was instruct-
15
Corroborated by the California Commission on ed to improve its research standards and bring
Teacher Credentialing survey of reading courses in them in line with those of the National Institutes
state universities in 1996. of Health.
16
Stanovich, 1994. 42
The National Reading Panel is charged with for-
17
Report on the California State University malizing the criteria by which reading research
Academic Senate’s condemnation of the state leg- should be judged and by which policy and prac-
islature’s reading initiative: “Some Professors tice should be informed.
Resist State’s Reform Formula” by Duke Helfand. 43
Lyon & Moats, 1997.
Los Angeles Times, Oct. 25, 1998. 44
The Reading Instruction Competency Assessment
18
Summaries such as those by Adams, 1990; (RICA), under design since 1996, will be given to
Pressley, 1998; Osborn & Lehr, 1998. all credential candidates.
19
M. Adams, 1998. 45
Guidelines to the Reading Instruction Competency
20
Textbooks would need to be aligned with curricu- Assessment can be obtained from the California
lum and content standards for teachers and Commission on Teacher Credentialing.
research standards established by major consen- 46
Resource Document Seven, An Analysis of Reading
sus documents. Courses and Reading-Related Courses in
21
In 1996, the California Department of Education Elementary Teacher Education Programs, a report
surveyed major instructional programs on its based on a survey by the Commission on Teacher
adoption list before determining that special fund- Credentialing, California Department of
ing was necessary to support districts’ purchase of Education, conducted in May 1996, and distrib-
supplementary instructional materials in these uted in October 1996.
domains. (See note 46.) 47
Advanced institutes for instructional leadership in
22
Stein, 1993. reading education might be established in our
23
Stein, M., Johnson/Gutlon, unpublished manu- most prestigious universities and modeled after
script. Harvard’s summer institutes for school principals.
24
Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Learning First
Alliance, 1998.
Adams, M. (1998). The three-cueing systems. Ehri, L. (1994). Development of the ability to
In J. Osborn and F. Lehr (eds.), Literacy for read words: Update. In R. Ruddell, M.
all: Issues in teaching and learning (pp. 73- Ruddell, & H. Singer (eds.). Theoretical
99). New York: Guilford Press. models and processes of reading (pp. 323-
Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: 358). Newark, DE: International Reading
Thinking and learning about print. Association.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Evers, W.M. (1998). What’s gone wrong in
Adams, M.J., Foorman, B.R., Lundberg, I., & America’s classrooms. Stanford, CA: Hoover
Beeler, T. (Spring/Summer 1998). The elu- Institution Press.
sive phoneme. American Educator, 22, 18- Fletcher, J.M. & Lyon, G.R. (1998). Reading: A
29. research-based approach. In W. Evers (ed.),
Adams, M.J., Treiman, R., & Pressley, M. What’s Gone Wrong in America’s
(1998). Reading, writing, and literacy. In I.E. Classrooms? Stanford CA: Hoover
Sigel and K.A. Renninger (eds.), Handbook Institution Press.
of Child Psychology, Fifth Edition, Volume 4, Fletcher, J.M., Shaywitz, S.E., Shankweiler,
Child Psychology in Practice (pp. 275-355). D.P., Katz, L., Liberman, I.Y., Stuebing, K.K.,
New York: Wiley. Francis, D.J., Fowler, A.E., & Shaywitz, B.A.
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Promising English and Language Arts ity: A longitudinal, individual growth
Programs. Washington, D.C. curves analysis. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 88, 3-17.
Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., Hamilton, R.L., &
Kucan, L. (Spring/Summer 1998). Getting at Foorman, B.R., Francis, D.J., Fletcher, J.M.,
the meaning: How to help students unpack Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The
difficult text. American Educator, 22, 66-71, role of instruction in learning to read:
85. Preventing reading failure in at-risk chil-
dren. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90,
Blachman, B. (ed.) (1997). Foundations of 1-15.
Reading Acquisition and Dyslexia:
Implications for Early Intervention. Foorman, B.R., Francis, D.J., Shaywitz, S.E.,
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Shaywitz, B.A., & Fletcher, J.M. (1997). The
case for early reading intervention. In B.
Brady, S., Fowler, A., Stone, B., & Winbury, N. Blachman (ed.), Foundations of Reading
(1994). Training phonological awareness: A Acquisition and Dyslexia (pp. 243-264).
study with inner-city kindergarten chil- Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
dren. Annals of Dyslexia, 44, 26-102.
Francis, D.J., Shaywitz, S.E., Stuebing, K.K.,
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Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary ual growth curves analysis. Journal of
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development and pedagogy: A United learning: Making discoveries about words.
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Cramer, S. & Ellis, W. (eds.) (1996). Learning Richards, H.C. (1997). At-risk readers and
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S. Brookes. tive. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 277-
Cunningham, A.E. & Stanovich, K. 300.
(Spring/Summer 1998). What Reading Does Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A
for the Mind, American Educator, 22, 8-15. longitudinal study of 54 children from first
30 / AFT TEACHERS
At every level,
teachers need
to connect the
teaching of
skills with the
joy of reading
and writing,
using read-
alouds and the
motivating
activities
popularized by
the whole-
language
movement.
through fourth grades. Journal of awareness beyond the elementary school
Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447. years. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 115-
Learning First Alliance (Spring/Summer 1998). 142.
Every child reading: An action plan of the Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Dreyer, L.G., &
Learning First Alliance, American Educator, Dickinson, C.C. (1996). Reading and
52-63. spelling difficulties in high school students:
Liberman, A. (1997). How theories of speech Causes and consequences. Reading and
affect research in reading and writing. In B. Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8,
Blachman (ed.), Foundations of Reading 267-294.
Acquisition and Dyslexia (pp. 3-20). Share, D. & Stanovich, K.E. (1995). Cognitive
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. processes in early reading development:
Lyon, G.R. & Moats, L.C. (1997). Critical con- Accommodating individual differences into
ceptual and methodological considerations a mode of acquisition. Issues in Education:
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Lyon, G.R., Vaasen, M., & Toomey, F. (1989). Shaywitz, S.E., Escobar, M.D., Shaywitz, B.A.,
Teachers’ perceptions of their undergradu- Fletcher, J.M., & Makuch, R.W. (1992).
ate and graduate preparation. Teacher Evidence that dyslexia may represent the
Education and Special Education, 12, 164- lower tail of a normal distribution of read-
169. ing ability. New England Journal of
Medicine, 326, 145-150.
Moats, L.C. (Summer 1995). The missing foun-
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Educator, 9, 43-51. Preventing reading difficulties in young
children. Washington, D.C.: National
Moats, L.C. & Lyon, G.R. (1996). Wanted: Academy Press.
Teachers with knowledge of language,
Topics in Language Disorders, Vol. 16, 73-81. Stanovich, K.E. (1994). Romance and reality.
The Reading Teacher, 47, 280-291.
National Assessment of Educational Progress
(1995). 1994 NAEP—Reading: A First Look. Stanovich, K.E. & Siegel, L.S. (1994). The phe-
Washington, D.C.: National Center for notypic profile of reading-disabled chil-
Education Statistics. dren: A regression-based test of the phono-
logical-core variable difference model.
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Blachman (ed.), Foundations of Reading Stein, M.L. (1993). The beginning reading
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Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Government Printing Office.
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all: Issues in teaching and learning. New lished). Analyzing beginning reading pro-
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Patton, S. & Holmes, M. (eds.) (1998). The keys Virginia Reading Forum, Roanoke, VA, Nov.
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Tangel, D. & Blachman, B. (1995). Effect of
Pressley, M. (1998). Reading instruction that phoneme awareness instruction on the
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Putnam, L. (ed.) (1996). Readings on Language Behavior, 27, 153-185.
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Chall. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. them before they fall: Identification and
Scanlon, D. & Vellutino, F.R. (1997). A compari- assessment to prevent reading failure in
son of the instructional backgrounds and young children. American Educator, 22, 32-
cognitive profiles of poor, average, and 39.
good readers who were initially identified Tunmer, W.E. & Hoover, W.A. (1993).
as at risk for reading failure. Scientific Phonological recoding skill and beginning
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Scarborough, H.S., Ehri, L.C., Olson, R.K., & Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Fowler, A.E. (1998). The fate of phonemic Printing Office.
32 / AFT TEACHERS
Appendix A
34 / AFT TEACHERS
D. Spelling writing meaningful assignments
1. Match spelling instruction to beyond journal writing.
students’ developmental levels of 3. Directly teach handwriting, spelling,
word knowledge. punctuation, and grammar in
2. Follow a scope and sequence based systematic increments to promote
on language organization and how automatic transcription skills.
students learn it. 4. Directly teach composition
3. Use multisensory techniques for strategies through modeling and
sight word learning. shared authorship.
4. Teach active discovery of 5. Guide children through the stages of
generalizations, rules, and patterns. the writing process; publish and
5. Practice spelling in writing and display children’s completed work.
proofreading.
E. Fluency Part IV. Assessment of
1. Use repeated readings, alternate Classroom Reading and
and choral reading, and self-timing Writing Skills
strategies to provide practice. 1. Understand validity, reliability, and
2. Identify reading materials for stu- normative comparisons in test
dents’ independent reading levels. design and selection.
3. Promote daily reading of varied text, 2. Identify varied purposes and forms
in school and outside of school. of assessment (e.g., group compari-
F. Vocabulary Development son, measurement of progress,
1. Teach words together that are program evaluation, informing
related in structure and/or meaning. classroom instruction, individual
2. Select and/or design word study for diagnostic assessment).
intermediate and high school 3. Interpret grade equivalents,
students organized around common percentile ranks, normal curve
morphological roots and derived equivalents, and standard scores.
word forms. 4. Administer several kinds of valid
3. Teach word meanings before, instruments:
during, and after reading. a. graded word lists for word
4. Use context clues, semantic recognition;
mapping and comparison, b. phoneme awareness and phonic
analogies, synonyms, antonyms, word attack inventories;
visual imagery, and other c. a qualitative spelling inventory;
associations to teach meaning. d. measures of fluency and accuracy
G. Reading Comprehension of oral and silent reading;
1. Model “think aloud” strategies e. a structured writing sample; and
during reading. f. inventories of graded paragraphs
2. Vary questions and ask open-ended for comprehension.
questions that promote discussion. 5. Interpret student responses in
3. Emphasize key strategies including comparison to benchmark cognitive
questioning, predicting, summariz- and linguistic skills appropriate for
ing, clarifying, and associating the age and grade.
unknown with what is known. 6. Use information for instructional
4. Use graphic or three-dimensional planning and classroom grouping.
modeling of text structure. Use several kinds of assessment to
5. Model and encourage flexible use of measure change over time.
strategies, including self-monitoring.
H. Composition
1. Create a community of authors in
the classroom.
2. Create frequent opportunities for