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Teaching Reading

Is Rocket
Science
What Expert Teachers
of Reading
Should Know
and
Be Able
To Do
The most
fundamental
responsibility
of schools is
teaching
students to
read.
Teaching Reading
Is Rocket Science

What Expert Teachers of Reading


Should Know and Be Able To Do

June 1999
Author note: This paper was prepared for the American Federation of Teachers by Louisa C. Moats, project director, Washington D.C.
site of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Early Interventions Project, and clinical associate pro-
fessor of pediatrics, University of Texas, Houston, Health Sciences Center. Her work is supported in part by grant HD30995, “Early
Interventions for Children with Reading Problems,” funded by the NICHD.
Table
of Contents

Preface 5

Executive Summary 7

Preventing Reading Failure: A Top Priority for Education 9

Where We Are: Taking Stock of Teacher Preparation in Reading 11


The Difficulty of Teaching Reading Has Been Underestimated / 11
Why Have Teachers Been Left Unprepared? / 11
The Knowledge Base for Teaching Reading Is Hidden, Extensive,
and Complex / 11
Meaningful Professional Standards Are Absent / 12
Good Information Is Hard To Get / 14
Classroom Instructional Programs Are Uninformative / 14
Can We Do Better? / 14

Toward a Curriculum for Teacher Preparation


and Inservice Professional Development 16
Knowledge of the Psychology of Reading and Reading Development / 16
Basic Facts About Reading / 16
The Characteristics of Poor and Novice Readers / 18
How Reading and Spelling Develop / 18
Language: The Foundation for Reading Instruction / 20
Practical Skills of Instruction in a Comprehensive Reading Program / 21
Opportunities for Supervised Experience / 21
Use of Validated Instructional Practices / 21
Assessment of Classroom Reading and Writing Skills / 24

Where We Need To Go: 25


Changing Teacher Preparation and
Professional Development in Reading

In Sum 28

End Notes 29

References 30

Appendix A—Knowledge and Skills for Teaching Reading: 33


A Core Curriculum for Teacher Candidates

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 3


Teaching
reading is a job
for an expert.
Preface

R
eading is the fundamental skill to that research. It reviews and describes
upon which all formal education the knowledge base and essential skills
depends. Research now shows that that teacher candidates and practicing
a child who doesn’t learn the reading teachers must master if they are to be suc-
basics early is unlikely to learn them at all. cessful in teaching all children to read
Any child who doesn’t learn to read early well. Finally, the report makes recommen-
and well will not easily master other skills dations for improving the system of
and knowledge, and is unlikely to ever teacher education and professional devel-
flourish in school or in life. opment.
Low reading achievement, more than In medicine, if research found new
any other factor, is the root cause of ways to save lives, health care profession-
chronically low-performing schools, als would adopt these methods as quickly
which harm students and contribute to as possible, and would change practices,
the loss of public confidence in our school procedures, and systems. Educational
system. When many children don’t learn research has found new ways to save
to read, the public schools cannot and will young minds by helping them to become
not be regarded as successful—and efforts proficient readers; it is up to us to promote
to dismantle them will proceed. these new methods throughout the edu-
Thanks to new scientific research—plus cation system. Young lives depend on it.
a long-awaited scientific and political And so does the survival of public educa-
consensus around this research—the tion. The urgent task before us is for uni-
knowledge exists to teach all but a handful versity faculty and the teaching communi-
of severely disabled children to read well. ty to work together to develop programs
This report discusses the current state of that can help assure that all teachers of
teacher preparation in reading in relation reading have access to this knowledge.

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 5


To understand
printed
language
well enough
to teach it
explicitly
requires
disciplined
study of its
systems and
forms, both
spoken and
written.
Executive
Summary

T
he most fundamental responsibility ameliorated by literacy instruction that
of schools is teaching students to includes a range of research-based com-
read. Indeed, the future success of ponents and practices. But, as the statis-
all students hinges upon their ability to tics testify, this type of instruction clearly
become proficient readers. Recent scien- has not made its way into every class-
tific studies have allowed us to understand room.
more than ever before how literacy devel- Indeed, a chasm exists between class-
ops, why some children have difficulty, room instructional practices and the
and what constitutes best instructional research knowledge-base on literacy
practice. Scientists now estimate that fully development. Part of the responsibility for
95 percent of all children can be taught to this divide lies with teacher preparation
read. Yet, in spite of all our knowledge, sta- programs, many of which, for a variety of
tistics reveal an alarming prevalence of reasons, have failed to adequately prepare
struggling and poor readers that is not their teacher candidates to teach reading.
limited to any one segment of society: Fortunately, this situation is being correct-
■ About 20 percent of elementary stu- ed, thanks in large part to recent basic
dents nationwide have significant prob- research on reading that has allowed the
lems learning to read. community of reading scientists and edu-
cators to agree on what needs to be done.
■ At least 20 percent of elementary stu-
This new information about language,
dents do not read fluently enough to
reading, and writing is just beginning to
enjoy or engage in independent reading.
shape teacher preparation and instruc-
■ The rate of reading failure for African- tional programs. This knowledge must
American, Hispanic, limited-English also form the basis of high-quality profes-
speakers and poor children ranges from sional development for practicing teach-
60 percent to 70 percent. ers.
■ One-third of poor readers nationwide
are from college-educated families. What Does the Research
■ Twenty-five percent of adults in this Say About Effective
country lack the basic literacy skills Reading Instruction?
required in a typical job. Well-designed, controlled comparisons
Research indicates that, although some of instructional approaches have consis-
children will learn to read in spite of inci- tently supported these components and
dental teaching, others never learn unless practices in reading instruction:
they are taught in an organized, systemat- ■ Direct teaching of decoding, compre-
ic, efficient way by a knowledgeable hension, and literature appreciation;
teacher using a well-designed instruction- ■ Phoneme awareness instruction;
al approach. And, while many students
■ Systematic and explicit instruction in
from high-risk environments come to
the code system of written English;
school less prepared for literacy than their
more advantaged peers, their risk of read- ■ Daily exposure to a variety of texts, as
ing difficulties could still be prevented and well as incentives for children to read

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 7


independently and with others; Changing Teacher
■ Vocabulary instruction that includes a Preparation and
variety of complementary methods
designed to explore the relationships
Professional
among words and the relationships Development in Reading
among word structure, origin, and If higher standards and substantive cours-
meaning; es of preparation are adopted now, the two
million new teachers projected over the
■ Comprehension strategies that include
next decade may be equipped to minimize
prediction of outcomes, summarizing,
reading failure in all but a small percent-
clarification, questioning, and visualiza-
age of students. To achieve that goal, a
tion; and
range of initiatives needs to be consid-
■ Frequent writing of prose to enable a ered:
deeper understanding of what is read.
■ Research should guide the profession.
■ Core requirements and standards for
Toward a Curriculum for new teachers should be established.
Teacher Preparation and ■ Teacher education programs should be
Inservice Professional aligned with standards for students and
Development licensing requirements for teachers.
Because classroom instruction, more than ■ Professional development institutes
any other factor, is crucial in preventing should be created for professors of edu-
reading problems, it is a primary focus for cation and master teachers.
effecting change. A comprehensive rede- ■ Developers of textbooks and instruc-
sign of teacher preparation in reading in- tional materials should be encouraged
struction, founded on a core curriculum to improve their products.
that defines the knowledge and skills nec- ■ High-quality professional development
essary for effective practice, is vital to must be available for teachers.
improved classroom instruction.
■ An investment in teaching should be
Such a research-based core curriculum
made to attract and retain high-caliber
would provide much more extensive, de-
teacher candidates.
manding, and content-driven training to
inform classroom practice. Specifically, a The fact that teachers need better train-
core curriculum for teacher preparation ing to carry out deliberate instruction in
must include components for: reading, spelling, and writing should
prompt action rather than criticism. It
■ Understanding reading psychology and
should highlight the existing gap between
development;
what teachers need and what they have
■ Understanding the structure of the been given. It should underscore the obli-
English language; gation of teacher preparation programs to
■ Applying best practices in all aspects of provide candidates with a rigorous,
reading instruction; and research-based curriculum and opportu-
■ Using validated, reliable, efficient nities to practice a range of predefined
assessments to inform classroom skills and knowledge, as well as the need
teaching. for licensing authorities to assess that
knowledge.
This core curriculum can also serve as The knowledge and skills inherent in
the basis for inservice professional devel- effective reading programs must be part of
opment for the vast number of current every teacher’s reading instruction reper-
teachers who have not been exposed to toire. Good, research-based teacher prepara-
the research-based knowledge. tion programs, coupled with high-quality
professional development for classroom
teachers, can assure that this is so.

8 / AFT TEACHERS
Preventing Reading Failure:
A Top Priority
for Education

I
n today’s literate world, academic suc- high percentages of people who cannot
cess, secure employment, and person- read.3 Such realities have prompted the
al autonomy depend on reading and National Institutes of Health to regard
writing proficiency. All children who are reading development and reading difficul-
capable of reading must be taught how to ty as a major public health concern.
read; such is the fundamental responsibil- For poor, minority children who attend
ity of schooling. Although educators have low-performing urban schools, the inci-
long understood the importance of litera- dence of reading failure is astronomical
cy, a series of recent studies goes a long and completely unacceptable. African-
way in elucidating the chain of cause and American, Hispanic, limited-English
effect that supports the development of speaking students, and those from impov-
literacy. Convergent findings of high-qual- erished homes fall behind and stay behind
ity research have clarified how children in far greater proportion than their white,
learn to read and what must be done to middle-class counterparts. The rate of
ensure that they do. Beyond doubt, read- reading failure in these groups is 60 per-
ing early links one benefit to another. cent to 70 percent according to the
Enjoyment of reading, exposure to the lan- National Assessment of Educational
guage in books, and attainment of knowl- Progress.4 This figure alone explains much
edge about the world all accrue in greater about the poor academic achievement of
measure to those who have learned how to minority students and why they are
read before the end of first grade. under-represented in professions that
Difficulty with the first steps of reading, in depend on higher education.
contrast, eventually undermines vocabu- Environment, however, does not
lary growth, knowledge of the world, mas- explain all. Many children from more
tery of language, and skill in writing. Once advantaged, literacy-rich environments
behind in reading, few children catch up have trouble learning to read, and many
unless they receive intensive, individual, children from high-risk environments do
and expert instruction, a scarce (and indeed learn to read.5 California recently
expensive) commodity in most schools.1 initiated a series of laws to reform reading
Far too many children have trouble education after 49 percent of students of
reading and writing. About 20 percent of college-educated parents scored “below
elementary students nationwide have sig- basic” on the National Assessment of
nificant problems learning to read; at least Educational Progress. One-third of poor
another 20 percent do not read fluently readers nationwide are from college-edu-
enough to enjoy or engage in independent cated families who presumably encourage
reading. Thus it should not be surprising literacy in the home.
that, according to the United States Office The tragedy here is that most reading
of Technology, 25 percent of the adult pop- failure is unnecessary. We now know that
ulation lacks the basic literacy skills classroom teaching itself, when it includes
required in a typical job.2 Among those a range of research-based components
who do not make it in life—school and practices, can prevent and ameliorate
dropouts, incarcerated individuals, unem- reading difficulty. Although home factors
ployed and underemployed adults—are do influence how well and how soon stu-

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 9


Learning to read is dents read, informed classroom instruc- well as their more advantaged peers.8
tion that targets specific language and Further, students who lack the prerequi-
not natural or easy
reading skills beginning in kindergarten site awareness of sounds, symbols, and
for most children. enhances success for all but a few students word meanings can overcome their initial
Reading is an with moderate or severe learning disabili- disadvantage if teachers incorporate criti-
acquired skill. ties. Scientists now estimate that 95 per- cal skills into lessons directly, systemati-
cent of all children can be taught to read at cally, and actively.9 Thus, while parents,
a level constrained only by their reasoning tutors, and the community can contribute
and listening comprehension abilities.6 It to reading success, classroom instruction
is clear that students in high-risk popula- must be viewed as the critical factor in
tions need not fail at the rate they do.7 preventing reading problems and must be
When placed into schools with effective the primary focus for change. Ensuring
principals and well-prepared and well- effective classroom instructional practice
supported teachers, African-American, is well within the purview of educational
Hispanic, or students who are economi- policymakers.
cally disadvantaged can learn to read as

10 / AFT TEACHERS
Where We Are:
Taking Stock of
Teacher Preparation in Reading

The Difficulty of Teaching cific techniques of lesson delivery cannot


be acquired, let alone knowledge of lan-
Reading Has Been guage, reading psychology, children’s liter-
Underestimated ature, or the management of a reading
Teaching reading is a job for an expert. program based on assessment. The
Contrary to the popular theory that learn- demands of competent reading instruc-
ing to read is natural and easy, learning to tion, and the training experiences neces-
read is a complex linguistic achievement. sary to learn it, have been seriously under-
For many children, it requires effort and estimated by universities and by those
incremental skill development. Moreover, who have approved licensing programs.
teaching reading requires considerable The consequences for teachers and stu-
knowledge and skill, acquired over several dents alike have been disastrous.
years through focused study and super-
vised practice. Why Have Teachers Been
Consider what the classroom demands
of the teacher. Children’s interest in read-
Left Unprepared?
Why are the stringent demands of teach-
ing must be stimulated through regular
ing reading and writing unrecognized in
exposure to interesting books and through
the design of preparation programs? In
discussions in which students respond to
reading, at least, misunderstanding and
many kinds of texts. For best results, the
lack of knowledge may play as big a role as
teacher must instruct most students
institutional politics and budgetary con-
directly, systematically, and explicitly to
straints. What drives the mind of the read-
decipher words in print, all the while
er is neither self-evident nor easy to grasp,
keeping in mind the ultimate purpose of
and, consequently, many years of scientif-
reading, which is to learn, enjoy, and
ic inquiry have been necessary to expose
understand. To accommodate children’s
the mechanisms of reading acquisition.
variability, the teacher must assess chil-
Only recently has basic research allowed
dren and tailor lessons to individuals. She
the community of reading scientists and
must interpret errors, give corrective feed-
educators to agree on what needs to be
back, select examples to illustrate con-
done. This new information about lan-
cepts, explain new ideas in several ways,
guage, reading, and writing is just begin-
and connect linguistic symbols with “real”
ning to shape teacher preparation and
reading and writing. No one can develop
instructional programs. This knowledge
such expertise by taking one or two col-
must also form the basis of inservice pro-
lege courses, or attending a few one-shot
fessional development for practicing
inservice workshops.
teachers.
Although reading is the cornerstone of
academic success, a single course in read- The Knowledge Base for
ing methods is often all that is offered Teaching Reading Is Hidden,
most prospective teachers. Even if well
Extensive, and Complex
taught, a single course is only the begin-
Reading education is a field more vulnera-
ning. Without deeper knowledge, the spe-
ble than many to faddish practices that

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 11


later prove to be untenable. Such is the such as cl, st, pr) or silent letter spellings
risk whenever a human trait that becomes that retain the sound of one consonant
the subject of education is poorly under- (kn-, wr-, -mb). Few adults can explain
stood. To appreciate why reading is one of common spelling patterns that corre-
psychology’s more mysterious phenome- spond to pronunciation and word mean-
na, we must consider the nature of the lin- ing, such as why we double the consonant
guistic communication that reading letters in words like misspell, dinner, and
requires. Skilled reading happens too fast accommodate. A deeper, explicit level of
and is too automatic to detect its underly- knowledge may not be necessary to read
ing processes through simple introspec- the words, but it is necessary to explain
tion. We read, but we cannot watch how pronunciation and spelling, where the
our minds make sense out of print. The words came from, and how spelling is
linkage of sounds and symbols occurs rap- related to meaning.12
idly and unconsciously. The linguistic Some children learn language concepts
units that compose words, the single and their application very easily in spite of
speech sounds (phonemes), syllables, and incidental teaching, but others never learn
meaningful parts (morphemes), are auto- unless they are taught in an organized,
matically matched with writing symbols systematic, efficient way by a knowledge-
so that attention is available for compre- able teacher using a well-designed
hension.10 Because our attention is on instructional approach. Children of aver-
meaning, we are not aware of the code age ability might learn enough about
translation process by which meaning is reading to get by, but may not develop the
conveyed. Until we are faced with a class appreciation for language structure that
of children who are learning how to read supports learning words from context,
symbols that represent speech sounds and organization of the mental dictionary,
word parts, we may never have analyzed comparing words, or precise use of lan-
language at the level required for explain- guage.13 Yet teachers are seldom asked to
ing and teaching it. Similarly, we may not study the language they teach or how its
know how a paragraph is organized or how form carries its message.
a story is put together until we teach writ- In addition, teachers are not born
ing to students who do not know how to knowing the relationships among the
organize their thoughts. Thus, to under- basic skills of reading and reading com-
stand printed language well enough to prehension. They may see that children
teach it explicitly requires disciplined read poorly in the middle and upper
study of its systems and forms, both spo- grades, but may not understand that pro-
ken and written. ficiency in basic reading skill must be
When adults are evaluated on knowl- taught before students will progress.
edge of language, even those who are edu- Without instruction and practice, teachers
cated exhibit rudimentary or cursory are unlikely to develop the questioning
familiarity with concepts about our writ- techniques and discussion strategies that
ing system that are insufficient for teach- promote thoughtful reading by groups of
ing children. Surveys measuring experi- children.14
enced teachers’ ability to identify speech
sounds, spelling patterns, and word struc- Meaningful Professional
tures reveal confusions that are typical of Standards Are Absent
most adults.11 For example, the concept Other complex and demanding profes-
that a letter combination can represent sions insist on much more stringent train-
one unique speech sound (ch, wh, sh, th, ing and preparation than that required of
ng)—is unclear to a surprising number of teachers. Pilots, engineers, optometrists,
elementary teachers. Many identify these and art therapists, for example, must learn
units by rote but are unable to differenti- concepts, facts, and skills to a prescribed
ate conceptually between these spelling level, must conduct their practice under
units (digraphs) and two letters that stand supervision, and must pass rigorous entry
for two distinct sounds (consonant blends

12 / AFT TEACHERS
examinations that are standardized across No such rules or standards assure that
the profession. Continuing education to teachers who instruct children in reading
stay abreast of proven best practices is have mastered the relevant knowledge
mandated. The public interest is protected base and acquired the necessary skills.
by professional governing boards that Even within large universities that prepare
monitor the knowledge base and oversee hundreds of teachers every year, there
the competence of these licensed pro- may be no curricular specifications or
fessionals. We, the consumers of these standards. What a teacher candidate
professional services, should be able to learns depends on the professor he or she
trust that any person holding a license has selects. What the professor teaches is
demonstrated competence and is determined solely by what the professor
accountable to his or her professional may know or believe. Courses in reading,
board of governance. which are typically limited to three credit

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 13


hours, are often taught by adjunct faculty learn about spoken and written language
who are accountable to no one.15 Thus, concepts and to generate strategies for
preparation for teaching reading often is teaching students to read. Major class-
more grounded in ideology than evi- room textbooks in language arts omit sys-
dence.16 While the academic freedom that tematic teaching about speech sounds,
professors often invoke has a place in the spelling system, or how to read words
teacher education, its claim is not as ab- by sounding them out.21 The most popular
solute as it may be in the humanities.17 programs being used today are appropri-
Professional preparation programs have a ately strong on literature, illustrations,
responsibility to teach a defined body of cross-disciplinary thematic units, and
knowledge, skills, and abilities that are motivational strategies for children, but
based on the best research in the field. very weak or simply wrong when it comes
This is no less important in reading18 than to the structure of English and how chil-
it is in medicine or the law. dren actually learn to read the words on
the page.22 A recent review of major class-
Good Information Is Hard To Get room reading programs shows that they
Few of today’s popular textbooks for continue to lack the content necessary to
teacher preparation in reading contain teach basic reading systematically and
information about the known relation- explicitly.23
ships between linguistic awareness, word
recognition ability, and reading compre- Can We Do Better?
hension. Few discuss in any useful detail Comprehensive redesign of teacher
how the English writing system represents preparation and inservice professional
speech. Basic concepts such as the differ- development is possible, but it must begin
ences between speech sounds and with a definition of the knowledge and
spellings, the fact that every syllable in skills necessary for effective practice and
English is organized around a vowel demonstration of how these are best
sound, and the existence of meaningful learned. Fortunately, leaders in the field—
units (morphemes) in the Latin layer of including the National Research Council
English (about 60 percent of running text) panel on the Prevention of Reading
are rarely explained. Few texts contain Difficulties in Young Children and the
accurate information about the role of member organizations of the Learning
phonology in reading development, and First Alliance—have reached consensus
few explain with depth, accuracy, or clari- regarding the agenda for change.24 They
ty why many children have trouble learn- agree that new teachers require much
ing to read or what to do about it. Teachers more extensive, demanding, and content-
are often given inaccurate and misleading driven training if discoveries from the
information based on unsupported ideas. reading sciences are to inform classroom
For example, in the recent past, one of the practice.
most common misconceptions has been Specifically, teachers must understand
that knowledge of the phonic system can the basic psychological processes in read-
be finessed with awareness of sentence ing, how children develop reading skill,
structure and meaning.19 Textbooks for how good readers differ from poor read-
teachers must attain a much higher stan- ers, how the English language is structured
dard of accuracy, currency, depth, clarity, in spoken and written form, and the vali-
and relevance if teachers are to be well- dated principles of effective reading
prepared to teach reading.20 instruction. The ability to design and
deliver lessons to academically diverse
Classroom Instructional Programs learners, to select validated instructional
Are Uninformative methods and materials, and use assess-
Inadequately prepared novice teachers ments to tailor instruction are all central
often find themselves dependent on the to effective teaching.
information given in teachers’ manuals to

14 / AFT TEACHERS
Only recently
has basic
research
allowed the
community of
reading
scientists and
educators to
agree on what
needs to be
done.
Toward a Curriculum
for Teacher Preparation
and Inservice Professional Development

A
core curriculum for teacher prepa- guage, many more societies would have
ration and inservice professional written languages; human beings would
development can be divided have invented writing systems many thou-
roughly into the following four areas: sands of years before we did; and everyone
would learn reading as easily as ducks
■ Understanding knowledge of reading
learn to swim. The prolonged, gradual,
psychology and development;
and predictable progression of skill in
■ Understanding knowledge of language print translation attests to the difference
structure which is the content of between processing spoken and written
instruction; language. Although surrounding children
■ Applying best practices in all aspects of with books will enhance reading develop-
reading instruction; and ment, a “literature-rich environment” is
■ Using validated, reliable, efficient as- not sufficient for learning to read. Neither
sessments to inform classroom will exposure to print ordinarily be suffi-
teaching. cient for learning to spell, unless organ-
ized practice is provided. Thus, teachers
This core will, of course, be supple-
must be reflective and knowledgeable
mented and honed in time, but its goal is
about the content they are teaching, that
to bring continuity, consistency, and com-
is, the symbol system itself and its rela-
prehensiveness to preservice teacher edu-
tionship to meaning.
cation and to focus the content of contin-
Research has shown that good readers
uing education and graduate programs.
do not skim and sample the text when
(For specific details on the curriculum
they scan a line in a book.25 They process
content in these four areas see Appendix
the letters of each word in detail, although
A.)
they do so very rapidly and unconsciously.
Those who comprehend well accomplish
Knowledge of the letter-wise text scanning with relative ease
Psychology of Reading and fluency. When word identification is
and Reading fast and accurate, a reader has ample
mental energy to think over the meaning
Development
of the text. Knowledge of sound-symbol
mapping is crucial in developing word
Basic Facts About Reading
recognition: the ability to sound out and
If the findings of research psychologists,
recognize words accounts for about 80
educators, and linguists were better
percent of the variance in first-grade read-
known, the risk of unfounded and even
ing comprehension and continues to be a
harmful teaching practices would be
major (albeit diminishing) factor in text
reduced. Learning to read is not natural or
comprehension as students progress
easy for most children. Reading is an
through the grades.26
acquired skill, unlike spoken language,
The ability to sound out words is, in
which is learned with almost any kind of
fact, a major underpinning that allows
contextual exposure. If learning to read
rapid recognition of words “by sight.”
were as natural as acquiring spoken lan-

16 / AFT TEACHERS
Language
knowledge and
language
proficiency
differentiate
good and poor
readers.
Before children can easily sound out or The language skills that most reliably
decode words, they must have at least an distinguish good and poor readers are
implicit awareness of the speech sounds specific to the phonological or speech-
that are represented by symbolic units sound processing system. Those skills
(letters and their combinations). Children include awareness of linguistic units that
who learn to read well are sensitive to lin- lie within a word (consonants, vowels, syl-
guistic structure; recognize redundant lables, grammatical endings, meaningful
patterns; and connect letter patterns with parts, and the spelling units that represent
sounds, syllables, and meaningful word them) and fluency in recognition and
parts quickly, accurately, and uncon- recall of letters and spelling patterns that
sciously.27 Effective teaching of reading make up words. Thus, skilled reading pres-
entails these concepts, presented in an ents a paradox: Those who can most easi-
order in which children can learn them. ly make sense of text are also those who
can most easily read nonsense. For exam-
The Characteristics of Poor and ple, children who comprehend well when
Novice Readers they read also do better at tasks such as
Experts agree that reading and writing call reading words taken out of context,
primarily on deep linguistic processing, sounding out novel words, and spelling
not on more peripheral auditory or visual nonsense words.28 Intelligence and verbal
perceptual skills. Language knowledge reasoning ability do not predict reading
and language proficiency differentiate success in the beginning stages as well as
good and poor readers. As they begin to these specific linguistic skills.
learn, poor readers are not less intelligent Although the purpose of reading is to
or less motivated; they are, however, less comprehend text, teachers should also
skilled with language, especially at the appreciate the relationships among read-
level of elemental linguistic units smaller ing components in order to teach all com-
than whole words. For this reason, they ponents well—in connection to one
benefit from instruction that develops another and with the emphasis needed at
awareness of sounds, syllables, meaning- each stage of development.29 A child can-
ful word parts, relationships among word not understand what he cannot decode,
meanings, and the structures of written but what he decodes is meaningless
text. unless he can understand it. If this rela-
tionship is realized, a teacher will teach
linguistic awareness and phonics deliber-
ately, while linking skills to context as
much as possible.30 When appropriate, the
emphasis will shift to increasing reading
volume and teaching the interpretive
strategies central to comprehension: sum-
marizing, questioning, predicting out-
comes, and monitoring one’s own under-
standing. But a focus on comprehension
skills can—and should—begin long before
children can decode. Teachers and other
adults should read to children and, there-
by, begin to develop their appreciation for
the written word and their comprehen-
sion skills.

How Reading and Spelling Develop


Longitudinal studies of reading and
spelling development have shown that
students who read well in high school

18 / AFT TEACHERS
learned early to sound words out and read knowledge of word structure so that print
new words with ease.31 That is, they gained conventions can be explained, identified,
the insight that letters in our writing sys- classified, and used for the higher purpos-
tem more or less represent segments of es of efficient word recognition and
speech (phonemes) and used this knowl- vocabulary development. The methods of
edge to increase their reading vocabular- any lesson will be chosen according to the
ies. Moreover, emergent reading follows a learner’s level of skill development.
predictable course regardless of the speed Teaching children about sounds is appro-
of reading acquisition.32 The learner pro- priate at the very early stages; emphasiz-
gresses from global to analytic processing, ing morphemes is appropriate later on. At
from approximate to specific linking of every level, teachers need to connect the
sound with symbols, and from context-driven teaching of these skills with the joy of
to print-driven reading as proficiency is reading and writing, using read-alouds
acquired. Awareness of letter sequences, speech and the motivating activities popularized
sounds, and meanings of words develop in a by the whole-language movement. Expert
reciprocal fashion as soon as basic phono- teachers will have the knowledge, strate-
logical awareness and letter knowledge gies, and materials to judge what to do
are gained. Effective teachers will recog- with particular children, not on the basis
nize where their students are in reading of ideology, but on the basis of observa-
and writing development and will tailor tion, logic, knowledge of child develop-
instruction accordingly. ment, knowledge of content, and evidence
The signs of each stage are readily for what works.
apparent to a teacher who is a trained
observer. Beginning students do not
understand that letters represent the Teachers who understand the psychology
sounds in words, although they do know of reading and reading development
that print represents spoken messages.
Next, they use their knowledge of letters can answer questions like these:
and rudimentary awareness of speech
sounds to attempt spelling and reading by Why is it useful to know if a student can read nonsense
sounding out parts of words, often the words such as flep, tridding, and pertollic?
prominent consonants of a word (as in KR The ability to read nonsense words depends on rapid and accurate
for car and HP for happy). Skill at sound- association of sounds with symbols. Good readers do this easily so
ing out words and at spelling them pho- they can decipher new words and attend to the meaning of the pas-
netically unfolds gradually as the child sage. Poor readers usually are slower and make more mistakes in
becomes aware of all the speech sounds in sounding out words. Their comprehension suffers as a consequence.
a word to which letters need to be Poor readers improve if they are taught in an organized, systematic
matched. With appropriate instruction, manner how to decipher the spelling code and sound words out.
children learn quickly how print patterns
represent speech. For example, they know What does it mean if a 5-year-old child writes “pez tak me
that -ck is used at the ends of words, that yet u?” (Please take me with you.)
letters can be doubled at the ends of words This is early phonetic or letter name spelling, showing fairly well
but not at the beginnings, and that words developed awareness of speech sounds (phonological awareness) but
typically contain a vowel sound. They little knowledge of standard spelling. Over the next year, the child
learn in phases that -ed spells the past needs to be taught how to read and spell single consonants, short
tense but is pronounced three different vowels, and regular word patterns with those elements, as well as a
ways: /t/ as in raked, /d/ as in played and few high-frequency sight words at a time. Practice with decodable
/ed/ as in painted. More advanced stu- text is appropriate at this stage.
dents will decipher words such as synchro-
nous by larger chunks, reading by analogy Which words do good readers skip as they read along
to known words with the prefix syn-, the at a good pace?
root -chron, and the suffix -ous. Almost none. Good readers process every letter of almost every word
Effective teaching, matched to the stu- when they read.
dents’ developmental levels, requires

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 19


Language: The in the context of sentences and stories.
What if, in the middle grades, the word
Foundation for Reading deceive is to be read, spelled, or under-
Instruction stood? To help children who may not know
Expert teaching of reading requires knowl- the word or who may misread or misspell
edge of language structure at all levels. it, the teacher could draw upon the follow-
Without such knowledge, teachers are not ing information:
able to respond insightfully to student
■ deceive has two meaningful parts (mor-
errors, choose examples for concepts,
phemes), a prefix de- and a root ceive-;
explain and contrast words and their
parts, or judge what focus is needed in a ■ the word is a verb related to the nouns
lesson. Suppose that the teacher wants the deceit and deception;
students to read and spell words such as ■ the same root and derivational pattern
pin and pen, will and well, miss and mess can be found with receive, conceive, and
without confusing them? Lecturing or perceive;
singing about short vowels is unlikely to ■ the vowel spelling follows the “i before e
prevent the errors children often make. except after c” spelling rule;
Knowing that these vowels are similar in
■ the word ends with an e because no
articulation might help the teacher
word in English ends in a plain v spelling
emphasize how the vowels feel in the
for the /v/ sound;
mouth when they are spoken. Anticipating
the difficulty of these vowels, a teacher ■ the /s/ phoneme is spelled with a c fol-
would provide frequent, short opportuni- lowed by e; and
ties for students to contrast similar words ■ the accent of such Latin-based words is
and to read and spell words with /ĭ/ and /ĕ/ almost always on the root morpheme.
Armed with such information, accumu-
lated over many lessons, the teacher can
Teachers who understand the practical deepen students’ word knowledge by call-
teaching skills in a comprehensive reading ing their attention to any of these features
program can answer questions like these: in a lesson. The nature of exploration may
vary from a “word a day” discussion, to
finding -ceive words in a literature selec-
Can the words shoe, do, flew, and you be used
tion, to using several of the -ceive words in
for rhyming practice? a written composition in their various
By all means. Rhyming should involve comparison and identification
forms (receiving, reception, receptivity).
of spoken words that share a final vowel and consonant sound
Few teachers, however, are sufficiently
sequence. They do not have to be spelled the same way.
well prepared to carry out such instruc-
tion—not through any fault of their own—
How fast should a second- or third-grader but because their preparation programs,
be able to read? instructional materials, and teaching
A minimum goal for oral reading fluency can be established by taking environments have not asked them to
the child’s age and multiplying by 10. A 7-year-old second-grader understand language with any depth or
should be reading around 70 words per minute. By the end of third specificity. The language content that can
grade, children should read 100 words per minute in material at their inform instruction in reading and spelling
independent reading level (at least 95 percent of words known). is outlined in Part II of the core curriculum
(see Appendix A). Chart 1, Knowledge of
When in the instructional sequence should Language Structure and Application To
a teacher ask a child to think about the meaning Teaching illustrates the knowledge teach-
of the passage (context) to decipher a new word? ers must have and how that knowledge
After the word has been decoded or pronounced, then context may be applied in teaching reading.
becomes useful in assigning meaning to the word or checking if the
word was read correctly. Guessing the word from context before trying
to decode it is not advised.

20 / AFT TEACHERS
Practical Skills of tion with its application to purposeful
daily writing and reading, no matter what
Instruction the skill level of the learner. Middle- and
in a Comprehensive upper-grade children who are poor read-
Reading Program ers can be brought up to grade level with
appropriate instruction although the time
Opportunities for Supervised and effort involved is considerably greater
Experience than that required to teach younger chil-
Knowing what should be done in the dren.35
classroom is necessary but not sufficient Well-designed, controlled comparisons
for developing practical teaching skills. of instructional approaches have consis-
Translating knowledge into practice tently supported these components and
requires experience with a range of stu- practices in reading instruction:36
dents. New teachers seldom have the
experience of watching various experts at Teachers who understand the knowledge
work or receiving on-site supervision on a
regular basis.33 However, the repertoire of of language structure and its application
practical implementation skills to be can answer questions like these:
learned is extensive, and the time needed
to hone those skills is substantial.
What sounds will children confuse with /p/ and what can the
Internship programs should be designed
teacher do to help children avoid confusion?
to allow new teachers to collaborate with
Sounds that are articulated similarly are most likely to be confused.
peers and with mentor teachers, and to
support the development of skills new The /b/ is articulated exactly like the /p/, except that it is voiced—the
teachers need to manage the range of vocal cords get involved right away with /b/. Sometimes children con-
reading levels and instructional chal- fuse /p/, /b/, and /m/, again because they are all produced with the lips
lenges they will encounter in their class- together. A teacher can point this out to children and then have them
rooms. practice identifying, saying, reading, and spelling these sounds in con-
trasting words such as bike, Mike, and pike.
Use of Validated Instructional
Practices Why do children spell dress with a j or g
Children are routinely subjected to teach- in the beginning?
ing practices that have not been tested
Because we pucker before the /r/ and make a sound more like
and proven effective for children like
/j/ or soft g than the /d/ in desk. Children can be asked to think
themselves. Much more research must be
undertaken to substantiate the value of a
about this and watch what their mouths do before practicing
wide range of instructional approaches the recognition and spelling of tr (and dr) words.
used in classrooms. Meanwhile, there is an
increasing body of evidence that supports Are love, dove, and give “exception” words in English?
the effectiveness of several existing read- No, they are completely predictable. English doesn’t permit its
ing programs.34 Experts agree that children written words to end in one v letter alone. The e is necessary to
who initially are at risk for failure are keep it company and prevent the word from ending in a v.
saved, in most cases, by instruction that These words can be taught as a group that does follow a pat-
teaches directly the specific language
tern.
skills on which proficient reading de-
pends. Effective teachers of reading raise
awareness and proficiency with every
How many meaningful parts (morphemes) are there in the
level of language organization including word contracted?
sounds, syllables, meaningful parts (mor- Three. The prefix com, meaning with, that was changed to con
phemes), phrases, sentences, paragraphs, so that it would match up with the t for easier pronunciation;
and various genres of text. Teaching strate- the root tract meaning to pull, and the past tense ed. Contract
gies are active, exploratory, and engaging. should be grouped with retract, intractable, traction, and other
They also balance language skill instruc- words that share its root.

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 21


Chart 1
Knowledge of Language Structure and Application To Teaching
LANGUAGE Domain of Teacher Knowledge Teacher Skill or Ability:
STRUCTURE Examples of Application in Practice
Phonetics Speech sounds are not letters. Recognize phoneme substitutions in students’
speech, reading, and spelling.
Consonant and vowel phoneme classes
have special properties. Produce speech sounds accurately during reading,
vocabulary, and spelling instruction.
Phonemes can be described by place and
manner of articulation. Identify, match, and select appropriate examples of
words containing specific phonemes.
Phoneme classes are determined by the
articulatory features of the sounds. Select contrasting pairs of words that differ only in
one phoneme, for the purpose of teaching
There is a finite inventory of consonant speech sound awareness.
phonemes (25) and vowel phonemes (15)
in English that can becompared with
phoneme inventories in other languages.

Phonology Naturally produced speech sounds are Recognize and describe phonological errors
sometimes difficult to classify. in children’s speaking, reading, and writing.

Speech sounds are folded into one another during Evaluate the complexity of any syllable (whether
normal speaking (co-articulation). it contains clusters before and/or after a vowel).

Speech sounds are produced in various forms Choose examples of words for specific
because of phonological rules and onset-rime units and phonemes.
dialectical variation.

Phonology encompasses all aspects of speech Give feedback to students with reference
processing and production including stress to articulation.
placement and memory for new words.
Plan and teach implicit and explicit activities
The English alphabetic writing system designed to enhance phoneme awareness,
represents phonemes indirectly and with syllable awareness, and memory for pronunciation.
considerable variation.
Understand and follow a developmental continuum
in phonological skills during instruction.

Link phonological skill development to reading,


writing, and meaningful use of language.

Morphology Over half the running words in text are Latin Recognize morphemes in words.
and Greek derived. These words are made up
of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. Choose morphologically related words to teach
reading, vocabulary, and spelling.
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units.
Select and/or design word study for intermediate
Morphemes and syllables differ. and high school students organized around
common morphological roots and derived
Morpheme structure can be transparent or obscure. word forms.

Our spelling system preserves morphology.

Derivational and inflectional morphemes differ


in function, form, and effect.

22 / AFT TEACHERS
LANGUAGE Domain of Teacher Knowledge Teacher Skill or Ability:
STRUCTURE Examples of Application in Practice
Orthography The English alphabet is a recent development. Choose examples of spelling correspondences,
patterns, rules, and exceptions.
Letters represent sounds but are not the
same as sounds. Recognize and sort predictable and unpredictable
words.
English orthography is variable and complex
but predictable. Adopt and learn a systematic plan for teaching
decoding and spelling.
Certain frequent spellings are used for
each of the consonant and vowel Link decoding and spelling instruction.
phonemes of English.
Evaluate the design of instructional materials.
Words can be grouped by their spelling
units (digraphs, blends, silent letter
combinations, teams, diphthongs, and
six common syllable types).

Spelling includes patterns and rules.


Semantics Word meanings are learned in relation to other Identify antonyms, synonyms, analogies, associative
word meanings. linkages; classes, properties, and examples of
concepts; connotative and denotative meanings.
Word knowledge may be superficial or deep.
Teach words in relation to other words and
Words have semantic features. concepts.

Meaning-making is personal. Select words that are central for


understanding a text.
New words are learned through repeated
exposure in context and more
formal study.

How new words are acquired.

Syntax and Texts have structures that can be represented Use a visual coding strategy to portray the sructure
Text graphically and three-dimensionally (e.g., of simple sentences and their elaboration.
Structure narrative structure, exposition such as
compare/contrast structure; argumentation Analyze and construct common paragraph forms.
and description).
Map and outline the logical flow of text of various
Sentences have an underlying structure that kinds.
can be manipulated.
Recognize a well written (“reader friendly”) text.
Cohesive devices include reference, parallel
sentence structure, organization of paragraphs.

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 23


■ Direct teaching of decoding, compre- instruction (sound, syllable, morpheme,
hension, and literature appreciation is word) should vary according to students’
necessary from the beginning; as stu- reading and spelling skills.
dents develop, the emphasis, content, ■ The most effective programs include
pacing, and complexity of lessons will daily exposure to a variety of texts as well
change. as incentives for children to read inde-
■ Phoneme awareness instruction, when pendently and with others. Practices
linked to systematic decoding and that build reading fluency include
spelling, is a key to preventing reading repeated readings of text, alternate read-
failure in children who come to school ing with a partner, and simultaneous
without these prerequisite skills. oral reading in easy material.
■ It is better to teach the code system of ■ Vocabulary is best taught with a variety
written English systematically and of complementary methods designed to
explicitly than it is to teach it randomly, explore the relationships among words
indirectly, or incidentally?37 The units for and the relationships among word struc-
ture, origin, and meaning.
■ Key comprehension strategies include
Teachers who understand the assessment of prediction of outcomes, summarizing,
classroom reading and writing skills can clarification, questioning, and visualiza-
answer questions like these: tion; these should be modeled explicitly
by the teacher and practiced overtly if
students are not comprehending well or
What specific skills present at the end of first grade best pre-
dict later reading achievement ? if they approach reading comprehen-
The ability to give the sounds that letters represent, to name letters, sion passively.
and to complete simple phoneme awareness tasks such as initial con- ■ Effective teachers encourage frequent
sonant matching, sound blending, and sound segmentation. writing of prose to enable deeper under-
standing of what is read.
Are running records or oral reading tests reliable Part III (Appendix A) of the core curricu-
or valid indicators of reading ability? lum outline includes the practical teach-
The reliability of oral reading tests and running records is lower than ing skills that are necessary for each of the
the reliability of more structured, specific measures of component major components of effective classroom
reading skills. Teacher judgment of the cause of specific oral reading instruction.
errors (e.g., miscue analysis) tends to be much less reliable.
Assessment of Classroom
When are children typically expected to spell these words?
Trapped, offered, plate, illustrate, preparing Reading and Writing Skills
Teachers also receive inadequate prepara-
Plate: end of first grade when the most common long vowel spelling is tion in the selection and use of assess-
learned. ments to inform their practice. Rather
Trapped: end of second grade when the basic doubling rule for than teaching teachers to use unreliable
endings beginning with vowels is learned. assessments of questionable validity,
Preparing: end of fourth grade when students expand their knowledge training should be focused on the use of
to Latin-based words with prefixes, roots, and suffixes. measures and observation tools that have
demonstrated usefulness for specific pur-
Illustrate: end of fifth grade when more complex words with prefix,
poses. Assessments employed routinely by
root, and suffixes are learned.
teachers should have been studied to
Offered: end of sixth grade when patterns involve prefixes, roots and determine their reliability and validity for
suffixes, and more complex spelling changes. prediction, grouping, comparison, or
instruction that improves children’s read-
Why is it important to test comprehension ing or writing. Part IV (Appendix A) of the
with material the student has not read before? core curriculum addresses teachers’
Because if students have been previously exposed to a passage, they knowledge and use of assessment.
can answer questions without being able to truly read the passage.

24 / AFT TEACHERS
Where We Need To Go:
Changing Teacher Preparation
and Professional Development
in Reading

I
n the next 10 years, about two million and market-driven changes in teaching
new teachers will be hired. If higher philosophy.
standards and substantive courses of If research guides their profession,
preparation are adopted now, American teachers will be in a better position to
educators will be equipped to minimize countermand the proliferation of appeal-
reading failure in all but a small percent- ing but unsupported ideas that have been
age of students. To achieve that goal, a harmful influences for more than a
range of initiatives needs to be consid- decade.39 Examples of popular misconcep-
ered. tions include:
1. Research Should Guide the Pro- ■ reading instruction is only needed until
fession. Teacher educators must be con- third grade;
versant with the new research findings
■ competent teachers do not use pub-
and incorporate them into their course-
lished reading programs;
work in teacher preparation. Schools of
education must collaborate with the liber- ■ avoiding published reading programs
al arts faculty to assure that the necessary empowers teachers and enhances the
knowledge about language and learning professional status of teaching;
are accessible to teacher candidates. ■ teaching phonics, word attack, and
Teachers must be educated to identify, spelling skills directly to children is
read, respect, and apply the findings of harmful;
scientific research to their practice. ■ those who favor good code instruction
Although teachers typically mistrust the are opposed to literature and compre-
classroom practicability of much educa- hension instruction;
tional research and seldom have access to
■ reading a lot is the best way to overcome
research reports,38 their courses and inser-
a reading problem;
vice workshops should be liberally
informed by exemplary studies. Practicum ■ children should be taught to guess
experiences should focus on methods words on the basis of meaning and syn-
shown to work with well-defined groups of tax;40 and
learners. Teachers are often not in a posi- ■ skills must always be taught in the con-
tion to make decisions regarding district text of literature.
reading curricula and/or reading texts. With no accountability system to check
Nevertheless, teachers who understand their dissemination, unsupported ideas
the foundations of their discipline are bet- such as these fill the void left by weak pre-
ter prepared to argue against the whole- service and inservice programs. Perhaps
sale district adoption of irresponsible fads

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 25


the dubious quality of past educational programs. The core curriculum will, of
research has justified the prevalent cyni- course, change over time in response to
cism among educators, who are often told new research and needs, but it should
that research exists to support any point of remain a stable center around which the
view.41 However, reading is actually one of profession evolves.
the most studied aspects of human behav- Although a sufficient body of research
ior, and a large body of work based on on reading instruction exists to guide
sound principles of objective inquiry practice, many more studies of prepara-
exists that could be informing the field.42 tion for teaching reading are needed. It
Indeed, our best reading studies test com- would be useful to know both how much
peting hypotheses with well-defined and what kind of practice helps a novice
groups of children, employ designs that teacher become comfortable teaching the
allow the studies to be replicated, and major components of a reading lesson. Is
yield results obtained with methodologi- it best to start with a script from which the
cal sophistication.43 Independent peer more seasoned teacher can depart? Is it
review is part of the scientific process that best to begin with practical experience
attempts to control for the biases of inves- and then move to theory and research? Is
tigators. Even our best studies will be the teacher’s knowledge of language a
flawed, however, and no single study will measurable influence on student achieve-
have all the answers we seek, so converg- ment? Should teachers begin by instruct-
ing findings from multiple studies should ing only one student? What kind of obser-
drive the profession. vation is most helpful to a new teacher? Is
2. Establish Core Standards, Cur- there a sequence of coursework and expe-
riculum and Entry Level Assessments rience that is most efficient and produc-
for New Teachers. Following the exam- tive for learning what to do? Such ques-
ple of several states,44 the knowledge and tions merit systematic investigation if we
abilities important for competent delivery are to dramatically improve teacher
of balanced, comprehensive reading preparation in the long run.
instruction must be defined. Such stan- 3. Align Teacher Education Cur-
dards should form the basis of the reading ricula, Standards for Students, and
curriculum for teacher candidates and Licensing Requirements for Teach-
should inform the assessments used for ers. Teacher education schools should be
licensing. California’s requirements, accountable for the quality and effective-
established by the Commission on Teach- ness of their programs. For too long, uni-
er Credentialing, are exemplary for versities have underinvested in income-
preparing teachers because they focus on producing programs, such as teacher edu-
knowledge of language structure, the cation, without concern for the prepared-
importance of aligning instruction with ness of their graduates. States, under pres-
student characteristics, and the impor- sure to bring more adults into the teaching
tance of skilled teaching behavior in profession, have been reluctant to impose
domains validated by research. They form stringent criteria for preparedness. The
the basis for a Reading Instruction Com- expectations for teacher candidates are
petency Assessment now given to aspiring often low within schools of education
teachers.45 It is significant to note that where clear standards derived from objec-
these requirements were developed by the tive measurement have not been upheld.
profession, not mandated in state law. Professors in education programs, who
Some states have chosen to mandate spe- are usually paid less than other academics
cific coursework for teachers; others in higher education, have a heavy teach-
delineate competencies and allow schools ing load and few incentives for spending
of education to redesign programs to meet time with teachers in schools. Collab-
them. A core curriculum for preparing orative partnerships between schools and
teachers of reading is needed to guide the universities are weak or nonexistent, so
assemblage of learning experiences that there is often no alignment between
offered to teachers across preparation what teachers learn in school and what

26 / AFT TEACHERS
they must teach once they are in the class- is known about reading instruction. Only
room. Consistency among university core reading programs that incorporate prac-
curricula for teachers, state standards and tices and materials validated by research
curriculum frameworks for school chil- should be adopted for general use.
dren, and teacher licensing standards 6. Promote High-Quality Profes-
could eliminate the confusing and contra- sional Development for Teachers.
dictory learning experiences that teachers Every teacher who currently teaches read-
now encounter. ing would benefit from high-quality edu-
4. Create Professional Develop- cation about reading development, lan-
ment Institutes for Professors and guage structure, and recent research find-
Master Teachers. Are professors of edu- ings. Validated instructional programs
cation currently able to provide instruc- should be accessible to every teacher,
tion in the core curriculum suggested in along with consultation and demonstra-
this paper? A recent survey of the reading tion of their effective use. Teachers need
educator faculty in California indicates ongoing professional development that
that they are not. Indeed, a review of read- has topical continuity, practical applica-
ing course syllabi by California’s Commis- tion, and opportunities for collaboration
sion on Teacher Credentialing noted with peers. These professional develop-
important gaps in substance.46 The review ment experiences should be linked to con-
suggests that deep, substantive changes tinuous in-class coaching. State boards
are needed in course content and design. can target the use of state monies to sup-
Individual professors often do commend- port those professional development pro-
able work under adverse circumstances, grams that meet criteria for quality, cur-
but many are not familiar with the basic rency, effectiveness, and alignment with
disciplines that might inform reading edu- achievement standards. The federal gov-
cation and are insulated from scientific ernment can offer grants to stimulate
progress in fields that have an impact on working partnerships among research
their own. Professors and staff developers institutions, public schools, and teacher
deserve opportunities and incentives to preparation programs. Time is too valu-
attend professional development insti- able to waste on the discontinuous, inef-
tutes to keep abreast of advances in fields fective inservice programs still popular in
such as linguistics, neuropsychology, our schools.
developmental psychology, cognitive 7. Invest in Teaching. Strong teacher
experimental psychology, and multidisci- candidates will enter and stay with the
plinary intervention research.47 profession if their working conditions
5. Press the Developers of Text- improve. First and foremost, candidates
books and Instructional Materials To must be equipped to do the task at hand
Improve Their Products. Textbooks before they are put into classrooms to
must eventually be held to a standard of manage on their own. Amenities that
comprehensiveness, accuracy, logic, many of us take for granted, such as access
research validation, and manageability to telephones and copy machines, time to
before being allowed onto state or school eat lunch or plan with colleagues, freedom
district adoption lists. Just as the public is from menial chores, assistance within the
protected from untested drugs, unsafe classroom, and access to validated
manufactured goods, and unhealthy envi- instructional materials should be avail-
ronmental pollutants, so should school able to all teachers. Teachers who know
children and teachers be protected from they can achieve results because their pro-
the widespread implementation of untest- grams and training have prepared them
ed or ineffective programs and materials. are likely to stay in the profession, experi-
Enormous amounts of money are spent ence a high degree of job satisfaction, and
yearly by schools on vendors’ products, rebuild respect for public education.
most of which are totally lacking in
demonstrated efficacy. Districts and
teachers should analyze texts against what

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 27


In Sum

T
he fact that teachers need better mistaken notion that any literate person
training to carry out deliberate should be able to teach children to read.
instruction in reading, spelling, and We do not expect that anyone who appre-
writing should prompt action rather than ciates music can teach music apprecia-
criticism. It should highlight the chronic tion, or that anyone who can balance a
gap between what teachers need and what checkbook can teach math.
they have been given. It should under- Just about all children can be taught to
score the obligation of licensing programs read and deserve no less from their teach-
to combine coursework with practice on a ers. Teachers, in turn, deserve no less than
range of predefined skills and knowledge. the knowledge, skills, and supported prac-
The deficiencies in teacher preparation tice that will enable their teaching to suc-
represent both a misunderstanding of ceed. There is no more important chal-
what reading instruction demands and a lenge for education to undertake.

28 / AFT TEACHERS
End Notes
1
Sources for these statistics include Cunningham 25
Share & Stanovich, 1995; Adams, Treiman &
and Stanovich, 1998; Fletcher et al., 1994; Fletcher Pressley, 1998.
and Lyon, 1998; Juel, 1988; Shaywitz et al., 1992; 26
Foorman, et al., 1997.
and estimates by the U.S. Office of Special 27
Adams, 1990; Adams, Treiman & Pressley, 1998;
Education Programs of referral rates for reading Share & Stanovich, 1995; Pressley, 1998.
problems. 28
Fletcher & Lyon, 1998.
2
United States Office of Technology Assessment, 29
Ibid.
1993.
30
The appropriate context for beginning reading
3
Cramer & Ellis, 1996.
gives children ample practice with decodable text,
4
1992 and 1994 data for fourth-graders reading books designed so that children can read many
below the basic level of proficiency required to do examples of words representing a phonic or
grade level work, National Assessment of spelling pattern (see Stein, 1993) and Stein,
Educational Progress. Johnson & Gutlon, 1998.
5
Scarborough & Dobrich, 1994. 31
This early achievement in reading is often referred
6
Fletcher & Lyon, 1998, summarize intervention to as mastering the alphabetic principle.
studies that have been successful in reducing read- 32
Ehri, 1994; Pressley, 1998.
ing failure to this level. 33
Lyon, Vaasen, & Toomey, 1989.
7
Nicholson, 1997. 34
American Federation of Teachers, Seven Promising
8
Ibid. Reading and English Arts Programs, 1998.
9
Adams et al., 1998; Brady et al., 1994; Tangel & 35
Torgesen, 1998.
Blachman, 1995; Scanlon & Vellutino, 1997. 36
Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998.
10
A. Liberman (1997). In April 1998, Dr. Liberman 37
Tunmer & Hoover, 1993.
received the Distinguished Lifetime Achievement
Award from the Society for the Scientific Study of
38
Commeyras & DeGroff, 1998.
Reading for his work explicating the nature of 39
Pressley, M. 1998, pp. 275-278, describes these and
phonological processing and its relationship to other “myths” in reading education.
reading. 40
The idea of “three cueing systems” has encouraged
11
Moats, 1995; Moats & Lyon, 1996; Scarborough et teachers to teach children to guess at words from
al., 1998. context as an alternative to sounding them out.
12
Shankweiler et al., 1996. The concept has little grounding in psychological
science (Adams, 1998).
13
Ibid.
41
Acknowledged in a resolution of Congress in
14
Beck et al., 1998; Pressley, 1998.
which the Department of Education was instruct-
15
Corroborated by the California Commission on ed to improve its research standards and bring
Teacher Credentialing survey of reading courses in them in line with those of the National Institutes
state universities in 1996. of Health.
16
Stanovich, 1994. 42
The National Reading Panel is charged with for-
17
Report on the California State University malizing the criteria by which reading research
Academic Senate’s condemnation of the state leg- should be judged and by which policy and prac-
islature’s reading initiative: “Some Professors tice should be informed.
Resist State’s Reform Formula” by Duke Helfand. 43
Lyon & Moats, 1997.
Los Angeles Times, Oct. 25, 1998. 44
The Reading Instruction Competency Assessment
18
Summaries such as those by Adams, 1990; (RICA), under design since 1996, will be given to
Pressley, 1998; Osborn & Lehr, 1998. all credential candidates.
19
M. Adams, 1998. 45
Guidelines to the Reading Instruction Competency
20
Textbooks would need to be aligned with curricu- Assessment can be obtained from the California
lum and content standards for teachers and Commission on Teacher Credentialing.
research standards established by major consen- 46
Resource Document Seven, An Analysis of Reading
sus documents. Courses and Reading-Related Courses in
21
In 1996, the California Department of Education Elementary Teacher Education Programs, a report
surveyed major instructional programs on its based on a survey by the Commission on Teacher
adoption list before determining that special fund- Credentialing, California Department of
ing was necessary to support districts’ purchase of Education, conducted in May 1996, and distrib-
supplementary instructional materials in these uted in October 1996.
domains. (See note 46.) 47
Advanced institutes for instructional leadership in
22
Stein, 1993. reading education might be established in our
23
Stein, M., Johnson/Gutlon, unpublished manu- most prestigious universities and modeled after
script. Harvard’s summer institutes for school principals.
24
Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; Learning First
Alliance, 1998.

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 29


References

Adams, M. (1998). The three-cueing systems. Ehri, L. (1994). Development of the ability to
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Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: 358). Newark, DE: International Reading
Thinking and learning about print. Association.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Evers, W.M. (1998). What’s gone wrong in
Adams, M.J., Foorman, B.R., Lundberg, I., & America’s classrooms. Stanford, CA: Hoover
Beeler, T. (Spring/Summer 1998). The elu- Institution Press.
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Adams, M.J., Treiman, R., & Pressley, M. What’s Gone Wrong in America’s
(1998). Reading, writing, and literacy. In I.E. Classrooms? Stanford CA: Hoover
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Promising English and Language Arts ity: A longitudinal, individual growth
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Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G., Hamilton, R.L., &
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the meaning: How to help students unpack Schatschneider, C., & Mehta, P. (1998). The
difficult text. American Educator, 22, 66-71, role of instruction in learning to read:
85. Preventing reading failure in at-risk chil-
dren. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90,
Blachman, B. (ed.) (1997). Foundations of 1-15.
Reading Acquisition and Dyslexia:
Implications for Early Intervention. Foorman, B.R., Francis, D.J., Shaywitz, S.E.,
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Shaywitz, B.A., & Fletcher, J.M. (1997). The
case for early reading intervention. In B.
Brady, S., Fowler, A., Stone, B., & Winbury, N. Blachman (ed.), Foundations of Reading
(1994). Training phonological awareness: A Acquisition and Dyslexia (pp. 243-264).
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Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary ual growth curves analysis. Journal of
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Commeyras, M. & DeGroff, L. (1998). Literacy Gaskins, I.W., Ehri, L.C., Cress, C., O’Hara, C.,
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development and pedagogy: A United learning: Making discoveries about words.
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Invernizzi, M., Rosemary, C., Juel, C., &
Cramer, S. & Ellis, W. (eds.) (1996). Learning Richards, H.C. (1997). At-risk readers and
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(Spring/Summer 1998). What Reading Does Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A
for the Mind, American Educator, 22, 8-15. longitudinal study of 54 children from first

30 / AFT TEACHERS
At every level,
teachers need
to connect the
teaching of
skills with the
joy of reading
and writing,
using read-
alouds and the
motivating
activities
popularized by
the whole-
language
movement.
through fourth grades. Journal of awareness beyond the elementary school
Educational Psychology, 80, 437-447. years. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 115-
Learning First Alliance (Spring/Summer 1998). 142.
Every child reading: An action plan of the Shankweiler, D., Lundquist, E., Dreyer, L.G., &
Learning First Alliance, American Educator, Dickinson, C.C. (1996). Reading and
52-63. spelling difficulties in high school students:
Liberman, A. (1997). How theories of speech Causes and consequences. Reading and
affect research in reading and writing. In B. Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8,
Blachman (ed.), Foundations of Reading 267-294.
Acquisition and Dyslexia (pp. 3-20). Share, D. & Stanovich, K.E. (1995). Cognitive
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. processes in early reading development:
Lyon, G.R. & Moats, L.C. (1997). Critical con- Accommodating individual differences into
ceptual and methodological considerations a mode of acquisition. Issues in Education:
in reading intervention research. Journal of Contributions from Educational Psychology,
Learning Disabilities, 30, 578-588. 1, 1-57.

Lyon, G.R., Vaasen, M., & Toomey, F. (1989). Shaywitz, S.E., Escobar, M.D., Shaywitz, B.A.,
Teachers’ perceptions of their undergradu- Fletcher, J.M., & Makuch, R.W. (1992).
ate and graduate preparation. Teacher Evidence that dyslexia may represent the
Education and Special Education, 12, 164- lower tail of a normal distribution of read-
169. ing ability. New England Journal of
Medicine, 326, 145-150.
Moats, L.C. (Summer 1995). The missing foun-
dation in teacher preparation. American Snow, C., Burns, S., and Griffin, P. (eds.) (1998).
Educator, 9, 43-51. Preventing reading difficulties in young
children. Washington, D.C.: National
Moats, L.C. & Lyon, G.R. (1996). Wanted: Academy Press.
Teachers with knowledge of language,
Topics in Language Disorders, Vol. 16, 73-81. Stanovich, K.E. (1994). Romance and reality.
The Reading Teacher, 47, 280-291.
National Assessment of Educational Progress
(1995). 1994 NAEP—Reading: A First Look. Stanovich, K.E. & Siegel, L.S. (1994). The phe-
Washington, D.C.: National Center for notypic profile of reading-disabled chil-
Education Statistics. dren: A regression-based test of the phono-
logical-core variable difference model.
Nicholson, T. (1997). Closing the gap on read- Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 24-
ing failure: Social background, phonemic 53.
awareness, and learning to read. In B.
Blachman (ed.), Foundations of Reading Stein, M.L. (1993). The beginning reading
Acquisition and Dyslexia. (pp. 381-407). instruction study. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Government Printing Office.

Osborn, J. & Lehr, F. (eds.) (1998). Literacy for Stein, M., Johnson, B., & Gutlohn, L. (unpub-
all: Issues in teaching and learning. New lished). Analyzing beginning reading pro-
York: Guilford Press. grams: The relationship between decoding
instruction and text. (Distributed at the
Patton, S. & Holmes, M. (eds.) (1998). The keys Virginia Reading Forum, Roanoke, VA, Nov.
to literacy. Washington, D.C.: Council for 3, 1998.)
Basic Education.
Tangel, D. & Blachman, B. (1995). Effect of
Pressley, M. (1998). Reading instruction that phoneme awareness instruction on the
works: The case for balanced teaching. New invented spelling of first-grade children:
York: Guilford Press. A one-year followup. Journal of Reading
Putnam, L. (ed.) (1996). Readings on Language Behavior, 27, 153-185.
and Literacy: Essays in honor of Jeanne S. Torgesen, J.K. (Spring/Summer 1998). Catch
Chall. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. them before they fall: Identification and
Scanlon, D. & Vellutino, F.R. (1997). A compari- assessment to prevent reading failure in
son of the instructional backgrounds and young children. American Educator, 22, 32-
cognitive profiles of poor, average, and 39.
good readers who were initially identified Tunmer, W.E. & Hoover, W.A. (1993).
as at risk for reading failure. Scientific Phonological recoding skill and beginning
Studies of Reading, 1, 191-215. reading. Reading and Writing: An
Scarborough, H.S. & Dobrich, W. (1994). On Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 161-179.
the efficacy of reading to preschoolers. United States Office of Technology Assessment
Developmental Review, 14, 245-302. (1993). Adult literacy and new technologies.
Scarborough, H.S., Ehri, L.C., Olson, R.K., & Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Fowler, A.E. (1998). The fate of phonemic Printing Office.

32 / AFT TEACHERS
Appendix A

Knowledge and Skills for Teaching Reading:


A Core Curriculum for Teacher Candidates

Part I. The Psychology of 5. Orthographic knowledge at the


syllable juncture level.
Reading and Reading 6. Orthographic knowledge at the
Development morphemic, derivational level.
A. Cognitive Characteristics of 7. The role of fluency in reading
Proficient Reading development.
1. Language proficiencies of good 8. The relationships between
readers. phonology, decoding, fluency,
2. Eye movements and text scanning. and comprehension.
3. Active construction of meaning.
4. Flexibility and self-monitoring. Part II. Knowledge of
B. Cognitive Characteristics of Poor Language Structure and
Reading Its Application
1. Variable language difficulties of poor
A. Phonetics
readers.
1. Classes of consonant and vowel
2. Phonological processing, reading
speech sounds (phonemes) and the
speed, and comprehension—
inventory of the phonemes in
their manifestations and
English.
interrelationships.
2. Similarities and differences among
3. Non-linguistic factors in reading
groups of phonemes, by place and
difficulty.
manner of articulation.
4. Alternative hypotheses about
3. Differences between the inventory of
reading difficulty, supported and
speech sounds (40-44) and the
unsupported.
inventory of letters (26); how letters
C. Environmental and Physiological are used to represent speech sounds.
Factors in Reading Development 4. The basis for speech sound
1. Socioeconomic and environmental confusions that affect reading and
factors in reading. spelling.
2. Neurological studies of good and
B. Phonology
poor reading.
1. Components of phonological
3. Familial factors in dyslexia.
processing (articulation, pronun-
D. The Development of Reading, ciation, phoneme awareness, word
Writing, and Spelling memory, and word retrieval).
1. Emergent literacy. 2. Phoneme awareness:
2. Early alphabetic reading and writing. a. Why it is difficult.
3. Later alphabetic reading and writing. b. How it supports learning an
4. Orthographic knowledge at the with- alphabetic writing system.
in-word level.

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 33


c. How it develops. Part III. Practical Skills
3. Dialect and other language
differences.
of Instruction
C. Morphology
in a Comprehensive
1. Definition and identification of Reading Program
morphemes (the smallest units of A. Consensus Findings of Research
meaning). 1. Recognize and implement
2. Grammatical endings (inflections) components of successful, valid
and prefixes, suffixes, and roots early intervention programs.
(derivational morphemes). 2. Cite and support components of
3. How English spelling represents validated remedial and tutorial
morphemes. programs.
4. The network of word relationships. 3. Refer to validated components of
D. Orthography middle school reading programs in
1. Predictability and pattern in English designing instruction.
spelling. 4. Employ proven principles of teach-
2. Historical roots and layers of ing reading in the content areas.
orthographic representation. B. Concepts of Print, Letter
3. Major spellings for each of the Recognition, Phoneme Awareness
consonant and vowel phonemes 1. Select programs and lessons
of English. appropriate for students’
4. Spelling conventions for syllable instructional levels.
types. 2. Give corrective feedback and design
5. Sequence of orthographic lessons based on students’ needs,
knowledge development. including their phonological and
E. Semantics orthographic development.
1. Depth, breadth, and specificity in 3. Teach phonological and letter identi-
knowledge of meaning. fication skills explicitly, sequentially,
2. Definition, connotation, denotation, and systematically.
semantic overlap. 4. Link phonological skill development
3. Idiomatic and figurative language. to reading, writing, and meaningful
4. How new words are created. use of language.
5. Ways of knowing a word: antonyms, C. Decoding, Word Attack
synonyms, analogies, associative 1. Use active, constructive approaches
linkages, classes, properties, and to teach word concepts.
examples of concepts. 2. Select programs and lessons
F. Syntax and Text Structure appropriate for students’
1. Basic phrase structure. instructional levels.
2. Four types of sentences. 3. Give corrective feedback and design
3. Sentence manipulations: expansion, lessons based on students’ needs,
rearrangement, paraphrase, including their phonological and
negation, formation of interrogative orthographic development.
and imperative. 4. Teach decoding skills explicitly,
4. Visual and diagrammatic ways to sequentially, and systematically:
represent sentence structure. sound-symbol association; sound-
5. Genres and their distinguishing by-sound blending; reading onsets,
features. rimes, syllables, morphemes; sight
6. Reference and cohesive devices word recognition.
in text. 5. Select and use decodable text for
7. Graphic and three-dimensional rep- reading practice in the early stages.
resentation of paragraph and text 6. Link practice in word attack to
structure. reading, writing, and meaningful use
of language.

34 / AFT TEACHERS
D. Spelling writing meaningful assignments
1. Match spelling instruction to beyond journal writing.
students’ developmental levels of 3. Directly teach handwriting, spelling,
word knowledge. punctuation, and grammar in
2. Follow a scope and sequence based systematic increments to promote
on language organization and how automatic transcription skills.
students learn it. 4. Directly teach composition
3. Use multisensory techniques for strategies through modeling and
sight word learning. shared authorship.
4. Teach active discovery of 5. Guide children through the stages of
generalizations, rules, and patterns. the writing process; publish and
5. Practice spelling in writing and display children’s completed work.
proofreading.
E. Fluency Part IV. Assessment of
1. Use repeated readings, alternate Classroom Reading and
and choral reading, and self-timing Writing Skills
strategies to provide practice. 1. Understand validity, reliability, and
2. Identify reading materials for stu- normative comparisons in test
dents’ independent reading levels. design and selection.
3. Promote daily reading of varied text, 2. Identify varied purposes and forms
in school and outside of school. of assessment (e.g., group compari-
F. Vocabulary Development son, measurement of progress,
1. Teach words together that are program evaluation, informing
related in structure and/or meaning. classroom instruction, individual
2. Select and/or design word study for diagnostic assessment).
intermediate and high school 3. Interpret grade equivalents,
students organized around common percentile ranks, normal curve
morphological roots and derived equivalents, and standard scores.
word forms. 4. Administer several kinds of valid
3. Teach word meanings before, instruments:
during, and after reading. a. graded word lists for word
4. Use context clues, semantic recognition;
mapping and comparison, b. phoneme awareness and phonic
analogies, synonyms, antonyms, word attack inventories;
visual imagery, and other c. a qualitative spelling inventory;
associations to teach meaning. d. measures of fluency and accuracy
G. Reading Comprehension of oral and silent reading;
1. Model “think aloud” strategies e. a structured writing sample; and
during reading. f. inventories of graded paragraphs
2. Vary questions and ask open-ended for comprehension.
questions that promote discussion. 5. Interpret student responses in
3. Emphasize key strategies including comparison to benchmark cognitive
questioning, predicting, summariz- and linguistic skills appropriate for
ing, clarifying, and associating the age and grade.
unknown with what is known. 6. Use information for instructional
4. Use graphic or three-dimensional planning and classroom grouping.
modeling of text structure. Use several kinds of assessment to
5. Model and encourage flexible use of measure change over time.
strategies, including self-monitoring.
H. Composition
1. Create a community of authors in
the classroom.
2. Create frequent opportunities for

TEACHING READING IS ROCKET SCIENCE / 35


DESIGN: BORNSTEIN ASSOCIATES / COVER PHOTOGRAPH: BRUCE GILBERT / OTHER PHOTOGRAPHS: BRUCE GILBERT, DON IPOCK, CHRISTOBAL PEREZ, RITA REED
Just about all
children can be
taught to read
and deserve no
less from their
teachers.
There is no
more important
challenge for
education to
undertake.
Item No. 39-0372
Reprinted March 2004

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