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ECGAmplifier
BasicRequirements
Essentialfunctionofabiopotential amplifieristotakea weakelectricsignalsofbiologicaloriginandincreaseits amplifier Theymusthavehighinputimpedancesothattheyprovide minimalloadingtoavoiddistortionofthesignal.Typical inputimpedancesare1M. Inputcircuitmustprovideprotection.Nocurrentsmust appearattheinputterminals. Outputcircuitisprimarilyusedtodrivetheamplifierload output p impedance p shouldbelow. Biopotential amplifiersmustbedesignedtobeoptimalina particularfrequencyrangeasneededbythesignalto obtainoptimal p signal g tonoiseratios.
ECGRecordingSystem
Thefirststageisatransducer(AgCl electrode),which convertECGinto i electrical l i lvoltage. l The h voltage l is i in i the h rangeof1mV~5mV Thesecondstageisaninstrumentationamplifier,which hasaveryhighCMRR(90dB)andhighgain(1000) Optocouplertoisolatetheinputandoutputofamplifier byconvertingtheelectricalsignaltolightandthenback Bandpass filterof0.04Hzto150Hzfilter.Normally implementedbycascadingalowpassfilterandahigh passfilter.
CardiacVector
Heartgeneratesanelectricalsignal Electricalactivityoftheheartcanbemodeledasan electricdipolelocatedinaconductingmediumwhere adipoleconsistsofpointsofequalpositiveand negativechargeseparatedfromoneanotherandis denotedbythedipolemoment Thedipolemomentisavectorfromnegativecharge topositivechargehavingthemagnitudeproportional totheseparationofthesecharges. Thisdipolemomentiscalledthecardiacvector, representedbyM Itsmagnitudeanddirectionvaryduringthecardiac cycleasthedipolefieldvariesitself. Thecardiacvectorindicatesthedirectionofthe depolarizationintime.
Wewanttocapturethe cardiacvectorMbylooking at tvector t components t . Wecandothatby connectingleadsonthe surfaceofthebodyto d detect biopotentials, b l then h a1 thevoltagedifference introducedintheleadisthe projectionofthecardiac vector Aleadisdefinedasa connectionbetween2 electrodesplacedonthe body
Va1=M.a1=|M|cos M
a2
a1 +
Figure6.2 6 2Relationshipsbetweenthetwolead vectorsa1 anda2 andthecardiacvectorM.The componentofM inthedirectionofa1 isgivenby thedotproductofthesetwovectorsanddenoted onthefigurebyval.Leadvectora2 isperpendicular tothecardiacvector,sonovoltagecomponentis seeninthislead.
ExampleofLeads Eindhovenstriangle
Connectionbetween2 electrodes The Th primary i leads l d are
LeadI:LAtoRA LeadII:LLtoRA LeadIII:LLtoLA RLforground
ForaleadIIsystemwhichis very ycommon, ,LLandRAare fedtotheinputsofthe instrumentation diff differential ti lamplifier lifi
I+III=II
ConceptofWilsonsCentralTerminal
Wilsonetal.suggestedtheuse ofthecentralterminal asa referenceformeasuringthe electrodepotentials Thisreferencewasformedby connectinga5kWresistor fromthelimbelectrodetothe commonpoint point. Wilsonsterminalisnotground buttheaverageofthelimb potentialswiththetotal currentatthispointtobezero Thereareotherlead configurationscalled AugmentedLeads
OtherLeads Augmented
Forsignalaugmentation Disconnecttheunipolar electrodey youaremeasuring gfromthewilsons terminalandthenmeasure
ChestLeads
V1V6Chestleads V3V4bestforseptal defects Themostcommonlyused clinicalECGsystem,the12 leadECGsystem,consistsof thefollowing12leads leads,which are: I,II,III aVR,aVL,aVF V1,V2,V3,V4,V5,V6
ECGWave
ECGNominal Data
wave P Q R S T
DesignofanECGcircuit
Rightleg electrode Sensing electrodes Leadfail detect Driven rightleg circuit
ADC
Memory
Lead selector
Preamplifier
Isolation circuit
Driver amplifier
Recorder printer
Parallelcircuitsforsimultaneousrecordingsfromdifferentleads
Figure6.7Blockdiagramofanelectrocardiograph
MainComponentsoftheECGCircuit
Preamplifier InitialAmplification NeedsveryhighI/Pimpedance HighCMRR Typically,itisa3opamp differentialamplifierwitha gaincontrolswitch DriverAmplifier AmplificationoftheECGsignalfor appropriaterecording Isolationcircuitry BlockstheECGfrompowerline frequencies eque c es Drivenrightlegcircuit Providesareferencepointonthe bodyinsteadofground
PreamplifierDesign
Design g Specifications p AmplificationRange:202000 FrequencyRange(0.05150Hz) HighInputImpedance2.5M Hi hCMRR(Ex High (E 60dB) Step1:SingleOpampDifferentialAmplifier
Forthisdifferentialamplifier
VOUT =(V1 V2)R4/R3
ForaCMRR>60dBorCMRR>1000 Gd/Gc>1000 Gd isgovernedbyR4/R3ifwechoose R4=47K R4 47KandR3 R3=10K 10K,Gd=4 4.7 7and Gc=0.0047whichisgoodCommon Moderejection.WecanreplaceR4in yapotentiometer p to thiscircuitby adjusttoincreasecommonmode rejection.
PreamplifierDesignCont.
Step2:Considerthe2opampstageanddesign itforhighgain
VOUT Gain=
PreamplifierDesignCont.
Step3:Cascadethe2opampstagewiththe differentialamplifier
TotalGainoftheinstrumentationamplifier =4.7*5.4~25
STEP5
PreamplifierwithFiltering
LowPass f=1/(2*pi*RC)~106Hz Truncates frequencies>106Hz
STEP4
Someadditionaldesignconsiderations
Highgainstagesearlyinthesignalpath. However,theHighPassFilterstage shouldbeplacedimmediatelyafterthe d ff differential lamplifier l f tochop h off ffthe h DC componentofitsoutput.Otherwise,this DCcomponentwillbeamplifiedbythe gainstage g g andmay ysaturatethe followingopamps
ItsgainisdeterminedbytheresistorRg.
2nd orderfilterSalleyKeyhighpassfilter
ProblemswithECG.
InterferencefromElectricDevices Powerline interference
Powerline C2 Z1 Id1 Id2 C1 120V C3
Thereiselectricfieldcoupling betweenthepowerlineandthelead wiresand/orECGamplifier.This couplingismodeledasacapacitor.It causesacurrenttoflowfromthe Z2 powerlinethroughtheskinelectrode impedancethroughthebodyto ground.Bodyimpedanceislow~ 500.HencethevoltageVA VB = Id1*Z1Id2*Z2.Iftheelectrodesare placedclosetogetherthecurrentsare approximatelythesame.VA VB = Id1*(Z1Z2)~120VifId1isinnA and differenceofZ1Z2isinK.Thisis quitehigh. Thiscanbeminimizedbyshielding theleadsandgroundingeachshield attheECGunit.Alsoloweringskin electrodeimpedancesmayhelp.
A B Electrocardiograph G
ZG
Id1+Id2
ProblemswithECG.
Powerline 120V Cb idb
Thereisalsoapossibilityofcurrentfromthepowerline toflowthroughthebodyasshowncausingacommon modelvoltagetoappearinthesignal. ThemagnitudeofthissignalisVcm=idb*Z ZG.Typicalvalues are10mVforidb=0.2AandZG=50K. Foraperfectamplifierthisisnoproblemasthe differentialamplifierwithrejectthecommonmode signal.Butforrealamplifierswithfiniteinput impedance,thereissomeVcm thatappearsinthe output output. VAVB=Vcm ((Z2Z1)/Zin)ifZ1 andZ2 are<<Zin. Hencethe h skin k electrode l d impedances d become b critical lin thedesignofthebiopotential amplifiers.Anyimbalance intheinputcontributetothecommonmodesignal.
cm
Z1 cm
Z2
cm ZG idb
Figure6.11 Currentflowsfromthe powerlinethroughthebodyand ground dimpedance, i d th thuscreating ti a commonmodevoltageeverywhereon Henceweneedtokeepinputimpedancehigh Andskinelectrodeimpedanceequaltoremovecommon thebody.
modevoltagessuchaspowerline interference
ProblemswithECGCont.
Othersourcesof interference Magneticfieldpickup EMGi interference t f
Figure6.12Magneticfieldpickupby theelctrocardiograph (a)Leadwiresfor leadImakeaclosedloop(shadedarea) whenpatientandelectrocardiograph areconsideredinthecircuit.The changeinmagneticfieldpassing throughthisareainducesacurrentin theloop.(b)Thiseffectcanbe minimizedbytwistingtheleadwires togetherandkeepingthemclosetothe bodyinordertosubtendamuch smallerarea.
ProblemswithTransients
ToprotecttheECGcircuitagainsthighvoltagesweneedvoltage limitingcircuitry. TheseoccurforexampleintheoperatingroomwhentheECGis combinedwiththeuseofanelectrosurgicalunitthatwillinduce hightransientvoltagesintothepatient. Voltagelimitingdevicessuchasdiodesareusedforprotectingthe ECGcircuitryandareconnectedbetweentheleadandRLground.
Figure6.13Avoltageprotectionscheme attheinputofanelectrocardiograph
OtherProblemsfrequently encounteredwiththeECG
FrequencyDistortion:Highfrequency distortion RoundingofftheQRS waveformanddiminishingits amplitude.Lowfrequencydistortion baselineisnolongerhorizontalafteran event. Saturationorcutoffdistortion High Figure6.8Effectofavoltagetransientonan ECGrecordedonanelectrocardiographin offsetvoltagesandimproperlyadjusted whichthetransientcausestheamplifierto amplifierscanproducesaturatedECGs. saturate,andafiniteperiodoftimeis PeaksoftheQRSarecutoff requiredforthechargetobleedoffenough tobringtheECGbackintotheamplifiers GroundLoops If1groundof1device activeregionofoperation.Thisisfollowedby ishigherthantheECGground,a afirstorderrecoveryofthesystem. g thep patient currentwillflowthrough presentingasafetyproblemaswellas ArtifactsfromLargeTransients elevatingthepatientsbodypotential Causealargeabruptdeflectioninthe projectingerroneousvoltagesinthe ECG,takelongtimeforrecoverydue ECG tothelargechargebuiltupinthe capacitors.
Commonmodereductioncircuits
Commonmodesignalfromthebodyor powerlineisaproblem.Eventhough theamplifierwillhelpineliminating thesebecauseofthehighCMRR,we cantrytoeliminatethecommonmodel signalatthesource.Forinstance Electric l and dMagneticf field ldpickup k can beminimizedbyelectrostaticshielding RL andtwistingofleadwires. Another h solution l i i isthe h Driven i Right i h LegR SystemwheretheRLelectrodeis connectedtotheO/Pofanauxiliary opamp Thecommonmodesignal opamp. sensedbythevoltagefollowersis amplifiedandfedbacktothebody raisingtheRLpotential. potential Thisnegative feedbackcausestheoutputcommon modesignaltobelow.
cm
id + 3 Ra
+ 4
Ra Rf Auxiliary op pamp p + Ro
RL
EMGAmplifier BasicsandDesign
EMGstandsforelectromyogram Itismeasurementofelectricalpotentialscreatedbythecontractionof muscles. Musclesgeneratevoltagesaround100mVwhentheycontract.These voltages lt aregreatly tl attenuated tt t d b byi internal t ltissue ti and dthe th skin, ki and dthey th areweakbutmeasurableatthesurfaceoftheskin. TypicalsurfaceEMGsignalsforlargemuscles,suchasthebicep,are around12mVinamplitude. EMGsignalscontainfrequenciesrangingfrom10Hzorlowerupto1kHz orhigher. ToobserveanEMGsignal,weneedtobuildadifferentialamplifierwith highcommonmoderejection Thedominantcommonmodevoltagesignalsonourbodiesisusuallya60 Hzsinewavethatiscapacitively coupledtousfromthe120VACwiringin thewalls. Werejectthissignalbylookingatthedifferenceinvoltagebetweentwo nearbypointsontheskinoverthemuscleofinterest. Wewillalsowanttouseacircuitthedrawsnearlyzerocurrentfromthe p leads, ,sincedccurrentp passedthrough g EMGelectrodescanleadto input largedcoffsetsanddegradethelongtermusefulnessoftheelectrodes.
WecanbuildanEMGcircuitusinganinstrumentationamplifierwithopamps suchas LM741andLM324(BJTdevicesinputcurrentsof100500nA)orTL084devicewithJFETs inputcurrents<0.2nA ordeviceswithMOSFETS(lowerinputcurrents,buttheygenerally exhibithigherlevelsofnoise). noise) TL084isidenticaltothatoftheLM324inthepindiagram Forsafetythebestmethodistoconnecttwo9Vbatteriesforpowersupply Youcandesigntheinstrumentationamplifier(3opamp one)wediscussedinclass.For exampleyoucansetagainof201. 201 Gainis (1 + 2R2/R1)(R4/R3) Wecanusevalueslike10KforallresistorsexceptR2and1MforR2togetanoverall gainof201.Youcanmeasuretheoverallgainofyourcircuitbyapplyingasmallamplitude 1KHzsinewavefromafunctiongenerator.Youcanessentiallyplotgainoverfrequencyfor varyingI/Pfrequency. ToobserveanEMGweneedEMGelectrodes.Wecansticktwooftheseelectrodesonthe muscleofinterest(ex.bicep,closetoeachotherbutnotoverlapping).The3rd electrode canbe b stuck t kto t th theb bonei inyourelbow lb of fthe th samearmand dthat th tis i connected t dto t ground d i in theEMGcircuit.Connectyourelbowtocircuitground.Thiswillkeepyourbodypotential nearyourcircuitsgroundpotential.Sincetherearenomusclesatyourelbowtogenerate electricp potentials, ,thisisagood g grounding g gp point.Connecttheothertwoelectrodestothe inputoftheopamp andobservetheresponseontheoscilloscopebyflexingthebicep. Amplitudesvisualizedshouldbe100300mV.ToavoidanyDCoffsetsfromtheelectrodes wecanaddhighpassfiltertotheinstrumentationamplifier.Withcutoffaround10Hz