6 Changing rights and freedoms In this topic you will learn about: Aboriginal people change over time; changing government policies towards Aboriginal people including: protection, assimilation, integration and self-determination group: the experience of the stolen generation events and issues: the role of Aboriginal peoples in the struggle for freedoms and rights including: the 1967 referendum; land rights and Native Title Migrants the changing patterns of migration 19452000 the experience of a migrant group: a migrant group; and enemy aliens in WWI the role of one of the following: the Snowy Mountains Scheme, 1970s boat people and multiculturalism Women change over time: the achievements of the womens movement in the post-WWII period the experience of one of the following: women during the Great Depression, womens liberationists in the post-WWII period the role of one of the following in the changing rights and freedoms of Australian women: womans suffrage, women in parliament and equal pay for women In this topic you will learn to: account for continuity and/or change over time in the relevant study examine the experiences of the chosen groups using a range of sources outline the important developments in a key event/issue relating to the chosen study explain the significance of the event/issue for the changing rights and freedoms of the chosen study Inquiry questions 6.1 How have the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal peoples and other groups in Australia changed during the post-war period? Changing rights and freedoms 231 Changing rights and freedoms Chronology 1944 Liberal Party is formed in December. 1945 First atomic bomb is dropped on Hiroshima, Japan, in August. End of World War II. First Sydney-to-Hobart yacht race. 1946 Trans-Australia Airways establishes services connecting all capital cities. Scheme to encourage European migration to Australia. 1947 Boom in migration and the birth rate. Australian Broadcasting Commission begins broadcasting an independent news service. 1948 First mass-produced motor car in Australia. 1949 Federal legislation conditionally allows Aboriginal peoples to vote in federal elections. Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Authority created. LiberalCountry Party federal government. 1950s Significant rise in the birth rate known as the baby boom. 1953 Australian Atomic Energy Commission is established. 1954 Royal Tour of Australia by Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip. 1955 Post-war immigration reaches 1 million. 1956 Commencement of first regular Australian television service. Melbourne hosts the Olympic Games. Federal provision for Asian immigrants to gain citizenship after 15 years residence. 1958 Abolition of dictation test for non-English-speaking immigrants. 1960s Major growth in trade with Asian countries. 1961 Oral contraceptives for women are commercially available. 1962 Aboriginal people given the vote in Commonwealth elections. First university Chair of Australian Literature is established. 1965 First report by Professor Ronald Henderson on poverty, which focuses on Melbourne. 1966 New boom in immigration. Japan becomes Australias largest overseas export market. Introduction of decimal currency. Senator Dame Annabelle Rankin is the first woman to become a federal minister. 1967 Referendum to count Aboriginal people in the census and to allow the Commonwealth to make laws for them. Referendum has the highest majority ever. Postcodes are introduced. 1970 Net immigration begins to decrease. Germaine Greers The Female Eunuch is published. 1971 Anti-apartheid demonstrations are held during the South African Springbok rugby tour in Australia. 1972 Whitlam Labor government is elected to office on 2 December. Whitlam government abolishes the White Australia Policy. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 232 6.1a How have the rights and freedoms of Aboriginal peoples in Australia changed during the post-war period? Change over time The paternalistic view In the period 1901 to 1914, the various state governments maintained the same attitude towards Aboriginal peoples as the British colonists had in 1788. This attitude was based on a belief that the Aboriginal peoples were uncivilised and inferior to Europeans because they did not have clothes, a Christian religion or the English language. Most of all, they were not white and were savages. These attitudes led to paternalism towards the Aboriginal peoples by the whites. Paternalism comes from the word paternal, meaning fatherly. In terms of government action, it means taking fatherly control of people who are believed to be unable to act for themselves. Paternalism is sometimes well-intentioned, but it is based on the belief that one group is superior and they must do what is best for the inferior group. The paternalistic view of state governments, church leaders and the white population meant that Aboriginal people were not consulted about what was best for them. It was believed that their life would be improved by Christianity, schooling and following the white mans ways. The forcing of Aboriginal people from traditional land was connected to paternalism. White Australians considered their needs for the land to be superior to those of Aboriginal peoples. It was believed that placing displaced Aboriginal people on reserves or missions and giving them handouts of food and basic supplies was humane; that life in a building was better than wandering in a bush. These paternalistic attitudes were the result of ignorance of Aboriginal culture and lifestyle. Even expert white people, such as Daisy Bates (18591951), who had lived among Aboriginal people, suggested that they should be gathered into a large, central reserve closed to outsiders until the Aboriginal people had established their own form of government. They were to be allowed to keep their traditions, but would be taught how to farm. The need to isolate (or segregate) Aboriginal peoples from the white population was also related to paternalism. Isolating Aboriginal people on reserves was seen as one way of protecting them from European diseases and alcohol. However, this action did not take into account the fact that traditional land, not the land of a reserve, was important to Aboriginal peoples. Paternalism in terms of government means implementing regulations in order to manage a group in the manner of a father. Source 6.1 Aboriginal children with a missionary, c.1910. In what ways does this photograph show paternalism? Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 233 Paternalism and the Dreaming Traditional land was connected to the Dreaming (also known as the Dreamtime). The Dreaming involved legends about the past, how things were created and the laws to be followed. It involved the present and the future. The Dreaming bound Aboriginal people to everything in their lives and their environment. This is explained in source 6.2. Source 6.2 The Dreaming In the beginning was the Dreamtime, the time of creation, Alcheringa Dreamtime lives in Aboriginal legends handed down for at least 40,000 years. In song, story and poetry, art, drama and dance, the Dreamtime tells how the Spirit Ancestors formed and gave life to the land and laid down the Law For Aboriginal people the Dreamtime explains the origin of the universe, the workings of nature and the nature of humanity, the cycle of life and death. It shapes Aboriginal life by regulating kinship, family life with a network of obligations to people, land and spirits Dreamtime is continuous and present, a cycle of life without beginning or end Dreaming is the life of the spirit and the imagination Most of all, Dreamtime is the religious experience, the spiritual tie that binds Aboriginal people to the land that owns them. Dreamtime is the spirit of the land. In most of modern Australia, the Dreamtime was the web of life, the harmony of all things that was shattered by the white invasion. Nigel Parbury, Survival: A History of Aboriginal Life in New South Wales, published by the NSW Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs in 1986, revised 1988 Linked to the Dreaming is the importance of objects and places connected to the Spirit Ancestors. To the Aboriginal people, their territory is not simply trees, hills, caves and rivers. These are places created by the Spirit Ancestors who lived in the landscape. In fact, these ancestors had changed themselves into the natural features of the environment. Such places are sacred sites. The Aboriginal view of life is that humans, animals and natural features are all part of the same life-force. Each group has a totem (place, animal, fish or bird) which represents their Spirit Ancestor from the Dreaming. Each person also has a personal totem based on happenings during their mothers pregnancy. The people, land, totems and life form an Aboriginal persons system. Each Aboriginal group had its own territory, with its special features. Moving a group to a reserve, away from these special features, meant disconnecting them from life itself. This was not understood by those with paternalistic attitudes. Aboriginal people also held the land in great respect and saw it as the mother that gives life to all. It was important to care for the land, to preserve and conserve it. They knew that, in order to survive, they must protect the balance between themselves and nature. For this reason, Aboriginal society preferred tradition, continuity and little change. Source 6.3 Aboriginal ties with particular land Contrary to the beliefs of the first white observers, Aboriginal groups did have definite ties with particular pieces of land. They were not complete nomads, but rather semi-nomadic: that is they camped at different temporary campsites within their own identifiable territory. Though the tie with the territory was not obvious to the European eye, it was in fact stronger than the same tie in western society. M. Prentis, A Study in Black and White: The Aborigines in Australian History (2nd edn), Social Science Press, Katoomba NSW,1988 A totem is something in nature that is seen as an emblem of a family or clan. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 234 Working historically Comprehension 1 In your own words, define paternalism as it applied to Aboriginal peoples from 1901 to 1914. 2 Why did white Australians at this time have paternalistic views about Aboriginal peoples? 3 What was wrong with the idea of putting dispossessed Aboriginal people on reserves? 4 Below is a list of statements about Aboriginal peoples. Decide whether each statement is paternalistic or not and explain why. a Aboriginal people need looking after. b Aboriginal culture is primitive. c Aboriginal people cannot control their lives. d Aboriginal people can be improved by Christianity. e Aboriginal people are better off if placed on reserves. Analysis and use of sources 1 From source 6.2, list three things that the Dreamtime explains to the Aboriginal peoples. 2 According to source 6.2, what is the most important feature of the Dreamtime in Aboriginal religious beliefs? 3 Explain what is meant by the harmony of all things that was shattered by the white invasion. 4 How does source 6.3 support the case that Europeans did not understand the connection between specific Aboriginal groups and specific pieces of land? 5 Here is a scenario: The establishment of a town and farms led to the dispossession of a local Aboriginal group. A paternalistic group proposes to move the displaced people to a reserve 300 kilometres away, where they can live their own way. What information from sources 6.2 and 6.3 could you use to argue against this case? List your points. Communication Using your points from question 5 above, and from what you have learnt in this section, write a one-page exposition to argue the case against placing the Aboriginal people on reserves. The policy of protection Chronology of protection in the 19th century 1838 Royal Society for Protection of Aborigines is established in the colony of New South Wales. Protectors are given money and land to set up stations. At the stations, Aboriginal people are taught to farm and Aboriginal children are taught European culture. 1857 New South Wales Protectorates are closed down. Aboriginal people are not interested in them and white settlers are against government money being spent on Aboriginal peoples. 1881 New South Wales Government appoints a Protector of Aborigines. The Protector has power to set up reserves and force Aboriginal people to live on them. Aboriginal peoples have no political or legal power to object. 1893 The Aborigines Protection Board is established in New South Wales. Aboriginal affairs in Western Australia were under the control of the British Parliament until 1897. Victoria appointed an Aborigines Protection Board in 1860. Queensland established two Protectors in 1897. The policy of protection for Aboriginal peoples was connected with paternalism. This policy had its origins in the 19th century and was described by one authority to smooth the pillow of a dying race. The previous chronology will help you to understand the idea of protection. Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 235 In 1909, the Aborigines Protection Act was passed in New South Wales. It led to the appointment of two white guardians who had many powers to control Aboriginal peoples. Some of these are outlined in source 6.4. The Victorian Aborigines Act 1886, like the policies of all Australian states, also put Aboriginal affairs into the hands of others. Source 6.5 contains extracts from that Act. Many Aboriginal people were forced to live on reserves, and suffered as a result. Under the policy of protection, Aboriginal children could be removed from their families and sent to homes to be trained as servants or farm labourers. The Cootamundra Girls Home was established in 1911. The purpose of protection and the way it operated is described in source 6.6 by the historian Malcolm Prentis. Source 6.4 Aborigines Protection Act 1909 (NSW) There shall be a board for the Protection of Aborigines and it will be headed by the Inspector-General of Police. The Board will appoint managers of reserves. The duties of the board will be to: control the money for assisting Aborigines distribute blankets and clothing to Aborigines have custody of Aboriginal children and educate them manage reserves supervise all matters affecting Aborigines remove from the reserves any Aborigines who should be earning their own living. NSW Parliamentary Debates, 1909 Source 6.5 Aborigines Act 1886 (Vic.) The Governor in Council may make regulations and orders: For prescribing the place where any aboriginal or any tribe of aboriginals shall reside: For prescribing terms on which contracts for and on behalf of aboriginals may by made with persons other than aboriginals For apportioning amongst aboriginals the earnings of aboriginals under any contract For the care custody and education of the children of aboriginals All bedding, clothing and other articles issued or distributed to the aboriginals shall be considered on loan only, and shall remain the property of His Majesty Victorian Parliament, 1915, 6 George V, No. 2610 Source 6.6 The policy of protection It has been described by some authorities as a system of protectionsegregation: that is, separation of Aborigines from white society in order to protect them from its bad effects In its protective aspect, the policy did provide for medical care (stations often had matrons), rations, and such things as fishing tackle and agricultural implements; and blankets were still distributed. It was sometimes the policy to place children in homes or stations or even taking them from their parents; it was thought in this way they could be salvaged from the primitive lifestyle of their parents Education was another means of raising particularly Aboriginal children to civilisation. This tended to be left to Christian missions. M. Prentis, A Study in Black and White: The Aborigines in Australian History (2nd edn), Social Science Press, Katoomba NSW, 1988 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 236 Working historically In 1911, control of the Northern Territory was transferred from South Australia to the federal government. This gave the Commonwealth responsibility for looking after the 20 000 full-blooded and several hundred half-caste Aboriginal people of this territory and occurred at a time when some members of the public were calling for better treatment of Indigenous Australians. The federal government, under the Commonwealth Aboriginals Ordinance 1912, established an Aboriginal Department under a Chief Protector and allowed for the creation of reserves. The Chief Protector had the power to take any Aboriginal person into his custody and, along with the police, could arrest Aboriginal people without the need for a warrant. Further, under the ordinance, all marriages between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people could only take place with the permission of the minister for external affairs. How did Aboriginal peoples react to protectionism? In the period up to 1914, Aboriginal peoples were forced to accept protectionism. One Aboriginal person complained that the Europeans had stolen his country and were now stealing Aboriginal children by taking them away to live in huts, work and read books like whitefellows. It was not until Aboriginal activists such as the Australian Aborigines Progressive Association (1924) and the Australian Aborigines League (1932) pushed for reform that changes were made. Comprehension 1 Using the scale 1 cm = 5 years, draw a timeline and place on it these events: a appointment of a Protector of Aborigines in New South Wales b Aborigines Protection Act passed in New South Wales c Aborigines Protection Board established in New South Wales d Commonwealth government takes over Aboriginal affairs in Northern Territory 2 Why do you think the policy of protection was developed? 3 How were rights of Aboriginal peoples different from those of non-Aboriginal peoples under protection? 4 What relationship can you see between paternalism and protection? Analysis and use of sources 1 Refer to source 6.4. Who was in charge of the Aborigines Protection Board? 2 Use source 6.4 to decide whether the following statements are true or false: a Aboriginal people living on reserves had control over their own money. b Aboriginal parents had custody of their own children. c Aboriginal people were able to manage and run the reserves themselves. d All Aboriginal people were allowed to live on the reserves. 3 How do sources 6.4 and 6.6 help you to understand the policy of protection? 4 Refer to source 6.5. What powers did the Aboriginal peoples have for determining where they lived? 5 If a group of Aboriginal people earned money, could they decide how they would share it among themselves? 6 Refer to sources 6.5 and 6.5. Was the legislation in each state similar or different? 7 Refer to source 6.6. Why were Aboriginal children placed in homes? 8 Is there evidence in sources 6.4 and 6.5 (primary sources) to support the view of Prentis in source 6.6 (a secondary source)? Communication Source 6.7 contains a description of New South Wales protection legislation. Using this model, write a description of the Victorian legislation for the protection of Aboriginal peoples. Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 237 The policy of assimilation Source 6.7 Model of a description of New South Wales protection legislation Orientation that introduces the reader to the subject of the description The legislation in New South Wales relates to the protection policy was the Aborigines Protection Act 1909. A series of paragraphs to describe each feature of the legislation A conclusion to signal the end of the description The first section of the legislation established a Board for the Protection of Aboriginals. The head of this board was to be the Inspector-General of Police. The next section tells of the Boards authority to appoint managers of reserves. No details are given on who these managers should be. The final section of the legislation details the duties of the Board. Six duties are listed including controlling the money of Aborigines and custody of Aboriginal children. The legislation provides historians with an understanding of how the policy of protection was applied to Aboriginal people in NSW in the 1900s. Source 6.8 Cootamundra Domestic Training Home for Aboriginal Girls, c.1940s Source 6.9 The aim of assimilation [It aimed to have] all persons of Aboriginal blood or mixed blood living like white Australians Sharman Stone (ed.), Aborigines in White Australia: A Documentary History, Heinemann, Melbourne, 1974 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 238 The policy of assimilation replaced that of protectionism during the 1940s in Australia. The aim of assimilation is given in source 6.9. During the 1930s, improved methods of communication led to greater contact between the city and the outback, with more people becoming aware of the Aboriginal problem. At the same time, a number of Christian missionaries and anthropologists began to question the governments policy of protection and segregation of Aboriginal peoples onto reserves. Professor A.P. Elkin of the University of Sydney and T.G.H. Strehlow of Adelaide argued that protection should be replaced by assimilation. Aboriginal peoples themselves also began to actively seek better treatment. At the 1937 Conference of Commonwealth and State Aboriginal Authorities, agreement was reached on moving from the passive policy of protection to a more positive policy described as assimilation. Assimilation meant Aboriginal peoples would be encouraged and assisted to become like white Australians and they were to have the same rights as white Australians. They were to forget their own culture and live as Europeans. The policy was based on the mistaken belief that all Aboriginal people wanted to accept the loss of their own culture. A later government definition of assimilation is contained in source 6.11. An anthropologist is a person who studies human society and culture. Source 6.10 Professor A.P. Elkin was a proponent of assimilation Source 6.11 Government definition of assimilation All Aborigines and part-Aborigines are expected eventually to attain the same manner of living as other Australians and to live as members of a single Australian community enjoying the same rights and privileges, accepting the same responsibilities, observing the same customs, and influenced by the same beliefs, hopes and loyalties as other Australians. Conference of State Ministers, 1961 Source 6.12 Exemption certificates Aborigines had to apply and be recommended to achieve an exemption, which meant proving to the DWO that they were willing to live separately from other Aboriginal people, to work in approved regular jobs and to save for approved purchases. Home furnishings would be approved, for example, but sharing of wages with kinfolk or spending money for travel to maintain extended family relationships would be definitely disapproved. Denial or revocation of exemption certificates meant families were more vulnerable to school segregations and to loss of their children, were far less likely to receive Federal unemployment benefits or old-age pensions, and were denied access to hotels and alcohol, which meant exclusion from the labour exchange of many country towns as well as from the social network of the rural male workforce. Despite the high cost of not participating in the exemption process, many Aborigines refused to be humiliated into applying for what they called a Dog Licence. Adapted from Heather Goodhall, Invasion to Embassy: Land in Aboriginal Politics in New South Wales, 17701972, Allen & Unwin/Black Books, Sydney Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 239 In February 1939, John McEwen, the federal minister for the interior, announced that the assimilation policy would be applied in the Northern Territory. Aboriginal people were to be educated for full citizenship without distinction, either among other Aboriginal people or with white people. Through education and welfare measures, Aboriginal peoples were to be given equal opportunity. The New South Wales Aborigines Welfare Board held its first meeting in June 1940. But it was not until 1948 that district welfare officers (DWOs) were appointed to towns with large Aboriginal populations. DWOs had the power to issue exemption certificates to deserving Aborigines. These certificates allowed access to public education, housing and services on the same basis as white citizens. The influence of these certificates is described in source 6.12. Aboriginal children were frequently removed from their families as part of the assimilation policy. In source 6.13, Kathleen Miller, an Aboriginal girl removed from her family, describes her experience. Source 6.13 Live like a white person The common saying of the staff [to the Aboriginal girls taken to the Cootamundra Domestic Training Home for Aboriginal Girls] was live like a white person They were making us whitethink whitelook whiteact white. [We were told] there is a good chance that you will marry a white man and your children will be lighter and their children will be lighter until they are completely white. Kathleen Millers oral history record, 1982 Aboriginal people as citizens The federal and state governments continued aspects of the assimilation policy into the 1960s. In most cases, Aboriginal people did not receive equal opportunities: their wages were usually less than that paid to white workers; limited recognition was given to the role they played in the defence of Australia during World War II and in the cattle industry; and it was not until 1967 that the Constitution was altered to include Aboriginal peoples as Australian citizens. Source 6.14 Aboriginal children dressed in Western-style clothing Austral i a i n the 20th Century 240 Working historically Comprehension 1 In your own words, define what was meant by assimilation. 2 What was agreed to at the 1937 Conference of Commonwealth and State Aboriginal Authorities? 3 Who was John McEwen? 4 What were DWOs? 5 What were exemption certificates? 6 Did assimilation provide equal opportunity for Aboriginal peoples? Give reasons to support your answer. Analysis and use of sources 1 Read source 6.11. What do you think was meant by attain the same manner of living as other Australians? 2 Whose customs, beliefs, hopes and loyalties were Aboriginal people supposed to accept? 3 Read source 6.12. What did Indigenous Australians have to prove to get an exemption certificate? 4 Without an exemption certificate, what did Aboriginal Australians risk? 5 What name did Aboriginal peoples give to an exemption certificate? Why would they call it this? Communication A historical recount has the purpose of recording past events. It usually has three sections: an introduction that introduces the topic a record of events that are presented in chronological order a conclusion that can include a judgement about the importance of the events Source 6.15 A Macdonnell Range Creek, Albert Namatjira, 1944 Source 6.16 Aboriginal soldiers on parade, 1940 Australian War Memorial PO 2140.004 watercolour, gift of Howard Hinton 1945, Howard Hinton Collection, New England Regional Art Museum, Armidale, NSW. Reproduced with permission of Legend Press Pty Ltd. Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 241 Create a timeline that could be used to write the record of events section of a historical recount. Write an event that occurred next to each date. 1937 event 1939 event 1940 event Research 1 See if you can locate any of the writings of A.P. Elkin or T.G.H. Strehlow. 2 What is source 6.15? When was it painted and by whom? Find some information about the artist. From assimilation to integration Aboriginal peoples fought for the right to participate equally in mainstream society. But they did not want to lose their culture or identity, which was the aim of the assimilation policy. At the first conference of the Federal Council for the Advancement of Aborigines, Herbert Groves questioned the meaning of assimilation (source 6.17). At a 1965 Commonwealth Conference on Aboriginal policy, the policy of assimilation was changed to one of integration. Integration aimed at allowing Aboriginal culture and customs to co-exist with non-Aboriginal culture (see source 6.19). Source 6.17 Assimilation What does assimilation imply? Certainly, citizenship and equal statusso far, so good; but also the disappearance of the Aboriginals as a separate cultural group, and ultimately their physical absorption by the European part of the population. We feel that the word integration implies a truer definition of our aims and objects. Cited by Len Fox (compiler), Aborigines in New South Wales, AAF, Sydney, 1960, p. 23 Source 6.19 Integration In time [the assimilation] policy came under attack, with critics pointing to its denial of Aboriginal culture, the arrogant assumption of the superiority of the white culture, and the dependency that it helped engender. For a time, integration became Commonwealth policy, though it was difficult to detect the differences between assimilation and integration. With attitudes thus changing though not in Queensland, which remained determinedly assimilationist in its approach until well into the 1980s the other State governments began to reform many of the laws that denied Aborigines equality with the rest of the Australian community. Scott Bennett, White Politics and Black Australians, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1999, p. 60 Source 6.18 Schoolchildren in Ernabella, South Australia, 1963 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 242 Working historically Comprehension 1 Read source 6.17. What did assimilation imply? 2 When did integration become Commonwealth policy? 3 What policy did integration replace? 4 What did integration aim to do? 5 According to source 6.19, did the adoption of the policy of integration bring an end to assimilationist practices? Self-determination Self-determination is the right for a nation or group of people to determine and control all aspects of their lives. In Australia, self-determination involves Aboriginal peoples having the right to navigate their needs and wants. Essential elements to the full achievement of self-determination include secure ownership of land; local community control of land; local community control of services and community affairs; and genuine involvement in the creation of all government policies relating to Indigenous peoples. For many Aboriginal communities, ownership of at least a part of their traditional land is a vital step in the achievement of self-determination. Self-determination is linked to many issues. Some examples are: the return of human remains and secret or sacred material by museums; the recognition of customary law; access to culturally appropriate education; the provision of culturally appropriate housing in communities. The establishment of Aboriginal-run social welfare, education, health and cultural organisations is an important element in the move towards self- determination. Examples of organisations established by Aboriginal people in Sydney in the 1970s include the Aboriginal Legal Service, the Aboriginal Medical Service, and the National Aboriginal and Islander Dance Theatre. Tranby Aboriginal College was established in 1958. Self-determination is also Commonwealth government policy. In 1972, the Australian Labor Party adopted a policy of self-determination for Aboriginal peoples. The Liberal Party developed a policy of self-management. In 1996 the policy was changed to self- empowerment (see source 6.19). In the 1970s, the first steps were made towards allowing formalised Aboriginal input into government decision-making about Aboriginal issues. In 1973, the National Aboriginal Consultative Committee (NACC) was established to advise the minister for Aboriginal affairs. But the NACC had no power and they were frequently ignored in their advisory role. Source 6.20 Two policies compared The Whitlam and subsequent Labor governments put forth self-determination as their central policy in Aboriginal affairs but seemed reluctant, or at least tardy, in giving effect and substance to the proper meaning of the policy by allowing Aboriginals to place their hands on the controls of the system In the end there was no difference in the two policiesthey became confused and synonymous with each other with the stronger term being diminished to the meaning of the weaker. P. Donnelly, Senior Department of Aboriginal Affairs (Commonwealth) Officer, address to Aboriginal and Islander Catholic Council, Rockhampton, 9 January 1990, quoted in Frank Brennan, Sharing the Country: The Case for an Agreement Between Black and White Australians, Penguin Books, Ringwood,1994, p. 49 Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 243 Working historically Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission In 1990, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC) was formed, as the national policy-making and service delivery agency for Indigenous peoples. The extent of indigenous control of ATSIC, however, was severely limited by the level of government and ministerial control exercised over funding and policy decisions. The future of Indigenous self- determination is uncertain. The conservative Howard federal government made moves to abolish ATSIC in 2004. Aboriginal peoples now have much greater input into government policy than under previous assimilationist regimes. Aboriginal Australians now run many social welfare, education and cultural organisations. Limited forms of land rights and native title now exist. Total self-determination, however, has not yet been achieved. Input into the policy process does not ensure that Aboriginal views are reflected in the developed policy. Control still lies in non-Aboriginal hands. Aboriginal people still suffer from enormous economic and social disadvantages in Australian society. In 1991, Commissioner Elliot Johnston commented on this in his report on the Royal Commission into Black Deaths in Custody (see source 6.22). Source 6.21 ATSIC chairperson (2000) Geoff Clark Source 6.22 Commissioner Johnstons report that substantial change in the situation of Aboriginal people in Australia will not occur unless government and non-Aboriginal society accept the necessity for Aboriginal people to be empowered to identify, effect and direct the changes which are required. The process of empowerment is at the same time the process of self-determination. Deaths in Custody National Report, Vol. 4, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra Comprehension 1 Name four elements of self-determination. 2 Name five issues that are relevant to self-determination. 3 When did the Australian Labor Party adopt the policy of self-determination? 4 When was the National Aboriginal Consultative Committee formed? 5 What was the role of the NACC? 6 When was ATSIC formed? 7 What is the role of ATSIC? Analysis and use of sources 1 Read source 6.22. Why do you think that self-determination is necessary in order to change the disadvantaged social and economic situation of Aboriginal peoples in Australia? 2 Do you think that Aboriginal Australians have achieved self-determination? Communication 1 Define self-determination in your own words. 2 Select an issue and explain how self-determination is relevant to this issue. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 244 Group The stolen generations Source 6.23 The Aborigines Protection Board Regulation, 1916 The Aboriginal Protection Board was established in 1883. Its purpose was to control the lives and movements of Aboriginal people. In 1916, the Board adopted a new set of rules for Aborigines. One of the rules was for female children. All girls reaching the age of 14 years, shall leave the reserve. In order to effect this result, the mothers shall be given the option and opportunity of themselves placing their girls out in situations [such as domestic servants] to the satisfaction of the Boards officers. If they fail to do this within a period of one month, after being notified, the Boards Inspectors shall have the power to ... [send] such girls to Sydney or to Cootamundra Home for a period of training as arranged by the Secretary. James Miller, Koori: A Will To Win, A&R, Sydney 1986, p.147 Source 6.24 Cootamundra Girls Training School in the 1940s. Kathleen Miller was born in Singleton in 1920. This extract is a piece of oral history. It was recorded by her son, James Miller, in 1982. I went to Cootamundra when I was 10, till I was 15. I found it rough and hard especially in wintertime all walking around with no shoes. It was cold and the food was poor. They were always telling us how to work around the place, lay tablesset tables, how to dress people. The common saying on the staff was to live like the white person. That was sort of drummed into our heads, so when we left the home we started to work for white people in [domestic] service. We were prepared, we just lived in with them. In the homes there was punishment, like you wouldnt go to swimming and you were put on scrubbing bricks. The work was all a hands and knees job. The staff, when I remember them, were pretty good to us, but there was one English matron who would always make us curtsy to her. If you were sitting down reading a book and she came into the room, you would have to stand up and bob. ... I stayed in sixth class till I was 14 and then I did a years training as a domestic. My first job was in Goulburn working for a grazier. I ran away from there. I was there with another girl from Cootamundra and she was having difficulty with the lady so we ran away. I got the train to Sydney and went to the Protection Board. I was 16. I finished my service at Katoomba, and when I turned 18 I left the service and went back to my mother. James Miller, Koori: A Will To Win, A&R, Sydney 1986, p.163 Source 6.25 Aboriginal girl at Cootamundra Girls Home, 1923 Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 245 Working historically Comprehension 1 From source 6.23, what happened to Aboriginal female children at the age of 14? 2 What options were Aboriginal mothers given by the Aborigines Protection Board? 3 What sort of work were Aboriginal girls taught? 4 Where were the children sent for training? 5 Look at source 6.25 and read the caption. Using source 6.23, can you suggest what this Aboriginal girl was doing and how she got there? 6 From source 6.24, when was Kathleen Miller sent to Cootamundra? How many years was she there? 7 Why did Kathleen find things hard during winter? 8 What sort of training did Aboriginal girls get at the school? a What did the staff try to drum in the girls heads? b How do you think this would have affected the self-respect and culture of Aboriginal people? 9 Where did Kathleen get her first job? Did she like it? Why? 10 What did Kathleen do when she turned 18? 11 From source 6.26, name an issue that these Aboriginal people are protesting about. 12 Was this the first time that Aboriginal children were taken from their mother? Give details. Analysis and use of sources 1 Examine source 6.25. a Who do you think would have taken this photograph? (An Aboriginal person? A person working for the Aborigines Protection Board?) Source 6.26 Aboriginal people demonstrating outside the Taree Court House in 1972. One of the Aboriginal women had her children taken from her by a magistrate. The children had been taken because the mother was seen to be raising her children in way that white, middle-class people did not like. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 246 b Describe the way in which the Aboriginal girl is dressed. c What is she dressed to look like? d What do you think the Aborigines Protection Board might have used this photograph for? 2 Compare source 6.24 with source 6.25. a Are there any differences between the way the girl is dressed in the photograph and Kathleen Millers description of what she wore at Cootamundra? b If you find any differences, can you think of a reason to explain these? Empathetic understanding Assume that you are the girl in source 6.24. Write a letter home to your mother describing conditions at Cootamundra Girls training school. You could include a description of the day you were photographed. And you could describe your feelings about being away from home. Events/issues The 1967 referendum Aboriginal organisations had called for amendments to remove discriminatory references to Aboriginal peoples in the Australian Constitution for many decades. It had been one of the demands at the conference held on the 1938 Day of Mourning. In 1962, the Federal Council for Aboriginal Advancement launched a campaign for a constitutional referendum. Source 6.27 is an extract from their campaign pamphlet. Source 6.27 Federal Council for Aboriginal Advancement petition, 1962 The Australian constitution at present provides:- Section 51Legislative Powers of Parliament: The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order and good government of the Commonwealth with respect to:- Clause XXVIThe people of any race, other than the Aboriginal race in any State, for whom it is deemed necessary to make laws. Section 127Census: In reckoning the numbers of people of the Commonwealth or of a State, or other part of the Commonwealth, Aboriginal natives shall not be counted. The Council maintains that these examples of racial discrimination should be removed. Aborigines are people, despite Section 127, and they have the right to peace, order and good government under the Commonwealth Parliament. Section 51, Clause XXVI: Means that laws with respect to Aborigines are the responsibility of the States, apart from those living in the Northern Territory. The effect of this clause is that there is little uniformity in the laws governing Aborigines in the States and Territory. Rights enjoyed by Aborigines on settlements and reserves in five States and the Northern Territory NSW VIC SA WA NT QLD Voting rights (State) Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Marry freely Yes Yes Yes No No No Control own children Yes Yes No No No No Move freely Yes No No No No No Own property freely Yes No Yes No No No Receive award wages Yes No No No No No Alcohol allowed No No No No No No Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 247 The Federal Government has no power to make laws with respect to Aborigines and yet must try to defend in the United Nations and other International bodies the varied assortment of Rights and Restrictions practised by the States Section 127Census: Implies that Aborigines are not people or at least not people of any account. Apart from its institutionalised insult to Aborigines, this section has some practical implications. Reimbursements to the States of money collected as Income Tax are based on their populations as obtained in the Census. The States thus receive no reimbursements for the Aborigines in their communities On the other hand, the Commonwealth collects Income Tax from Aborigines in the States, but has no power (under Section 51) to make laws to assist them Aborigines may now vote at federal elections, but are not counted in the Census, which is used to fix electoral boundaries Australia has a responsibility to educate Aborigines and integrate them into the economic life of the community It is difficult to see how this responsibility can be met if accurate information is not obtained as to how many Aborigines are living in each locality Federal Council for Aboriginal Advancement 1962 petition leaflet. Kind permission of the Riley & Ephemera Collection, State Library of Victoria Aboriginal peoples and organisations campaigned all over Australia for a constitutional referendum to be held. Oodgeroo Noonuccal was one of these campaigners. She travelled around the country to talk to Aboriginal Australians about the petition and to gather wider community support and media coverage. Noonuccal reflects on her campaign in source 6.28. In 1967, a constitutional referendum was held. One of the two questions asked was whether the discriminatory references to Aboriginal peoples in Sections 51 and 127 of the Constitution should be removed (see source 6.29). The vote in favour of this amendment was 89%. Both in the 1960s and today, the referendum has frequently been seen as having provided full citizenship to Aboriginal Australians. The constitutional changes did not in fact directly provide any new rights to Aboriginal peoples. It was, however, a very important symbolic victory. Source 6.29 1967 referendum ballot paper Source 6.28 Oodgeroo Noonuccal on the referendum campaign I spoke on all platforms and got once again a tremendous reception from both my own people and the white race. All the way through, I found that the white race, the white Australian, has a very high sense of fair play; he wants to help, I shocked him all the way along the line, my greatest problem was educating the white race, they do not know anything about us and I had to put them right on quite a lot of things. The ignorance of the white race is very, very apparent and I found this out on the tour Council for Aboriginal Rights, Report by Kath Walker (Oodgeroo Noonuccal) on her National Tour launching the petition of the FCAA and her speech in Sydney on 6 October 1962, in the Gordon Bryant Papers, National Library of Australia, MS 8256/182/3 1967 referendum Austral i a i n the 20th Century 248 Working historically Comprehension Read source 6.27. 1 What were the two sections referring to Aboriginal peoples that were altered in the constitutional referendum in 1967? 2 What was the effect of these two changes to the Constitution? 3 What percentage of voters supported the removal of the references to Aboriginal peoples in the Constitution at the 1967 referendum? 4 What were the reasons that the FCAA used to argue for these amendments to the Constitution? Analysis and use of sources 1 Refer to source 6.28. a What was Oodgeroo Noonuccals opinion of the level of knowledge that white Australians had about Aboriginal peoples and issues? b Do you think that she would have the same opinion today? 2 Refer to source 6.27. Answer true or false to the following statements: a An Aboriginal person who moved from New South Wales to Queensland lost the right to vote in state elections. b An Aboriginal person who moved from South Australia to Victoria lost the right to own property. c An Aboriginal person who moved from Western Australia to New South Wales gained the right to drink alcohol. d An Aboriginal person who moved from New South Wales to Victoria lost the right to marry freely. e An Aboriginal person who moved from New South Wales to any other State or Territory lost the right to move around freely. Communication Write a one-page biography of Oodgeroo Noonuccal. Use at least one of the following: Australian Dictionary of Biography Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia Australian Encyclopaedia Land rights and native title Land rights During the 1960s and 1970s, land rights became a national political issue. Internationally, this era saw the civil rights movement in America and decolonisation in much of Africa and the AsiaPacific region. Throughout the world, media and public attention was being paid to the rights of Indigenous peoples. The issue of Aboriginal land rights received international attention, creating pressure on the governments of Australia to act. Land has always been an important thread in the protests of Aboriginal peoples against their dispossession and disadvantage. Land is of great importance to Aboriginal peoples for religious, spiritual, social and economic reasons. European settlement since 1770 has led to Indigenous Australians losing control of their land. The call for land rights is the demand that some attempt be made to address this loss. Land rights became the rallying cry for the Aboriginal rights movement in the late 1960s and 1970s. Aboriginal people, ranging from those living in remote communities to urban activists, joined together in their demand for land rights. They were supported Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 249 Working historically in their fight by many non-Aboriginal Australians. The demands of the land rights movement included the handing over of ownership of traditional lands to the relevant Aboriginal communities and compensation for those communities which had been dispossessed of all their lands. Social justice issuesincluding health, education, and housingcontinued to be of great importance. However, the return of land to Aboriginal control was seen as central in achieving social justice and self-determination. All major studies of Aboriginal peoples have identified dispossession of their land as a major reason for their economic and social disadvantages. The control of traditional lands and significant sites is also vital to the cultural and spiritual life of Aboriginal communities. There has been a variety of pieces of legislation passed relating to Aboriginal land rights in Australia since 1966. These Acts provide widely varying rights to Aboriginal peoples in the different states and territories. None of these Acts has met the demands of the land rights movement (see source 6.31). The issue of land continues to be of central importance to Aboriginal peoples, although the language is now that of native title rather than land rights. Source 6.31 Aboriginal rights to land All of these parliamentary initiatives represented limited and somewhat token attempts to recognise Aboriginal rights to land. Indeed, the inability of legislatures to articulate a broadly defined right of Aborigines to the land from which they were dispossessed will surely be looked upon as one of the less noble facets of Australian parliamentary democracy Only with the Mabo High Court decision in 1992 would Aborigines be legally recognised to have certain rights not available to others. John Chesterman & Brian Galligan, Citizens Without Rights: Aborigines and Australian Citizenship, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 1997, p. 205 Comprehension 1 When was the first land rights legislation passed? 2 Name two aspects of the international situation that increased awareness of Indigenous rights. 3 What are the two key land rights demands? Analysis and use of sources 1 Why is land rights seen as of central importance to the achievement of social justice? 2 Read source 6.31. What is the authors opinion of land rights legislation? 3 What provided the first legal recognition of specific Aboriginal rights to land? Communication Write a one-page exposition to argue the case for land rights. Source 6.30 A demonstration in support of Aboriginal land rights Austral i a i n the 20th Century 250 Source 6.32 Vincent Lingiari on the protest The issue on which we are protesting is neither purely economic nor political but moral On August 22, 1966 the Gurindji tribe decided to cease to live like dogs. Nigel Parbury, Survival: A History of Aboriginal Life in New South Wales, New South Wales Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs, 1986, revised 1988 Gurindji and Wave Hill The protest expressed in source 6.32 is just one of many made by Aboriginal peoples living in remote communities. In 1966, the Gurindji people living and working on Wave Hill Station in the Northern Territory walked off the job in protest against the lack of wages and the appalling treatment and conditions they lived under. The sexual abuse of the Aboriginal women by the white men on the station was one of many issues. Vincent Lingiari led the walk-out. This strike rapidly developed into a claim by the Gurindji for part of their traditional lands to be handed back to them. Seven months after walking off, Vincent Lingiari led his people to establish a new camp at Daguragu (Wattie Creek) in the heart of the Gurindji Dreaming country on Wave Hill Station. That same year, a petition was sent by Vincent Lingiari and other Gurindji to the governor-general (source 6.33). Source 6.33 Gurindji petition Our people lived here from time immemorial and our culture, myths, dreaming and sacred places have been evolved in this land. Many of our forefathers were killed in the early days trying to retain it. Therefore we feel that morally the land is ours and should be returned to us. Nigel Parbury, Survival: A History of Aboriginal Life in New South Wales, New South Wales Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs, 1986, revised 1988 Source 6.34 Invitation to the handing over ceremony of the Gurindji land in 1975 Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 251 Working historically Practical and moral support was provided to the Gurindji by Aboriginal rights organisations, trade unions, student organisations and churches. The author Frank Hardy and the Aboriginal union organiser Dexter Daniels were two non- Gurindji individuals who were important supporters of the walk-off. The Gurindji action received nationwide press coverage and brought the issue of Aboriginal rights to traditional land to the attention of the general public. In 1975, after nine years of protest, the Whitlam government handed over to the Gurindji people a pastoral lease to 1250 square miles (3250 square km). This was only a portion of the 5186 square-mile (13 500 square km) Wave Hill lease held by Lord Vesteys British company. Ten years later, under the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976, the Gurindji gained freehold title to the land. Comprehension 1 When did the Gurindji people walk off Wave Hill Station? 2 How many square kilometres was Wave Hill Station? 3 Who owned Wave Hill Station? 4 What were the initial reasons for the walk-off? 5 Who led the walk-off? 6 Read source 6.33. What did the petition ask for? 7 Who provided support to the Gurindji? 8 How long did it take before they received what they had asked for in the petition? Perspectives and interpretations 1 Read source 6.33. What were the reasons the Gurindji gave for their land to be returned to them? 2 In your own words, describe why the Gurindji walked off Wave Hill Station. 3 Read source 6.32. What is the authors opinion of land rights? Communication Write a one-page biography of Vincent Lingiari. Use at least one of the following: Australian Dictionary of Biography Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia Frank Hardy, The Unlucky Australian Source 6.35 Gough Whitlam pours sand into Vincent Lingiaris hand during the ceremony marking the handover of traditional Gurindji land at Wave Hill Austral i a i n the 20th Century 252 The Aboriginal Tent Embassy The Aboriginal Tent Embassy was an important focus for the land rights and social justice movement in the early 1970s, and it continues to be of great symbolic importance to Aboriginal peoples. In the early hours of Australia Day 1972, the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was set up on the lawns of Parliament House (now Old Parliament House) in Canberra. The embassy was established by young Aboriginal activists from New South Wales. They were rapidly joined by activists from around Australia. It was powerfully symbolic for Aboriginal peoples, reflecting as it did the camps in which Aboriginal Australians still lived all over Australia (see source 6.39). Source 6.38 William McMahon denies the issue of land rights On Australia Day 1972 Prime Minister McMahon, against the advice of the Council for Aboriginal Affairs announced his governments Aboriginal policy. There was no admission that Aboriginals had any right to land or compensation, because land rights would threaten the security of tenure of every Australian The London Times headlined the story Australias New Rejection of Aborigines. Nigel Parbury, Survival: A History of Aboriginal Life in New South Wales, New South Wales Ministry of Aboriginal Affairs, 1986, revised 1988 Source 6.36 Aboriginal Tent Embassy Source 6.37 Designed by an Arrernte man, Harold Thomas, the Aboriginal flag became a national symbol when it was flown at the Aboriginal Tent Embassy in front of the old Parliament House. Here, it is being used to try to establish a camp in front of the new Parliament House in 1999. Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 253 Source 6.39 Low morale brought on the Aboriginal Embassy The Australia Day statement, as it happened, came at a time when blacks had arrived at a particularly depressing point of morale. In 1967 they had hoped that with the granting of citizenship rights and federal power to over-ride state legislation, conditions would improve for Aborigines and land rights would be a possibility. Instead of this, blacks witnessed the official bullying of the Gurindji tribe, which was attempting to claim 500 square miles of country at Wattie Creek, Northern Territory. Then came the decision in the Gove Land Rights case which found against the Yirrkala tribes land claim on the Gove Peninsula. The release of official figures showing that black infants were dying at between ten and seventeen times the rate for white babies in various parts of the country was enough to depress blacks even further. That was why the Aboriginal Embassy came into being. Kevin J. Gilbert, Because a White Manll Never Do It, Angus & Robertson, 1973 Reprinted by kind permission of Harper Collins, publishers The Commonwealth government found that it had no power to remove the protesters. Not accepting this, it created a new ordinance that made camping on public land in the Australian Capital Territory illegal. On 20 July 1972, six months after the establishment of the Aboriginal Tent Embassy, the Commonwealth police pulled the tents down. This was filmed by television crews. Aboriginal Australians and their white supporters from around Australia arrived in Canberra to put the tents back up and continue the protest. The police again pulled the tents down. In source 6.40, well- known Aboriginal figure Mum Shirl describes what happened. Source 6.40 Excerpt from Mum Shirls autobiography The young Blacks were getting buses ready now to go up to Canberra to put the Embassy back up. I went too, to help if I could. I took some very young children with me because I knew this would be a marvellous moment in history and I didnt want any Black kids to miss it. What I saw up there would put a shock into anyone. The police came running over in hundreds and began beating up on the Black women who had grabbed each others hands and were standing in a big circle around the tent and the men who were protecting the tent They punched them, knocked them to the ground and then jumped on their guts. I couldnt believe my eyes. All this was taking place right outside Parliament House, that great white building where I was told the laws were made and the country is governed. The television cameras were everywhere, but it didnt stop them I prayed that I would never see such a thing again in my life. Mum Shirl: An Autobiographywith the assistance of Bobbi Sykes, Heinemann, 1981 Reprinted by kind permission of Reed Educational and Professional Publishers The Aboriginal Tent Embassy became the centre of Aboriginal demands for social justice, compensation and land rights. Aboriginal people from around Australia came to join the protest in Canberra. The embassy, as a new and highly dramatic form of protest, received a great deal of media and political attention, both nationally and internationally. Aboriginal land rights and social justice demands had become a public issue that could no longer be ignored. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 254 Working historically Comprehension 1 Who designed the Aboriginal flag? 2 When was the Aboriginal Tent Embassy established? 3 Where was the Aboriginal Tent Embassy established? 4 Read source 6.39. Identify four reasons why the Aboriginal Tent Embassy was established. 5 Read source 6.40. Why did Mum Shirl take young children with her to Canberra? Empathetic understanding 1 What law was used to remove the Aboriginal Tent Embassy? 2 Why do you think the Aboriginal Tent Embassy became so symbolically important to the struggle for Aboriginal rights? 3 What effect do you think the governments decision to send in the police to remove the embassy would have had on public opinion? Communication Refer to source 6.40. Imagine that you were a tourist visiting Parliament House and saw this happen. Write a one-page letter home about what you saw and how you felt about it. The Mabo decision In 1982, Eddie Koiki Mabo, along with four other Meriam people from Mer Island in the Torres Strait, began a case in the High Court seeking recognition of their traditional ownership of the island. On 3 June 1992, six months after Eddie Mabos death, the High Court handed down its decision (see source 6.42). The High Court recognised the Mer Islanders traditional ownership of the land. In doing this, they overturned the legal fiction of terra nullius. The term native title was used by the High Court to describe traditional ownership of land that predated the arrival of Europeans. Source 6.42 Land belonging to no-one As England expanded its rule over other peoples territories over the centuries, English law generally recognised pre-existing rights in relation to those lands. This was the experience in relation to Ireland and Wales, and later in Asia, Africa, the Americas and the Pacific. However, in Australias case the colonial authorities refused to acknowledge that the indigenous peoples had any legal rights in land, preferring instead to see the land as terra nulliusland belonging to no-one. Australia seemed to remain the exception until the High Court in Mabo v. Queensland (No. 2) on 3 June 1992 declared that Australian law recognised the title of indigenous Australians to their traditional lands and waters. The Native Title Amendment Bill 1997: Issues for Indigenous Peoples, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, October 1997 Source 6.41 Eddie Mabo Terra nullius is the idea that the land was without legal owners when Europeans first arrived. Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 255 Working historically Comprehension 1 Who took the case that led to the Mabo decision to the High Court? 2 What were they seeking legal recognition of? 3 Did the High Court decide in their favour? 4 What did the High Court ruling recognise? 5 What do you think the term legal fiction means? 6 Explain, in your own words, the term terra nullius. Communication Write a one-page biography of Eddie Mabo. You may be able to locate a copy of the video Mabo, Life of an Island Man to watch. The following titles would also be useful: Encyclopaedia of Aboriginal Australia Australian Encyclopaedia The Oxford Companion to Australian History Research 1 Research the recognition of indigenous land rights in one other country. For instance, you could research New Zealand, Canada or the United States. 2 Use your research and the information in this unit. How do you think Australia compares with other countries in terms of its recognition of indigenous rights? Native title In 1993, the Keating government passed the Native Title Act 1993 (Cwlth). This Act created a legal and administrative process to manage native title claims made by Aboriginal communities (source 6.44). Native title requires that Aboriginal communities who attempt to claim title to their traditional lands must demonstrate continuous connection to that land through traditional law and custom since the time of European invasion. This is often difficult, given the history of forced movement and forced assimilation that Aboriginal peoples have suffered. Many Aboriginal Australians have no rights under the Native Title Act. This includes many people of the stolen generations. As with land rights, native title can only be claimed over Crown and other public lands. Freehold land is not open to native title claims. Native title does not necessarily mean legal ownership of the land such as freehold title. In many cases, it just means that Aboriginal peoples have the legal right to use land in traditional ways such as for hunting, fishing and conducting ceremonies. Freehold land is land that has passed into private ownership. Source 6.43 Cover of the Native Title Act 1993 Source 6.44 Native title Native title is the term used to describe the recognition in Australian law of the rights of Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders to land and waters under their laws and customs To indigenous peoples land represents much more than an economic asset, although it is this as well. The land is the basis for the creation stories, for religions, spirituality, art and culture. It is also the basis for relationships between people and with earlier and future generations. The loss of land, or damage to land, can cause immense hardship to indigenous peoples. The Native Title Amendment Bill 1997: Issues for Indigenous Peoples, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission, October 1997 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 256 Comprehension 1 When was the Native Title Act passed? 2 What land can be made over on native title claims? 3 What form can native title take? 4 Read source 6.44. To what does the term native title refer? 5 What led to the creation of the Native Title Act? 6 In your own words, describe what the land means to Indigenous peoples. 7 What do Aboriginal communities have to demonstrate in order to claim native title? 6.1b How have the rights and freedoms of migrants in Australia changed during the post-war period? Change over time Changing patterns of migration The following sources provide information about the changing patterns of migration to Australia. Working historically Australian Census Source 6.45 Birthplace of people living in Australia, 1947 British Isles Other Countries 20.3% Southern Europe 6.9% Wales 1.6% Ireland 6.0% Scotland 13.8% England 51.3% Total Northern Europe 4.5% Total Eastern Europe 3.1% Other Europe 0.3% USA 1.56% Africa 1.01% India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka 1.09% China 0.86% Cyprus 0.09% New Zealand 5.9% Papua New Guinea 0.2% Oceania (Pacific Islands), Born at sea 0.6% Other 1.09% Italy 4.5% Greece 1.7% Cyprus 0.1% Malta 0.4% Spain 0.1% Other 0.2% The National Times, 21 October 1978 Source 6.46 The Unknown Migrant Woman, Patrick Cook Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 257 Australian Census Source 6.47 Top 30 countries of origin of Australian immigrants, 194585 British Isles 57% Other Countries 43% South Africa 0.7% Canada 0.6% Denmark 0.4% Lebanon 1.4% Germany 3.3% Czechoslovakia 0.5% Spain 0.7% Cyprus 0.4% Portugal 0.6% Austria 0.7% The Philippines 0.6% New Zealand 3.6% Sri Lanka 0.5% The Netherlands 3.8% Hungary 0.8% Switzerland 0.4% Italy 8.8% Poland 2.4% Finland 0.4% Yugoslavia 4.2% India 0.7% Turkey 0.7% USA 1.7% France 0.6% Greece 5.2% Vietnam 2.0% Malta 0.6% USSR 0.4% Malaysia 0.5% Working historically Comprehension 1 Source 6.45 gives information on birthplace groupings. a Which group did most immigrants to Australia come from in 1947? What percentage of all immigrants did this group account for? b Make a list of the 10 countries where most immigrants came from. Indicate the percentage of total immigrants. 2 From source 6.47, make a list of the 10 countries where most immigrants came from. Indicate the percentage of total immigrants. Analysis and use of sources 1 Compare the lists you made from sources 6.45 and 6.47. What changes in the pattern of immigration can you see? 2 What reasons do you think could be given for the change in Australias pattern of migration? 3 Examine source 6.46. What does this cartoon tell us about changing patterns of migration after World War II? Research What was the Snowy Mountains hydro-electricity scheme? Where did most of the labour force for this scheme come from? Austral i a i n the 20th Century 258 Group A post-World War II migrant groupIndians Chronology 1970 Radhakrishnan Nagarajan, a senior engineer in the Indian Public Service, moves to Sydney to work with the Australian Standards Association. 1971 The rest of the Nagarajan family joins Radhakrishnan Nagarajan in Sydney. 1973 The family moves to Eastwood. Source 6.48 Radhakrishnan Nagarajan and Nalini Nagarajan (left at rear) and their daughter Vijaya (seated left) at a wedding in Madras, India, c.1963 Source 6.49 Vijaya Nagarajan and her daughters Jaya Keaney (left) and Asha Keaney (right) Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 259 Source 6.50 (From left to right) Vijaya Nagarajan and daughters Asha and Jaya, Vijayas mother Nalini Nagarajan with her youngest daughter Akhila Nagarajan holding her daughter Malathi Waller. This photograph was taken at the Murugan Hindu Temple, Westmead, Sydney, in 2002. Source 6.51 Family tree Radhakrishnan Nagarajan (Engineer) Nalini Nagarajan (Public Health Administrator NSW Health) (Barrister) Vijaya (University Law lecturer) Jaya Asha Lewis Waller (Engineer) Akhila (IT Manager) Malathi Vivek Murali (Engineer) Mirinda Moore (Administrator) Krishna Terry Keaney Source 6.52 Murugan Hindu Temple, Westmead, website www.tamilnet.net.au/sydmurugan Austral i a i n the 20th Century 260 Working historically Comprehension 1 Describe the way in which the Nagarajan family moved to Sydney. 2 How many generations of Nagarajans were there living in Australia in 2002? 3 Describe the types of occupations that the Nagarajan family have been involved in. 4 Describe at least two influences on Australian life that Indian migrants have had. ICT Go to the website shown in source 6.52. What historical information is included in this site? How useful is it for investigating the experiences of Indians in Australian society? Communication Use sources 6.48 to 6.52. Write a 250-word account of the Nagarajan family from 1970 to 2002. Enemy aliens in World War I Seven thousand people were interned in Australia during World War II. Some were aliens that is, not Australia citizens; some were naturalised; and others were Australian born. (Over 4000 people were interned during World War I.) The greatest concentration of people interned in World War II were Italians from North Queensland sugar areas. This indicated that official and public desire for internment was not just about wartime anxiety. These feelings also sprang from earlier hostilities towards non-British immigrants, especially those from southern Europe. Italians in Australia during World War II On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on Great Britain and France from the balcony of the Palazzo Venezia in Rome. The following day, Australia, in association with Great Britain, declared war on Italy. The Commonwealth government developed a policy of selective internment of Italians. Most were not considered to pose any security risk. By August 1940, 1901 Italians had been arrested by police, detained in jail and placed in internment camps. Internees could remain in jail from between one day to three weeks. Internment camps To be interned is to be confined to a concentration camp. Source 6.53 An interned Italian family Australian War Memorial 052597 Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 261 were located at Liverpool, Orange and Hay in New South Wales, Graythorne in Queensland, Loveday in South Australia and Murchison in Victoria. The vast majority of Italians who were not interned faced problems other than the often boring conditions in camps. Italian fruit-shop owners at Bondi in Sydney, for example, had to close their premises after racial hatred was stirred up by anti-Italian articles in the Bondi Daily and the Balmain Observer. There were, however, few opens acts of violence against Italians. Most hostility was covert. Some Italian fruit-shop owners put their Australian naturalisation papers in their shop windows to demonstrate their Australian citizenship and avoid loss of customers or damage to their shops. The number of Italian internees peaked at 3651 in early 1942. They were released over the next few years. Two main factors were behind this: it became apparent that Australias Italians did not pose a threat, and fear of Japanese invasion declined. By the end of 1944, only 135 Italians remained interned. All were Fascists. Covert means hidden or subtle. Source 6.54 Pall bearers lowering the coffin into the grave during the funeral an Italian internee who died while interned at the Loveday POW and internment camp at Barmera, South Australia Australian War Memorial 064801 Source 6.55 Releasing Italian internees, 1943 Australian War Memorial 123059 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 262 Working historically Source 6.56 Watering young tomatoes, Loveday Internment Group by Max Ragless, 1945 Oil on canvas, 1945, 40.5 x 51.3 cm. Australian War Memorial ART23408 Comprehension 1 How many people were interned during World War II? 2 What was the nationality of the majority of people interned during World War II? 3 What did the internment of Italians indicate? 4 What policy did the Commonwealth government adopt towards Italians? 5 How many Australian-Italians had been arrested and interned by August 1940? 6 Name the internment camps in Australia. 7 What happened to some Italians who were not interned? 8 Write your own definition of covert. 9 What did some Italian fruit-shop owners do? Why? 10 What was the total number of Italian internees, and when was this number reached? 11 Why did the Australian government release Italian internees? Analysis and use of sources 1 What are sources 6.53, 6.54 and 6.55? 2 Are these primary or secondary sources? 3 What do you think was the purpose of these sources? 4 What is shown in source 6.53? 5 What is shown in source 6.54? 6 What is shown in source 6.55? 7 a What is source 6.56 and who created it? b Describe what is shown in this source? Empathetic understanding Select source 6.54, 6.55 or 6.56. Now chose a person depicted in that source, and write a letter to someone outside the interment camp describing where they are and how they are feeling. Research Research the general experience of Italian migrants in Australia after World War II. Write a two-page report. The following book will be useful: James Jupp (ed.), The Australian People. Communication Using sources 6.53 to 6.56, describe some of the experiences of Italian internees during World War II. Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 263 Working historically Events/issues The Snowy Mountains Scheme Research Write a report on the contribution of migrants to the Snowy Mountains hydro-electricity scheme. Include: a brief overview of the scheme approximately how many migrants were employed on the Snowy scheme and where they came from the experience of some of the migrant workers and their families Siobhan McHughs book The Snowy (1989) will be useful. Source 6.57 The Snowy Mountains scheme construction in progress Austral i a i n the 20th Century 264 Source 6.59 Vietnamese refugees Source 6.60 Refugees on board the Tampa, 2001, after being rescued from their boat off the coast of Australia Refugees resurrect old fears Boat people are refugees from South-East Asia or the Middle East who fled other countries in boats from 1973. The boats are often fishing vessels. These are usu- ally overcrowded and conditions are poor aboard. A significant number of boat people died in their attempt to leave their coun- try. Some were attacked by pirates. Others drowned because the boat was unseawor- thy and sank. Disease killed others. The term boat people is also used to describe refugees who try to come to Australia by boat without official approval. Australias first boat people arrived in Darwin in 1976 from Vietnam after the fall of Saigon. They were initially accept- ed because of changing political and dip- lomatic circumstances in Australia. Under the Whitlam Labor Government (197375), it seemed that foreign real- tions were taking new, dramatic direc- tions. China was given diplomatic recognition and Australia began to look more to Asia than to the United States for economic and other reasons. The federal government also worked hard to dispel Australias international reputation for being racist. The Fraser governement (197683) continued to follow these general direc- tions in relations with Asia. Cooperation with China was maintained. A concern with international human rights also led the government to accept boat people. Boat people were to arrive later from Kampuchea (Cambodia) and China in the 1980s and early 1990s. Racist attitudes, however, flared up with the arrival of boat people. Some Australians claimed that the country would be overrun by refugees from Asia. This reaction echoed older fears of a Yellow Peril. During the 1850s gold rushes, white diggers reacted at times violently to the presence of Chinese on the goldfields. Japans rise as a Pacific power in the early 1900s heightened fears of an Asian invasion of Australia. World War II and the Cold War saw new expressions of the Yellow Peril. The term was revived in the late 1970s by people who were prejudiced against Indochinese boat people. Australia was not overrun by boat peo- ple. By 1982 just over 2000 refugees had arrived in Australia directly by boat. In the mid-1990s only about one per cent of Australias population was from Indochina. For a time, the federal government was favourable towards boat people. Australia played a role in the second Geneva Convention on refugees in 1979. And it contributed to finding an interna- tional solution to the problems of refugee resettlement. During the 1980s the status of Indochinese refugees became increas- ingly controversial. Many were refused entry to Australia. Fears generated by globalisation and a declining Australian economy contributed to changing attitudes towards refugees. In the lead-up to the federal election on 10 November 2001, a controversy blew up over the refusal of the Australian government to allow refugees aboard the Tampa to land in Australia. Australia prides itself on being an egalitarian country that gives people a fair go. This is supposed to be part of the Australian national identity. But the Tampa incident challenged this. After the election, former Labor prime minister Paul Keating said that Liberal prime minister John Howard had appealed to the fear held by Australians that they might be inundated by a flood of people from other countries. But both the Liberal and the Labor parties had taken the same stance on the issue of boat people. Source 6.58 Refugees resurrect old fears Paul Ashton in The Australian, Exploring Australias Identity, February 2002, p. 2 Boat people Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 265 Working historically Comprehension Refer to source 6.58. 1 Define the term boat people. 2 When did Australias first boat people arrive? 3 What happened to a significant number of boat people? 4 Describe the Whitlam Labor governments attitude to boat people. 5 What was the Fraser governments attitude towards Asia? 6 What was the yellow peril? 7 What did World War II and the Cold War do in regard to Asia? 8 By the mid-1990s, what percentage of people in Australia were from Indochina? 9 What did Australia play a role in during the 1970s? 10 What contributed to growing fears in Australia about Asia? 11 What did the Tampa incident do? Why? 12 What did Paul Keating accuse John Howard of doing? Analysis and use of sources 1 What is source 6.58? 2 Is this a primary or a secondary source? 3 When was this source created and what was happening at the time? 4 In this source, what is fact and what is opinion? 5 How useful is source 6.58 in contributing to our understanding of boat people? Empathetic understanding 1 What may have been John Howards motive in refusing to allow refugees from the Tampa into Australia? 2 What may have led ordinary Australians to fear boat people? 3 What did the attitude of many Australian towards boat people in the late 1990s and early 2000s indicate about Australians at the time? Research Find out where the asylum seekers on the Norwegian vessel the Tampa came from. Communication If you were to debate the topic of giving boat people refuge, list the arguments you would use for the affirmative (For) side. ICT Find a website that describes the experience of boat people. Write a one-page report on the different experiences of boat people from 1976 to the present. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 266 Multiculturalism The word multiculturalism was coined by the Canadian federal government in 1971 to acknowledge the bi-cultural nature of Canadian society. It wished to establish a policy that recognised differences while maintaining different ethnic, cultural and linguistic communities. Al Grassby, minister for immigration in the federal Whitlam Labor government, used the term officially in 1973. Grassby had two meanings for multiculturalism. Firstly, he used it to broadly describe ethnic diversity in Australia. Secondly, it was put forward as the basis for a new social policy to replace assimilation which, although officially dropped, lingered on. In an ideal Australian multicultural society, migrants and Indigenous peoples would not be required to assimilate into white Australian culture. Rather, ethnic diversity would be recognised and supported and Aboriginal people and migrants would enter Australian society at their own pace and keep as much of their culture as they chose. Why multiculturalism? Multiculturalism was introduced for a number of reasons. By the early 1970s, the impact of post-World War II migration had profoundly changed Australias demography. The old practice of assimilation was no longer workable. Because of these demographic changes, a new ideology for settling people in Australia and minimising social conflict was needed. Multiculturalism was the new ideology. Other factors helped to bring about the policy of multiculturalism. The new Whitlam government wished to distance itself from the previous LiberalCountry Partys policy, which still had strong associations with assimilation. International opinion regarding the rights of indigenous and ethnic populations also had some influence. Source 6.61 Migrants from Europe arrive in Sydney in the 1950s Demography is the basic make up or structure of a population. An ideology is a political or cultural plan or idea. Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 267 Working historically Comprehension 1 When and where was the word multiculturalism coined? 2 Who first used the word in Australia? When? 3 What meanings did the word have for Grassby? 4 What was multiculturalism meant to replace? 5 Why was multiculturalism introduced? 6 a What is an ideology? b Why can multiculturalism be thought of as an ideology? 7 What other factors influenced the introduction of the policy? The impact of multiculturalism on Australian society As an ideology, multiculturalism has generated debate and controversy. From the early 1980s, public debates over multiculturalism became increasingly heated and populist. Multiculturalism in many ways polarised Australian society. On the one hand, there were those who wanted to support and promote ethnic diversity. On the other hand, there were people who saw multiculturalism as a threat to traditional Australia and to British heritage. Multiculturalism also exposed the continuation of racist attitudes. Reactions to multiculturalism tended to become more fierce during times of economic recession and rapid globalisation. Right-wing responses to multiculturalism have included the dismantling of services and the rise of populist and reactionary political parties. The latter included the One Nation Party, which was formed in 1996. Led by Pauline Hanson, this populist party had few coherent policies, was anti-Asian and appealed in particular to people in parts of rural Australia that were in severe economic trouble. Politically, however, multiculturalism has not gained consistent support from any party. Source 6.62 Multiculturalism The multicultural policy has, at times, tended to emphasise the rights of ethnic minorities at the expense of the majority of Australians, thus unnecessarily encouraging divisions and weakening social cohesion. It has tended to be anti-British, and yet the people from the United Kingdom and Ireland form the dominant class of pre-war immigrants and the largest single group of post-war immigrants. Recent governments emphasise the merits of a multicultural society and ignore the dangers. And yet the evidence is clear that many multicultural societies have failed and that the human cost of the failure has been high. Many of our refugees actually come from multicultural societies that are faltering or in disarray. There are dangers in the increasing belief that toleration can simply be imposed on people by a variety of new laws and by a bureaucracy specialising in ethnic affairs, cultural relations and human rights. Unfortunately, the laws and regulatory bodies, introduced in the hope of promoting toleration, can be invoked to attack freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and those principles on which minority rights must, in the last resort, depend. A sensible humane immigration policy is more likely than most of these new agencies and lawspresent or proposedto maintain and foster ethnic and racial toleration. It is easier to maintain a reasonable level of toleration in a society by regulating the inflow of migrants and selecting the categories of migrants with care than it is to maintain toleration after an unacceptably large inflow of migrants has arrived at an inopportune time or inopportune places. Geoffrey Blainey, All for Australia, Methuen Haynes, Sydney, 1984 Populist means aimed at gaining public support; a person who promotes such ideas is called a populist. Polarise means to split into directly opposing groups. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 268 Working historically Source 6.63 Blaineys stand must be countered I leave it to others to debate and refute Professor Blaineys extraordinary claim in his book All for Australia that there exists in the labyrinths of the Canberra bureaucracy a conspiracy of immigration officials and politicians against Henry Parkess ideal society of White Anglo-Celtic Independent Australian Britons. Some of the contemporary evidence cited by Professor Blainey is, by implication and result, racist in character and socially destructive in object. For over 20 years many academic historians of Australia have been at some pains to analyse and explain the reasons for the extreme racial prejudice and exclusion which existed in the 19th century and for two-thirds of the present century. In essence, his private evidence, with its fears, prejudices and hatreds, matches that of the old Bulletin Most of us had hoped that scholarly and dispassionate analysis of some of the darker aspects of white Australians past would contribute to a more mature, tolerant and compassionate society which some of us hope is still emerging as we approach our bicentenary Duncan Waterson, Professor of History, Macquarie University The Sydney Morning Herald, 1984, Letters to the Editor Source 6.64 Our problem with multiculturalism Multiculturalism remains a term wreathed with the residues of strong political and social disagreements. It is a state ideology, constructed out of the social relations of the past two decades of Australian life, and designed to sustain harmony and prevent discord and conflict. It can be used by various participants in the discourse of multiculturalism, to encompass at the same time arguments for basic rights in Australia which transcend [go beyond] ethnic or racial differences, and arguments which seek to stress those differences as paramount and unbridgeable. Andrew Jakubowicz et al., Racism, Ethnicity and the Media, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1994, p. 179 Comprehension 1 What has multiculturalism generated? 2 What did the debate over multiculturalism become? 3 What does populist mean? 4 What did multiculturalism do to Australian society? 5 Describe the two opposing positions on multiculturalism. 6 When did debates become particularly fierce? 7 Describe some of the responses to multiculturalism. Perspectives and interpretations 1 Read source 6.62. What, for Blainey, did multicultural policy tend to do? 2 Describe two dangers that Blainey sees in following a policy of multiculturalism. 3 What is Blaineys solution for maintaining tolerance in Australian society? 4 Could Blaineys view be described as populist? 5 What ideal was Blainey trying to protect from immigration officials and politicians? 6 Read source 6.63. For Waterson, what was Blaineys evidence? 7 What had some academic historians been doing for over 20 years? Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 269 8 What did Blaineys private evidence contain? 9 With what did Waterson compare Blaineys views? 10 What did Waterson hope for? 11 Read source 6.64. For Jakubowicz, writing in the 1990s, what did the term multiculturalism remain? 12 In Jakubowiczs view, what was multiculturalism? 13 a Describe the two arguments that multiculturalism could be used to support. b Are these contradictory (in opposition to each other)? Why? Communication It is 1984 and Geoffrey Blaineys book has just been released. You have read Watersons letter to the editor of the Sydney Morning Herald (source 6.63). Write a letter to the editor in support of either Waterson or Blainey. Research How has multiculturalism influenced Australian society? 6.1c How have the rights and freedoms of women in Australia changed during the post-war period? Chronology 1945 Most women in paid industrial work earning 75% of basic male rates 1956 Womans Day magazine launched by the Fairfax Group (24 December). 1959 New South Wales female state school teachers, first women since 1902 to win equal pay. 1961 Oral contraceptives commercially available for women. 1966 Senator Dame Annabelle Rankin first woman to become a federal minister. 1970 Publication of Germaine Greers book The Female Eunuch. 1972 Child Care Act passed by federal government giving grants to non-profit child care centres. 1972 Formation of the Womens Electoral Lobby; Cleo launched by Consolidated Press. 1972 Elizabeth Evatt becomes first woman president of the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. 1973 Womens organised protest campaign in Wollongong leads to Australian Iron and Steel employing women in mens jobs for the first time since World War II. 1973 Twelve weeks paid maternity leave plus up to 42 weeks without pay available to women in federal public service. 1974 Womens refuge set up by feminist activists in Glebe, Sydney, in a vacant terrace house. 1975 International Womens year. 1976 Mary Gaudron, first woman to become solicitor-general in New South Wales. 1976 Family Law Act comes into force; allowed for divorce based on 12 months separation; Elizabeth Evatt appointed first chief judge. 1977 Anti Discrimination Act comes into force in New South Wales. 1977 Isobel Coe, an Aboriginal woman, awarded $100 damages in Moree District Court, New South Wales, against a publican who had refused her entrance to his hotel. 1979 One years unpaid maternity leave adopted under federal awards. 1980 Sexual harassment first discussed as a workplace issue at Women and Labour Conference. 1983 Sex Discrimination Act passed by federal Senate; discrimination on the basis of pregnancy, sex or marital status becomes illegal. Austral i a i n the 20th Century 270 Change over time Achievements of the Womens Liberation movement in the post-World War II period Womens liberation, or the womens movement, was a second wave of feminist activism. The first wave took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and concentrated on getting women the vote and into universities. Second-wave feminists campaigned for equal pay, equal opportunities, anti-discrimination legislation, child and maternal welfare, divorce laws and childcare. They also demanded freedom of choice for women, not only for education and employment, but for marriage, contraception and abortion. Feminists wanted to remodel society and give women fair and equal access to careers as well as family life. The strategies adopted were as varied as the goals of the womens movement. Women wrote books, marched in the streets, ran campaigns, organised conferences and lobbied politicians. Some women set up small, informal groups. Others set up womens crisis and health centres. Yet others formed formal organisations such as the Womens Electoral Lobby (1972). Not all the aims of the womens movement were achieved. And some achievements were less permanent than others. But the movement did produce changes in both the private and public spheres. Indeed, second-wave feminists also worked to break down the distinction between private and public spheres. For example, some feminists argued that unpaid work in the private sphere (such as raising children) was as important as paid work in the public sphere (source 6.66). Source 6.65 A march in the 1970s promoting womens rights Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 271 Working historically Source 6.66 Women and Australian history A history of women should do more that restore women to the pages of history books. It must analyse why public life has been considered to be the focus of history, and why public life has been so thoroughly occupied by men. Ann Curthoys, Historiography and Womens Liberation, Arena, 1970, p. 2 Source 6.67 Great men and history Prior to 1970 Australian historians wrote little about women. There were few women employed in Australian university history departments before the 1960s, and they shared the view of their male colleagues that womens history was trivial. Historical orthodoxy emphasised the role of great men in exploring and building a nation. Greg Patmore, Australian Labour History, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 1991, p. 161 Comprehension 1 What was the womens liberation movement? 2 What were some of the goals of this movement? 3 What were some of the strategies adopted by feminists? 4 Read source 6.66. What two things does Curthoys argue that a history of women should do? 5 Read source 6.67. Before 1970, what were most Australian historians writing about? 6 Using the above text and the chronology, compile a list of some of the early achievements of the womens movement. Research Choose one of the books listed below to answer the following questions. Anne Summers, Damned Whores and Gods Police Beverley Kingston, My Wife, My Daughter and Poor Mary Ann Miriam Dixon, The Real Matilda 1 When was the book published? 2 Who was the author? (There may be information about the author on the book cover or in the preliminary pages of the book.) 3 What is the book about? 4 What are the chapter titles in the book? Group Women in the Great Depression The 1930s Depression had a wide variety of impacts on women in Australia. Some women were not affected at all by the economic downturn. Others had to take paid work when their husbands lost their jobs. Some trade unionists accused women of taking employment away from men. Employers were often keen to give women work since their rates of pay were much lower than those for men. During the Depression, most womens wages were reduced. Some forms of womens work were not affected by job losses. These included domestic service and nursing. Many women factory workers, however, lost their jobs. Unemployed women with Austral i a i n the 20th Century 272 Working historically families could receive the dole, but most single unemployed women were not given the dole. Some women left the city and looked for seasonal work in the country. Others took part in privately organised schemes such as the Unemployed Girls Relief Movement. Comprehension 1 What happened to some women who took on paid work? 2 Describe five different experiences of women in the Depression. Analysing and using sources Look at source 3.18 on page 107. How useful is this source in providing information about different ways in which women experienced the depression? Womens liberation post-World War II Chronology 1972 Formation of Sydney Womens Film Group. 1973 Feminist journal Refactory Girl commences publication. 1976 Rape in marriage made a criminal offence (South Australia). First womens crisis centre established in Australia. 1980 After a legal battle against Ansett, Debra Wardley becomes the first female commercial pilot. 1981 Mary Gaudron becomes the New South Wales solicitor-general. She is the first woman to hold such a position in Australia. 1984 The federal Sex Discrimination Act is passed. 1985 The journal Australian Feminist Studies commences publication. Federal Affirmative Action legislation is passed. The feminist movement The feminist movement grew out of the womens liberation movement. Womens liberation was a more radical movement that developed in the protest days of the late 1960s and early 1970s. It had shocked many older, conservative womens organisations, such as the Country Womens Association. After the Whitlam government was sacked there was a sharp drop in the rate of change in Australian society. But the womens movement continued to grow. By the mid-1970s, it became know as the feminist movement. This indicated that the womens movement had become broadly based. It did not, however, include significant numbers of Indigenous women. The feminist movement consisted (and still consists) mainly of white women. Source 6.68 Debra Wardley, 1980 Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 273 The feminist movement made significant gains for women in the 1970s despite an economic downturn and the election of a conservative federal government. The womens lobby had become so diverse and strong that it could not be brushed aside by politicians and others. Feminists discussed and demanded a range of womens needs, equal opportunity, maternity leave and remedies for domestic violence. Feminists made their way into bureaucracies. These women became known as femocrats. They influenced government policy and practices. In New South Wales, feminists had a significant influence on attitudes and practices regarding the employment of women in the public service. Women also made inroads into the private sector. More women moved into politics. There was also a boom in womens creative and intellectual work in fields such as film making, literature and art. The feminist movement had impacts on other areas of Australian life, including school curriculums and Australian language. Source 6.69 The womens movement since 1970 if feminists were pleased with their successes, and conscious of the changes they had witnessed, there was nevertheless a strong strand of pessimism within the womens movement. In some ways, feminism with its stress on actually existing male power and the need for female solidarity is the ideal ideology for perpetual struggle. Despite the considerable changes that had occurred since 1970 in pay rates, employment patterns and opportunities, access to abortion and contraception, as well as the availability of child-care feminists continued to point to ongoing inequalities and injustices in a male-centred world. Womens actual take- home pay continued to be far less than mens; there were still many occupations where it was rare to find women And so the list could go on. Even worse, perhaps was the growth of conservative womens organisations, opposing many feminist demands This, then, is one story which most definitely cannot have a neat ending. Ann Curthoys, Doing it for themselves: The womens movement since 1970, in Kay Saunders & Raymond Evans (eds), Gender Relations in Australia: Domination and Negotiation, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Sydney, 1992 Source 6.70 Pamphlet about sexual harassment and womens rights in the workplace, 1984 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 274 Comprehension 1 Out of what did the feminist movement grow? 2 a What happened to the womens movement after the sacking of the Whitlam government? b What did this indicate? 3 What does the feminist movement mainly consist of? 4 a By the mid-1970s, what had the womens movement become? b How did this affect the attitude of politicians towards the womens movement? 5 Describe some of the demands made by women. 6 Into what areas did women move in greater numbers? 7 On what other areas did women have an impact? 8 Read source 6.69. a Describe some of the changes that had occurred since 1970. b What did women continue to fight against? c What does Curthoys mean when she says that the story of the womens movement is one that most definitely cannot have a neat ending? d Define pessimism. Why do you think that there was a strong strand of pessimism within the womens movement? Analysis and use of sources Look at source 6.70. 1 When and by whom was this source made? 2 Using this source, how would you define sexual harassment? 3 What does this source tell us about the attitudes and practices of some men towards some women? 4 How was sexual harassment dealt with in this source? Research Write a 200-word biography of one of the following women. You must discuss how she has contributed to Australian society. Franca Arena Tracey Moffatt Drusilla Modjeska Margaret Reynolds Working historically Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 275 Events/issues Womens suffrage Suffrage refers to the right to vote, especially in political elections. The suffrage movement in Australia was tied to an international movement. This was particularly influential in Britain and the United States of America from the late 19th century. Australia and New Zealand, however, developed strong suffrage movements that had impacts on other countries. People who were against womens suffrage often argued that a womans place was in the home. Vida Goldstein Look carefully at the following sources, which contain information about Vida Goldstein, who was very active in the suffrage movement. Source 6.71 Front page of The Woman Voter, 11 August 1914 The Woman Voter, 11 August 1914, p. 1 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 276 Source 6.73 The entry for Vida Goldstein in The Australian Dictionary of Biography GOLDSTEIN, VIDA JANE MARY (18691949), feminist and suffragist, was born on 13 April 1869 at Portland, Victoria ... Vidas mother was a confirmed suffragist ... and a ... [hard] worker for social reform. Vidas own public career began about 1890 when she helped her mother collect signatures for the huge Woman Suffrage Petition ... She read widely on political, economic and legislative subjects and attended Victorian parliamentary sessions ... In 1899 ... she was undisputed leader of the radical womans movement in Victoria, and that year made her first public-speaking appearance to advocate the vote for women ... Between 1899 and 1908 Vidas first priority was the suffrage. ... Vida returned to national politics and made four ... attempts to gain election to federal parliament ... Vida actively promoted womens rights and emancipation in many other ways ... She helped to found or support many womens organisations including the National Council of Women ... She died of cancer at her home in South Yarra on 15 August 1949 and was cremated. Her death passed almost unnoticed ... Janice N. Brownfoots entry in Australian Dictionary of Biography, Vol 9, 18911939, pp. 43;45 Source 6.72 From The Woman Voter The Woman Voter, 23 February 1915, p. 1 Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 277 Working historically Comprehension 1 What was womens suffrage? 2 How much did The Woman Voter cost in 1914? 3 a What was the election fund for? b How much was in it in 1914? 4 Where was Vida Goldstein born? 5 Do you think that Vida may have been influenced by her mother? Why? 6 What was Vidas first priority between 1899 and 1908? 7 How many attempts after 1908 did Vida make to be elected to federal parliament? 8 Using sources 6.71, 6.72 and 6.73 make a chronology about Vida Goldsteins life. Include at least ten entries in point form. Analysis and use of sources 1 a What is source 6.71? b When was it published? 2 Describe three sorts of work that Vida Goldstein was doing in 1915. 3 a Where was Vida Goldstein collecting parcels? b Why was she collecting them? Communication Use your chronology and any information from sources 6.71, 6.72 and 6.73 to write a short biography of Vida Goldstein. Women in parliament The first woman to be elected to an Australian parliament was Edith Cowan. The number of women in parliaments grew very slowly. Indeed, women were not generally expected to enter formal politics. The original building plans for the federal parliament house in Canberra, which opened in 1927, did not include female toilets in the legislative part of the building. By 1992 there were 118 women in Australias parliaments out of a total of 842 parliamentarians. Females represented 14% of members of parliament; they represented over 50% of the population. Edith Cowan In the 1920s, Australia was still very much a mans world. Heather Radi described it as a society that held obvious masculinity in high regard. Women were neither expected nor encouraged to be active in public life. Home and family were the womans only domains. But from these social conditions came Australias first female parliamentarian. Edith Brown was born in 1861 in Geraldton, Western Australia (source 6.74). Her early life on a farm was tragic, as her mother died when she was seven and her father was hanged for shooting his second wife. Despite these traumatic setbacks, Edith managed to continue her studies. In 1879, she married James Cowan and pursued the life expected of a woman at that time, caring for the home and her children. Her husband, a police magistrate at the time, would tell her of cases he was handling. This generated Ediths interest in social issues, the welfare of deserted wives and the hardships faced by migrants. Source 6.74 Edith Cowan Austral i a i n the 20th Century 278 Working historically In 1912, she was appointed to the Childrens Court where she sat for 18 years. Her community service, especially during World War I, led to the award of the OBE (Order of the British Empire). In the Western Australian general elections of 1921, Edith Cowan was elected to the Legislative Assembly, making her the first female elected to parliament in Australia (source 6.75). As the member for West Perth (192124), Edith Cowan achieved many reforms. Her concerns for social justice and the status of women resulted in legislation that gave inheritance rights to mothers (previously the father received everything left by a child who died without a will) and the introduction of the Womens Legal Status Act 1918 which gave professional status to women. Source 6.75 Extracts from Edith Cowans first speech in Parliament I stand here today in the unique position of being the first woman in an Australian Parliament. I know many people think perhaps that it was not the wisest thing to do to send a woman into Parliament, and perhaps I should remind Hon [honourable] members that one of the reasons why women and men also considered it advisable to do so, was because it was felt that men need a reminder sometimes from women beside them that will make them realise all that can be done for the race and for the home. I have been sent here more from that standpoint than from any other The views of both sides are more than ever needed in Parliament today. If men and women can work for the State side by side and represent all the different sections of the community, and if the male members of the house would be satisfied to allow women to help them and would accept their suggestions when they are offered, I cannot doubt that we should do very much better work in the community than was ever done before. Western Australian Parliamentary Debates, Legislative Assembly, 28 July 1921 After her time in politics, Edith Cowan continued community work. She died in June 1932. Memorials to her include Edith Cowan University, the federal parliamentary seat of Cowan and her image on the Australian $50 note. Comprehension 1 Match an event to each of the following dates. a July 1921 b 1912 c 1879 d 1861 2 How many women were in Australian parliaments in a 1921? b 1992? 3 a Write definitions for masculine and sexist. b How do these terms apply to Australian parliaments in the 1920s? Communication Imagine you are a reporter on a Sydney newspaper in 1921. Write a 300-word article about the election of Edith Cowan and her first speech. ICT 1 Locate the NSW state governments parliamentary website. Find out how many parliamentarians are women. Repeat this exercise for the Commonwealth parliament. 2 Locate the website for the Womens Electoral Lobby. What are the aims and objectives of WEL? Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 279 Equal pay for women Source 6.76 Minimum average weekly wage female and male adults, 1915 to 1980 Year Female ($) Male ($) % women got of mens wage 1915 2.73 5.65 48.0 1920 4.45 8.98 49.5 1925 5.06 9.67 52.5 1930 5.36 9.67 55.5 1935 4.50 8.28 54.0 1940 5.43 10.18 53.5 1945 7.34 12.06 61.0 1950 14.04 20.20 69.5 1955 20.69 29.70 69.5 1960 25.17 35.50 70.9 1965 29.10 40.76 71.5 1970 39.68 54.20 73.0 1975 108.55 117.94 92.5 1980 173.82 186.90 92.0 Adapted from Glen Withers et al, Labour, in Wray Vamplew (ed), Australian: Historical Statistics, Fairfax Syme and Weldon, Sydney, 1987, pp. 1567 Source 6.77 Protest in Sydney for equal pay for women, 1971 Austral i a i n the 20th Century 280 On 19 June 1969, the Commonwealth Arbitration Court ruled that if women could prove they were doing work of equal value they should get equal pay. The court also ruled that this should be phased in by 1 January 1972. However, it was not until 15 December 1972 that the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission adopted the principle of equal pay for work of equal value. But this did not mean that women got equal pay or job opportunities. Source 6.79 Equal pay at last? ... in 1974, the Labor government legislated to allow the [Conciliation and Arbitration] Commission to abolish the male and female wage concepts and replace them with an adult wage. The ... [difference] remained, though, and womens wages are still [in 1991] on average only 75 percent of mens wages because women are still ... [mostly] in low paying and part-time jobs, work less overtime and receive less extra-award pay like bonuses. Charlie Fox, Working Australia, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1991, p. 160 Source 6.78 A newspaper report from The Sun, 19 June 1969 Chapter 6 Changi ng ri ghts and freedoms 281 Working historically Comprehension 1 What percentage of the minimum weekly mens pay were women getting in 1925? 2 When did womens wages start to become very close to mens? 3 By 1980, were men and womens wages equal? 4 Between which years was the greatest jump in the rate of womens wages compared to mens? 5 Look at source 6.77. What are these people protesting about? 6 Using source 6.76, can you find evidence to support the claims on the protesters banners in source 6.77? 7 From source 6.79: a What was abolished in 1974? b What were they replaced with? 8 On average, what percentage of mens wages do women get? Why? 9 Do you think that this is fair? Analysis and use of sources 1 What does the headline in the newspaper report in source 6.78 imply? 2 Using evidence from sources 6.76 and 6.77, do you think the headline is misleading? Why? Communication Use the percentage figures in the last column of source 6.76. Draw a line graph to plot the percentage difference between womens and mens wages. Put the years along the horizontal axis and the percentages on the vertical axis of your graph.