IGCSE Chemistry Principles of Chemistry: Part 1

States of Matter
PROPERTIES AND EXPLANATIONS High density, cannot be compressed and has a fixed shape.

STATE

DESCRIPTION Particles in close contact, they are arranged in a lattice. Vibrate around a fixed point.

Solid

As the solid is heated, the particles gain kinetic energy, and vibrate more rapidly. When the melting point is reached, the particles have sufficient energy to overcome the forces of attraction between them sufficiently and the particles will move apart In close contact in an irregular fashion. Can move around but cannot separate. They are less dense than solids, and still incompressible. They fill the shape of their container.

LIQU ID

As temperature rises, the particles gain kinetic energy. When the boiling point is reached, the particles have sufficient energy to overcome completely the forces of attraction between them, and become separated. Particles are spread far apart, and in no regular pattern. They are in rapid, constant, random motion. Low density and easily compressed. They expand to fill their containers.

GAS

Atoms
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can exist. An element is a substance containing one kind of atom. A compound is two or more elements chemically combined in a fixed ratio as shown by its formula, where as a molecule is two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds. A mixture is two or more substances combined. Diffusion and Dilution Some experiments can be done to prove the presence of tiny moving particles. If a small crystal of potassium permanganate is placed in a beaker of water, it begins to dissolve, giving a purple solution. The purple colour slowly spreads out from the crystal, as the particles (permanganate ions) move around randomly and spread out through the water molecules. If the solution is then diluted further, the purple colour becomes paler, as the permanganate ions become spread further apart. Since the colour caused by the particles can still be seen even if only a tiny crystal is dissolved in a large volume of water, the crystal -must contain very many particles. These particles must, then, be very small. The same effect can be seen if a drop of bromine is placed at the bottom of a covered gas jar. The bromine evaporates, and the red vapour spreads out to fill the jar, as the bromine molecules diffuse throughout the molecules in the air. This is much more rapid than diffusion of a coloured solution, since the particles in a gas are much further apart, and move more rapidly. Separation of Mixtures To separate a compound into the elements from which it is made requires a chemical reaction; chemical bonds must be broken, and this often requires a lot of energy. To separate the components of a mixture, it usually requires a physical reaction. The appropriate method depends on the type of mixture. Filtration This is used to separate a solid from a liquid. The mixture is poured through a filter paper within a filter funnel. Liquid (filtrate) passes through, whilst the solid (residue) remains in paper. This can be used to separate two solids, if one is soluble and the other insoluble. Crystallisation When a solid is dissolved in water, it is possible to obtain the solid in the form of crystals. The solution is gently heated in an evaporating basin, until about half of the water has evaporated. The remaining concentrated solution is then left to cool, and the liquid to evaporate. Simple Distillation

thermometer water out Liebig condenser water in

roundbottomed flask salt solution gauze tripod Bunsen burner distilled water

This is used to separate a liquid solvent and a solute. The flask is heated, causing the solvent to boil off. The vapour rises, passes into the condenser, and is cooled, causing it to condense. The liquid will run ne run off. The solute, having a much higher boiling point, will remain in the flask.

Fractional Distillation

thermometer water out Liebig condenser water in

fractionating column

a fraction

roundbottomed flask mixture of liquids gauze tripod Bunsen burner

This is used to separate a mixture of liquids, based on their different boiling points. The apparatus is similar to simple distillation, but also has a fractionating column between the flask and the condenser, giving a large surface area. The substance with the lowest boiling point will boil off first. As the vapour rises through the column, into the condenser, it turns to a liquid and is collected. The process repeats with a higher temperature for another liquid, and the next liquid is collected. The process continues, until all of the components in the mixture have boiled, condensed, and

been collected.

Chromatography It is used to separate mixtures of coloured compounds which are soluble. A pencil line is drawn just above the solvent line, and a small spot of each substance to be tested is placed on this line. The paper is then suspended in a beaker with a solvent in it. The solvent soaks up the filter paper, and dissolves the coloured substances in each sample, carrying them up the paper with it. Different substances are carried different distances. This can show how many different components are present, and is often used to compare several inks to see if one matches an original sample used for comparison.

lid

filter paper

pencil line

solvent

Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can exist. It is possible to split an atom into smaller particles, but these will no longer display the properties of a particular chemical element.

RELATIVE MASS Proton Neutro n Electro n 1 1 Negligible (1/2000)

RELATIVE CHARGE +1 0 -1

LOCATION nucleus nucleus orbiting nucleus

The mass of the atom is found in the nucleus (protons and neutrons). Electrons have a relatively insignificant mass, and orbit the nucleus. The atomic number is the number of protons in one atom of a particular element. This number determines which element a particular atom is. The atomic number is shown at the bottom-left of the elements symbol. An atom has no overall charge. It has an equal number of protons (positively charged) and electrons (negatively charged). The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in one atom. This tells us the mass of the atom, since the mass of the electrons is insignificant. The mass number is written at the top-left of the symbol. Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons and electrons, but a different numbers of neutrons.
Mass number =15

e.g. a nitrogen-15 atom:

Atomic number = 7

1 5 7

Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) The relative atomic mass is the average mass of one atom, relative to 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

This can be calculated, if the isotopes and their abundances are known: Chlorine consists of two isotopes, chlorine-35, and chlorine-37. 75% of chlorine atoms are Cl-35, and 25% are Cl-37. R.A.M. = (75/100) x 35 + = 35.5 The relative atomic mass is shown on the Periodic Table above the symbol of each element. Electronic Structure The electrons in an atom orbit the nucleus at certain fixed distances shells. Each shell can hold a certain maximum number of electrons the pattern becomes quite complex beyond the element calcium, but for the first 20 elements it is relatively simple: Shell Maximum number of electrons 1 2 2 8 3 8 4 (2) (25/100) x 37

The electrons fill up the shells, beginning with the 1 st shell (closest to the nucleus), and moving on to the next shell out when one is full. The number of outer electrons in the outer shell of an atom is equal to its group number on the periodic table. Because all chemical reactions are the result of changes in the outer shell electrons of the reacting atoms, atoms in the same group, having the same number of electrons in their outer shell, will react in a similar way.